The Third Servile War, also called the Gladiator War and The War of Spartacus by Plutarch, was the last of a series of unrelated and unsuccessful slave rebellions against the Roman Republic, known collectively as the Servile Wars. The Third Servile War was the only one to directly threaten the Roman heartland of Italia and was doubly alarming to the Roman people due to the repeated successes of the rapidly growing band of rebel slaves against the Roman army between 73 and 71 BC. The rebellion was finally crushed in 71 BC through the concentrated military effort of a single commander, Marcus Licinius Crassus, although the rebellion continued to have indirect effects on Roman politics for years to come. The Servile Wars were a series of slave revolts that plagued the late Roman Republic. ... Image File history File links Italy_and_environs,_218_BC.gif Summary Description  Italy and environs, 218 BC Author/Source  The Department of History, United States Military Academy Permission  In the public domain as original works of the United States federal government and/or military [1] Licensing File links The following pages on... Motto Senatus Populusque Romanus Roman provinces on the eve of the assassination of Julius Caesar, c. ... Crixus (d. ... Oenomaus, a gladiator from Gaul,[1] escaped from the gladiatorial school of Lentulus Batiatus in Capua. ... Spartacus by Denis Foyatier, 1830 Spartacus (ca. ... Gaius Claudius Glaber was a Roman praetor in 73 BC. He tried but failed to hem in Spartacus and his fellow slaves on Mt. ... Publius Varinius was a Roman praetor in 73 BC and proconsul in 72 BC and suffered several defeats against Spartacus rebellious slaves during the Third Servile War. ... Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus was one of two Consuls of the Roman Republic in 72 BCE along with Lucius Gellius Publicola. ... Lucius Gellius Publicola was one of two Consuls of the Roman Republic in 72 BCE along with Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus. ... Gaius Cassius Longinus was a Roman consul in 73 BC (together with Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus). ... Marcus Licinius Crassus (Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS[1]) (c. ... Pompey, Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir [1] (Classical Latin abbreviation: CN·POMPEIVS·CN·F·SEX·N·MAGNVS[2], Gnaeus or Cnaeus Pompeius Magnus) (September 29, 106 BC–September 29, 48 BC), was a distinguished military and political leader of the late Roman republic. ... Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus (c. ... Lebanese Kataeb militia A Militia is an organization of citizens to provide defense, emergency or paramilitary service, or those engaged in such activity. ... The Roman Legion (from Latin , from lego, legere, legi, lectus — to collect) is a term that can apply both as a transliteration of legio (conscription or army) to the entire Roman army and also, more narrowly (and more commonly), to the heavy infantry that was the basic military unit of... This does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... The Servile Wars were a series of slave revolts that plagued the late Roman Republic. ... The First Servile War was an unsuccessful slave uprising against the Romans on the island of Sicily. ... The Second Servile War was an unsuccessful slave uprising against the Romans on the island of Sicily. ... After 30 BC, the Republic was unified under leadership of Octavian. ... The First Servile War was an unsuccessful slave uprising against the Romans on the island of Sicily. ... The Second Servile War was an unsuccessful slave uprising against the Romans on the island of Sicily. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... There were several Roman civil wars, especially during the time of the late Republic. ... Quintus Sertorius (died 72 BC), Roman statesman and general. ... Combatants Lucius Cornelius Sulla Marius the Younger Commanders Sulla, Marcus Licinius Crassus, Pompey, Metellus Pius Marius the Younger, Gnaeus Papirius Carbo, Pontius Telesinus, Lucius Cornelius Cinna Sullas second civil war was one of a series of civil wars of ancient Rome. ... Catiline (Lucius Sergius Catilina) (108 BC-62 BC) was a Roman politician of the 1st century BC who is best known for the Catiline (or Catilinarian) conspiracy, an attempt to overthrow the Roman Republic, and in particular the power of the aristocratic Senate. ... Combatants Julius Caesar and supporters, the Populares faction, Roman senate, the Optimates faction, Commanders Julius Caesar Mark Antony Pompey†, Titus Labienus†, Metellus Scipio†, Cato the younger†, Gnaeus Pompeius† Sextus Pompeius The Roman civil war of 49 BC, sometimes called Caesars Civil War, is one of the last conflicts within... Combatants Roman Republic Mark Antonys forces Commanders Aulus Hirtius† Octavian Mark Antony The Battle of Mutina was fought on April 21, 43 BC between the forces of Mark Antony and the forces of Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus and Aulus Hirtius, who were providing aid to one of Caesars... Liberators civil war Combatants Second Triumvirate Liberators Commanders Marcus Antonius Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus Gaius Cassius Longinus Marcus Junius Brutus The Second Triumvirate declared this civil war to avenge Julius Caesars murder. ... Combatants Roman Republic The forces of Sextus Pompeius Commanders Octavian, Marcus Agrippa, Marcus Antonius, Marcus Aemelius Lepidus Sextus Pompeius Strength More than 200,000 The Sicilian revolt was a revolution against the Second Triumvirate which occurred between 44 BC and 36 BC. The revolt was led by Sextus Pompeius, and... Combatants Roman Republic Forces of Fulvia and Lucius Antonius Commanders Octavian, triumvir, Fulvia, Lucius Antonius Strength Unknown 8 legions Fulvias civil war was a civil war which lasted from 41 to 40 BC . ... Combatants Octavian Mark Antony and Cleopatra Commanders Octavian, Marcus Agrippa Mark Antony†, Cleopatra VII of Egypt† Strength 198,000 Roman legionaries [1] 260 Roman warships 193,000 mixed Roman and Egyptian soldiers [2] 300 Roman and Egyptian warships Casualties Unknown Unknown All of Antony’s Roman troops either changed loyalty... Spartacus by Denis Foyatier, 1830 Spartacus (ca. ... Mestrius Plutarchus (Greek: Πλούταρχος; 46 - 127), better known in English as Plutarch, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist. ... Motto Senatus Populusque Romanus Roman provinces on the eve of the assassination of Julius Caesar, c. ... The Servile Wars were a series of slave revolts that plagued the late Roman Republic. ... Marcus Licinius Crassus (Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS[1]) (c. ...

Between 73 and 71 BC, a band of escaped slaves — originally a small cadre of about 70 escaped gladiators which grew into a band of over 120,000 men, women and children — wandered throughout and raided Italy with relative impunity under the guidance of several leaders, including the famous gladiator-general Spartacus. The able-bodied adults of this band were a surprisingly effective armed force that repeatedly showed they could withstand the Roman military, from the local Campanian patrols, to the Roman militia, and to trained Roman legions under consular command. Plutarch described the actions of the slaves as an attempt by Roman slaves to escape their masters and flee through Cisalpine Gaul, while Appian and Florus depicted the revolt as a civil war in which the slaves waged a campaign to capture the city of Rome itself. Look up cadre in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Pollice Verso (With a Turned Thumb), an 1872 painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme, is a well known history painters researched conception of a gladiatorial combat. ... Spartacus by Denis Foyatier, 1830 Spartacus (ca. ... For other uses, see Campania (disambiguation). ... Lebanese Kataeb militia A Militia is an organization of citizens to provide defense, emergency or paramilitary service, or those engaged in such activity. ... The Roman Legion (from Latin , from lego, legere, legi, lectus — to collect) is a term that can apply both as a transliteration of legio (conscription or army) to the entire Roman army and also, more narrowly (and more commonly), to the heavy infantry that was the basic military unit of... Consul (abbrev. ... Cisalpine Gaul (Latin: Gallia Cisalpina, meaning Gaul this side of the Alps) was a province of the Roman Republic, in Emilia and Lombardy of modern-day northern Italy. ... Appian (c. ... Florus, Roman historian, flourished in the time of Trajan and Hadrian. ...

The Roman Senate's growing alarm about the continued military successes of this band, and about their depredations against Roman towns and the countryside, eventually led to Rome's fielding of an army of eight legions under the harsh but effective leadership of Marcus Licinius Crassus. The war ended in 71 BC when, after a long and bitter fighting retreat before the legions of Crassus, and the realization that the legions of Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus and Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus were moving in to entrap them, the armies of Spartacus launched their full strength against Crassus' legions and were utterly destroyed. The Roman Senate (Latin: Senatus) was the main governing council of both the Roman Republic, which started in 509 BC, and the Roman Empire. ... Marcus Licinius Crassus (Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS[1]) (c. ... This article refers to the Roman General. ... Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus (c. ...

While Spartacus' war is noteworthy in its own right, the Third Servile War was significant to the broader history of ancient Rome mostly in its effect on the careers of Pompey and Crassus. The two generals used their success in putting down the rebellion to further their political careers, using their public acclaim and the implied threat of their legions to sway the consular elections of 70 BC in their favor. Their actions as Consuls greatly furthered the subversion of Roman political institutions and contributed to the eventual transition of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire. Subversion is an overturning or uprooting. ... Motto Senatus Populusque Romanus (SPQR) The Roman Empire at its greatest extent. ...

Slavery in the Roman republic

Further information: Slavery in antiquity, First Servile War, and Second Servile War

Through varying degrees throughout Roman history, the existence of a pool of inexpensive labor in the form of slaves was an important factor in the economy. Slaves were acquired for the Roman workforce through a variety of means, including purchase from foreign merchants and the enslavement of foreign populations through military conquest.^[1] With Rome's heavy involvement in wars of conquest in the first and second centuries BC, tens if not hundreds of thousands of slaves at a time were imported into the Roman economy.^[2] While there was limited use for slaves as servants, craftsmen, and personal attendants, vast numbers of slaves worked in mines and on the agricultural lands of Sicily and southern Italia.^[3] Slavery as an institution in Mediterranean cultures of the ancient world comprised a mixture of debt-slavery, slavery as a punishment for crime, and the enslavement of prisoners of war. ... The First Servile War was an unsuccessful slave uprising against the Romans on the island of Sicily. ... The Second Servile War was an unsuccessful slave uprising against the Romans on the island of Sicily. ... Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula circa the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. ... The Buxton Memorial Fountain, celebrating the emancipation of slaves in the British Empire in 1834, London. ... Sicily (Sicilia in Italian and Sicilian) is an autonomous region of Italy and the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 25,708 km² (9,926 sq. ...

For the most part, slaves were treated harshly and oppressively during the Roman republican period. Under Republican law, a slave was not considered a person, but property. Owners could abuse, injure or even kill their own slaves without legal consequence. While there were many grades and types of slaves, the lowest — and most numerous — grades who worked in the fields and mines were subject to a life of hard physical labor.^[4] Motto Senatus Populusque Romanus Roman provinces on the eve of the assassination of Julius Caesar, c. ...

This high concentration and oppressive treatment of the slave population led to rebellions. In 135 BC and 104 BC, the First and Second Servile Wars, respectively, erupted in Sicily, where small bands of rebels found tens of thousands of willing followers wishing to escape the oppressive life of a Roman slave. While these were considered serious civil disturbances by the Roman Senate, taking years and direct military intervention to quell, they were never considered a serious threat to the Republic. The Roman heartland of Italia had never seen a slave uprising, nor had slaves ever been seen as a potential threat to the city of Rome. This would all change with the Third Servile War. The First Servile War was an unsuccessful slave uprising against the Romans on the island of Sicily. ... The Second Servile War was an unsuccessful slave uprising against the Romans on the island of Sicily. ... Civil disorder is a broad term that is typically used by law enforcement to describe one or more forms of disturbance caused by a group of people. ... The Roman Senate (Latin: Senatus) was the main governing council of both the Roman Republic, which started in 509 BC, and the Roman Empire. ... Nickname: Motto: SPQR: Senatus Populusque Romanus Location of the city of Rome (yellow) within the Province of Rome (red) and region of Lazio (grey) Coordinates: Region Lazio Province Province of Rome Founded 21 April 753 BC Government  - Mayor Walter Veltroni Area  - City 1,285 km²  (580 sq mi)  - Urban 5...

The rebellion begins (73 BC)

The Capuan revolt

The Gladiator Mosaic at the Galleria Borghese

In the Roman Republic of the first century BC, gladiatorial games were one of the more popular forms of entertainment. In order to supply gladiators for the contests, several training schools, or ludi, were established throughout Italia.^[5] In these schools, prisoners of war and condemned criminals — who were considered slaves — were taught the skills required to fight to the death in gladiatorial games.^[6] In 72 BC, a group of some 200 gladiators in the Capuan school owned by Lentulus Batiatus plotted an escape. When their plot was betrayed, a force of about 70 men seized implements from the kitchen ("choppers and spits"), fought their way free from the school, and seized several wagons of gladiatorial weapons and armor.^[7] Image File history File links Borghese_gladiator_1_mosaic_dn_r2_c2. ... Image File history File links Borghese_gladiator_1_mosaic_dn_r2_c2. ... The Villa Borghese Pinciana (begun 1605) houses the Galleria Borghese. ... (2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century - other centuries) The 1st century BC starts on January 1, 100 BC and ends on December 31, 1 BC. An alternative name for this century is the last century BC. (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium AD) Events The Roman... Pollice Verso (With a Turned Thumb), an 1872 painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme, is a well known history painters researched conception of a gladiatorial combat. ... Slavery as an institution in Mediterranean cultures of the ancient world comprised a mixture of debt-slavery, slavery as a punishment for crime, and the enslavement of prisoners of war. ... Pollice Verso (With a Turned Thumb), an 1872 painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme, is a well known history painters researched conception of a gladiatorial combat. ... Capua is a city in the province of Caserta, (Campania, Italy) situated 25 km (16 mi) north of Napoli, on the northeastern edge of the Campanian plain. ... Lentulus Batiatus was the owner of the Roman gladiatorial school owner in Capua (near Mount Vesuvius) who owned Spartacus, the hero of the Third Servile War. ...

Once free, the escaped gladiators chose leaders from their number, selecting two Gallic slaves — Crixus and Oenomaus — and Spartacus, who was said either to be a Thracian auxiliary from the Roman legions later condemned to slavery, or a captive taken by the legions.^[8] There is some question as to Spartacus's nationality, however, as a Thraex (plural Thraces or Threses) was a type of gladiator in Rome, so that the title "Thracian" may simply refer to the style of gladatorial combat he was trained in.^[9] Crixus (d. ... Oenomaus, a gladiator from Gaul,[1] escaped from the gladiatorial school of Lentulus Batiatus in Capua. ... Spartacus by Denis Foyatier, 1830 Spartacus (ca. ... The Thracians were an Indo-European people, inhabitants of Thrace and adjacent lands (present-day Bulgaria, Romania, northeastern Greece, European Turkey and northwestern asiatic Turkey, eastern Serbia and parts of Republic of Macedonia). ... Auxiliaries (from Latin: auxilia = supports) formed the standing non-citizen corps of the Roman army of the Principate (30 BC - 284 AD), alongside the citizen legions. ... The Roman Legion (from Latin , from lego, legere, legi, lectus — to collect) is a term that can apply both as a transliteration of legio (conscription or army) to the entire Roman army and also, more narrowly (and more commonly), to the heavy infantry that was the basic military unit of...

These escaped slaves were able to defeat a small force of troops sent after them from Capua, and equip themselves with captured military equipment as well as their gladiatorial weapons.^[10] Sources are somewhat contradictory on the order of events immediately following the escape, but they generally agree that this band of escaped gladiators plundered the region surrounding Capua, recruited many other slaves into their ranks, and eventually retired to a more defensible position on Mount Vesuvius.^[11] Capua is a city in the province of Caserta, (Campania, Italy) situated 25 km (16 mi) north of Napoli, on the northeastern edge of the Campanian plain. ... Mount Vesuvius (Italian: Monte Vesuvio, Latin: Mons Vesuvius) is a volcano east of Naples, Italy. ...

Defeat of the praetorian armies

Initial movements of Roman and Slave forces from the Capuan revolt up to and including the winter of 73 BC^{[when? — see talk page]}.

As the revolt and raids were occurring in Campania — which was a vacation region of the rich and influential in Rome, and the location of many estates — the revolt quickly came to the attention of Roman authorities. It took Rome some time to realize the scale of the problem, viewing the slave revolt as more of a major crime wave than as an armed rebellion. Image File history File links 3rd_Servile_initial. ... Image File history File links 3rd_Servile_initial. ... For other uses, see Campania (disambiguation). ... Crime Wave can refer to: Crime Wave (book) by James Ellroy Crime Wave (1985 movie) aka The Big Crime Wave Crime Wave (1954 movie) starring Sterling Hayden Crime Wave (videogame) by Bryan Brandenburg and Bruce Johnson published by Access Software Crime Waves an episode of the series The Zeta Project. ...

However, in 73 BC, Rome dispatched military force under praetorian authority to put down the rebellion.^[12] A Roman praetor, Gaius Claudius Glaber, gathered a force of 3,000 men, not as legions, but as a militia "picked up in haste and at random, for the Romans did not consider this a war yet, but a raid, something like an attack of robbery."^[13] Glaber's forces besieged the slaves on Mount Vesuvius, blocking the only known way down the mountain. With the slaves thus contained, Glaber was content to wait until starvation forced the slaves to surrender. Ordinary Magistrates Extraordinary Magistrates Titles and Honors Emperor Politics and Law Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities: the commander of an army, either before it was mustered or more typically in the field, or an elected... Ordinary Magistrates Extraordinary Magistrates Titles and Honors Emperor Politics and Law Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities: the commander of an army, either before it was mustered or more typically in the field, or an elected... Gaius Claudius Glaber was a Roman praetor in 73 BC. He tried but failed to hem in Spartacus and his fellow slaves on Mt. ... The Roman Legion (from Latin , from lego, legere, legi, lectus — to collect) is a term that can apply both as a transliteration of legio (conscription or army) to the entire Roman army and also, more narrowly (and more commonly), to the heavy infantry that was the basic military unit of... Lebanese Kataeb militia A Militia is an organization of citizens to provide defense, emergency or paramilitary service, or those engaged in such activity. ... Mount Vesuvius (Italian: Monte Vesuvio, Latin: Mons Vesuvius) is a volcano east of Naples, Italy. ...

While the slaves lacked military training, Spartacus' forces displayed ingenuity in their use of available local materials, and in their use of clever, unorthodox tactics when facing the disciplined Roman armies.^[14] In response to Glaber's siege, Spartacus' men made ropes and ladders from vines and trees growing on the slopes of Vesuvius and used them to rappel down the cliffs on the side of the mountain opposite Glaber's forces. They moved around the base of Vesuvius, outflanked the army, and annihilated Glaber's men.^[15] In British English, abseiling (from the German abseilen, to rope down) is the process of descending on a fixed rope. ...

A second expedition, under the praetor Publius Varinius, was then dispatched against Spartacus. For some reason, Varinius seems to have split his forces under the command of his subordinates Furius and Cossinius. Plutarch mentions that Furius commanded some 2,000 men, but neither the strength of the remaining forces, nor whether the expedition was composed of militia or legions, appears to be known. These forces were also defeated by the army of escaped slaves: Cossinius was killed, Varinius was nearly captured, and the equipment of the armies was seized by the slaves.^[16] With these successes, more and more slaves flocked to the Spartacan forces, as did "many of the herdsmen and shepherds of the region", swelling their ranks to some 70,000.^[17] The rebel slaves spent the winter of 73 BC^{[when? — see talk page]} arming and equipping their new recruits, and expanding their raiding territory to include the towns of Nola, Nuceria, Thurii and Metapontum.^[18] Ordinary Magistrates Extraordinary Magistrates Titles and Honors Emperor Politics and Law Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities: the commander of an army, either before it was mustered or more typically in the field, or an elected... Publius Varinius was a Roman praetor in 73 BC and proconsul in 72 BC and suffered several defeats against Spartacus rebellious slaves during the Third Servile War. ... A herder is a worker who lives a semi-nomadic life, caring for various domestic animals, especially in places where these animals wander unfenced pasture lands. ... Shepherd in FăgăraÅŸ Mountains, Romania. ... For other uses, see Nola (disambiguation). ... Nocera Inferiore, formerly Nocera dei Pagani (anc. ... Thurii, or Thueium, was a city of Magna Graecia on the Gulf of Taranto, near the site of the older Sybaris. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ...

The victories of the rebel slaves didn’t come without a cost. At some time during these events, or possibly during one of the winter raids in late 72 BC, their leader Oenomaus was lost — presumably in battle — and is not mentioned further in the histories.^[19] Oenomaus, a gladiator from Gaul,[1] escaped from the gladiatorial school of Lentulus Batiatus in Capua. ...

Motivation and leadership of the escaped slaves

Spartacus, by Denis Foyatier, c. 1830, displayed at the Louvre. An example of a modern heroic depiction of Spartacus.

By the end of 73 BC, Spartacus and Crixus were in command of a large group of armed men with a proven ability to withstand Roman armies. What they intended to do with this force is somewhat difficult for modern readers to determine. Since the Third Servile War was ultimately an unsuccessful rebellion, no firsthand account of the slaves' motives and goals exists, and historians writing about the war propose contradictory theories. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1200x1600, 648 KB) La bildo estas kopiita de wikipedia:fr. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1200x1600, 648 KB) La bildo estas kopiita de wikipedia:fr. ... This article is about the museum. ...

Many popular modern accounts of the war claim that there was a factional split in the escaped slaves between those under Spartacus, who wished to escape over the Alps to freedom, and those under Crixus, who wished to stay in southern Italia to continue raiding and plundering. This appears to be an interpretation of events based on the following: the regions that Florus lists as being raided by the slaves include Thurii and Metapontum, which are geographically distant from Nola and Nuceria. This indicates the existence of two groups: Lucius Gellius Publicola eventually attacked Crixus and a group of some 30,000 followers who are described as being separate from the main group under Spartacus;^[20] Plutarch describes the desire of some of the escaped slaves to plunder Italia, rather than escape over the Alps.^[21] While this factional split is not contradicted by classical sources, there does not seem to be any direct evidence to support it. Florus, Roman historian, flourished in the time of Trajan and Hadrian. ... Thurii, or Thueium, was a city of Magna Graecia on the Gulf of Taranto, near the site of the older Sybaris. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... For other uses, see Nola (disambiguation). ... Nocera Inferiore, formerly Nocera dei Pagani (anc. ... Lucius Gellius Publicola was one of two Consuls of the Roman Republic in 72 BCE along with Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus. ... Mestrius Plutarchus (Greek: Πλούταρχος; 46 - 127), better known in English as Plutarch, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist. ...

Fictional accounts — such as Stanley Kubrick's 1960 film Spartacus — sometimes portray Spartacus as an ancient Roman freedom fighter, struggling to change a corrupt Roman society and to end the Roman institution of slavery. Similarly, this is not contradicted by classical historians, but no historical account mentions that the goal of the rebel slaves was to end slavery in the Republic, nor do any of Spartacus' actions seem specifically aimed at ending slavery. “Kubrick” redirects here. ... Spartacus is a 1960 film directed by Stanley Kubrick and based on the novel of the same name by Howard Fast about the historical life of Spartacus and the Third Servile War. ... Freedom fighter is a relativistic local term for those engaged in rebellion against an established organization that is thought to be oppressive. ...

Even classical historians, who were writing only years after the events themselves, seem to be divided as to what the motives of Spartacus were. Appian and Florus write that he intended to march on Rome itself^[22] — although this may have been no more than a reflection of Roman fears. If Spartacus did intend to march on Rome, it was a goal he must have later abandoned. Plutarch writes that Spartacus merely wished to escape northwards into Cisalpine Gaul and disperse his men back to their homes.^[21] Appian (c. ... Florus, Roman historian, flourished in the time of Trajan and Hadrian. ... Mestrius Plutarchus (Greek: Πλούταρχος; 46 - 127), better known in English as Plutarch, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist. ... Cisalpine Gaul (Latin: Gallia Cisalpina, meaning Gaul this side of the Alps) was a province of the Roman Republic, in Emilia and Lombardy of modern-day northern Italy. ...

It is not certain that the slaves were a homogeneous group under the leadership of Spartacus. While this is the unspoken assumption of the Roman historians, this may be the Romans projecting their own hierarchical view of military power and responsibility on the ad hoc organization of the slaves. Certainly other slave leaders are mentioned — Crixus, Oenomaus, Gannicus, and Castus — and we cannot tell from the historical evidence whether they were aides, subordinates, or even equals leading groups of their own and traveling in convoy with Spartacus' people. Ad hoc is a Latin phrase which means for this [purpose]. It generally signifies a solution that has been tailored to a specific purpose, such as a tailor-made suit, a handcrafted network protocol, and specific-purpose equation and things like that. ...

Defeat of the consular armies (72 BC)

In the spring of 72 BC^{[when? — see talk page]}, the escaped slaves left their winter encampments and began to move northwards towards Cisalpine Gaul. Cisalpine Gaul (Latin: Gallia Cisalpina, meaning Gaul this side of the Alps) was a province of the Roman Republic, in Emilia and Lombardy of modern-day northern Italy. ...

The Senate, alarmed by the size of the revolt and the defeat of the praetorian armies of Glaber and Varinius, dispatched a pair of consular legions under the command of Lucius Gellius Publicola and Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus.^[23] Initially, the consular armies were successful. Gellius engaged a group of about 30,000 slaves, under command of Crixus, near Mount Garganus and killed two -thirds of the rebels, including Crixus himself.^[24] Ordinary Magistrates Extraordinary Magistrates Titles and Honors Emperor Politics and Law Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities: the commander of an army, either before it was mustered or more typically in the field, or an elected... Gaius Claudius Glaber was a Roman praetor in 73 BC. He tried but failed to hem in Spartacus and his fellow slaves on Mt. ... Publius Varinius was a Roman praetor in 73 BC and proconsul in 72 BC and suffered several defeats against Spartacus rebellious slaves during the Third Servile War. ... Consul (abbrev. ... The Roman Legion (from Latin , from lego, legere, legi, lectus — to collect) is a term that can apply both as a transliteration of legio (conscription or army) to the entire Roman army and also, more narrowly (and more commonly), to the heavy infantry that was the basic military unit of... Lucius Gellius Publicola was one of two Consuls of the Roman Republic in 72 BCE along with Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus. ... Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus was one of two Consuls of the Roman Republic in 72 BCE along with Lucius Gellius Publicola. ... Lucius Gellius Publicola was one of two Consuls of the Roman Republic in 72 BCE along with Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus. ... Crixus (d. ...

At this point in the history, there is a divergence in the classical sources as to the course of events which cannot be reconciled until the entry of Marcus Licinius Crassus into the war. The two most comprehensive (extant) histories of the war by Appian and Plutarch detail very different events. However, neither accounts directly contradicts the other, but simply reports different events, ignoring some events in the other account, and reporting events that are unique to that account. Marcus Licinius Crassus (Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS[1]) (c. ... Appian (c. ... Mestrius Plutarchus (Greek: Πλούταρχος; 46 - 127), better known in English as Plutarch, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist. ...

Appian's history

The events of 72 BC, according to Appian's version of events.

According to Appian, the battle between Gellius' legions and Crixus' men near Mount Garganus was the beginning of a long and complex series of military maneuvers that almost resulted in the Spartacan forces directly assaulting the city of Rome itself. Image File history File links 3rd_servile_72_appian. ... Image File history File links 3rd_servile_72_appian. ... Appian (c. ... Nickname: Motto: SPQR: Senatus Populusque Romanus Location of the city of Rome (yellow) within the Province of Rome (red) and region of Lazio (grey) Coordinates: Region Lazio Province Province of Rome Founded 21 April 753 BC Government  - Mayor Walter Veltroni Area  - City 1,285 km²  (580 sq mi)  - Urban 5...

After his victory over Crixus, Gellius moved northwards, following the main group of slaves under Spartacus who were heading for Cisalpine Gaul. The army of Lentulus was deployed to bar Spartacus' path, and the consuls hoped to trap the rebel slaves between them. Spartacus' army met Lentulus' legion, defeated it, turned, and destroyed Gellius' army, forcing the Roman legions to retreat in disarray.^[25] Appian claims that Spartacus executed some 300 captured Roman soldiers to avenge the death of Crixus, forcing them to fight each other to the death as gladiators.^[26] Following this victory, Spartacus pushed northwards with his followers (some 120,000) as fast as he could travel, "having burned all his useless material, killed all his prisoners, and butchered his pack-animals in order to expedite his movement".^[25] Spartacus by Denis Foyatier, 1830 Spartacus (ca. ... Cisalpine Gaul (Latin: Gallia Cisalpina, meaning Gaul this side of the Alps) was a province of the Roman Republic, in Emilia and Lombardy of modern-day northern Italy. ... Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus was one of two Consuls of the Roman Republic in 72 BCE along with Lucius Gellius Publicola. ... Spartacus by Denis Foyatier, 1830 Spartacus (ca. ... Crixus (d. ...

The defeated consular armies fell back to Rome to regroup while Spartacus' followers moved northward. The consuls again engaged Spartacus somewhere in the Picenum region, and once again were defeated.^[25] Regio V - Picenum Picenum was a region of ancient Roman Italy. ...

Appian claims that at this point Spartacus changed his intention of marching on Rome — implying this was Spartacus' goal following the confrontation in Picenum^[27] — as "he did not consider himself ready as yet for that kind of a fight, as his whole force was not suitably armed, for no city had joined him, but only slaves, deserters, and riff-raff", and decided to withdraw into southern Italia once again. They seized the town of Thurii and the surrounding countryside, arming themselves, raiding the surrounding territories, trading plunder with merchants for bronze and iron (with which to manufacture more arms), and clashing occasionally with Roman forces which were invariably defeated.^[28] Thurii, or Thueium, was a city of Magna Graecia on the Gulf of Taranto, near the site of the older Sybaris. ...

Plutarch's history

The events of 72 BC, according to Plutarch's version of events.

Plutarch's description of events differs significantly from that of Appian's. Image File history File links 3rd_servile_72_plutarch. ... Image File history File links 3rd_servile_72_plutarch. ... Mestrius Plutarchus (Greek: Πλούταρχος; 46 - 127), better known in English as Plutarch, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist. ...

According to Plutarch, after the battle between Gellius' legion and Crixus men (whom Plutarch describes as "Germans"^[29]) near Mount Garganus, Spartacus' men engaged the legion commanded by Lentulus, defeated them, seized their supplies and equipment, and pushed directly into northern Italia. After this defeat, both consuls were relieved of command of their armies by the Roman Senate and recalled to Rome.^[30] Plutarch does not mention Spartacus engaging Gellius' legion at all, nor of Spartacus facing the combined consular legions in Picenum.^[29] The Roman Senate (Latin: Senatus) was the main governing council of both the Roman Republic, which started in 509 BC, and the Roman Empire. ...

Plutarch then goes on to detail a conflict not mentioned in Appian's history. According to Plutarch, Spartacus' army continued northwards to the region around Mutina (modern Modena). There, a Roman army of some 10,000 soldiers, led by the governor of Cisalpine Gaul, Gaius Cassius Longinus attempted to bar Spartacus' progress and were also defeated.^[31] Modena (Mòdna in Modenese dialect) is a city and a province on the south side of the Po valley, in Emilia-Romagna, Italy. ... Cisalpine Gaul (Latin: Gallia Cisalpina, meaning Gaul this side of the Alps) was a province of the Roman Republic, in Emilia and Lombardy of modern-day northern Italy. ... Gaius Cassius Longinus was a Roman consul in 73 BC (with Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus). ...

Plutarch makes no further mention of events until the initial confrontation between Marcus Licinius Crassus and Spartacus in the spring of 71 BC^{[when? — see talk page]}, omitting the march on Rome and the retreat to Thurii described by Appian.^[30] However, as Plutarch describes Crassus forcing Spartacus' followers to retreat southwards from Picenum, one might infer that the rebel slaves approached Picenum from the south in early 71 BC, implying that they withdrew southwards from Mutina to winter in southern or central Italia. Marcus Licinius Crassus (Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS[1]) (c. ...

Why they might do so, when there was apparently no reason for them not to escape over the Alps — Spartacus' goal according to Plutarch^[32] — is not explained.

The war under Crassus (71 BC)

The events of early 71 BC. Marcus Licinius Crassus takes command of the Roman legions, confronts Spartacus, and forces the rebel slaves to retreat through Lucania to the straits near Messina. Plutarch claims this occurred in the Picenum region, while Appian places the initial battles between Crassus and Spartacus in the Samnium region.

Despite the contradictions in the classical sources regarding the events of 72 BC, there seems to be general agreement that Spartacus and his followers were in the south of Italia in early 71 BC. Image File history File links Crassus_turns_tide. ... Image File history File links Crassus_turns_tide. ... Marcus Licinius Crassus (Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS[1]) (c. ... For the mountain in Canada named after Lucania, see Mount Lucania. ... Messina, Italy Strait of Messina, Italy. ...

Crassus takes command of the legions

The Senate, now alarmed at the apparently unstoppable rebellion occurring within Italia, gave the task of putting down the rebellion to Marcus Licinius Crassus. Crassus had been a praetor in 73 BC, and although he was known for his political connections and family, he had no reputation as a military commander.^[30] Marcus Licinius Crassus (Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS[1]) (c. ... Ordinary Magistrates Extraordinary Magistrates Titles and Honors Emperor Politics and Law Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities: the commander of an army, either before it was mustered or more typically in the field, or an elected...

He was assigned six new legions in addition to the two formerly consular legions of Gellius and Lentulus, giving him an army of some 40,000-50,000 trained Roman soldiers.^[33] Crassus treated his legions with harsh, even brutal, discipline, reviving the punishment of unit decimation within his army. Appian is uncertain whether he decimated the two consular legions for cowardice when he was appointed their commander, or whether he had his entire army decimated for a later defeat (an event in which up to 4,000 legionaries would have been executed).^[34] Plutarch only mentions the decimation of 50 legionaries of one cohort as punishment after Mummius' defeat in the first confrontation between Crassus and Spartacus.^[35] Regardless of what actually occurred, Crassus' treatment of his legions proved that "he was more dangerous to them than the enemy", and spurred them on to victory rather than running the risk of displeasing their commander. ^[34] Lucius Gellius Publicola was one of two Consuls of the Roman Republic in 72 BCE along with Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus. ... Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus was one of two Consuls of the Roman Republic in 72 BCE along with Lucius Gellius Publicola. ... This does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... The Misspeling of Ducks ... A Legionary is a member of a legion. ...

Crassus and Spartacus

When the forces of Spartacus moved northwards once again, Crassus deployed six of his legions on the borders of the region (Plutarch claims the initial battle between Crassus' legions and Spartacus' followers occurred near the Picenum region^[30], Appian claims it occurred near the Samnium region^[36]), and detached two legions under his legate, Mummius, to maneuver behind Spartacus, but gave them orders not to engage the rebels. When an opportunity presented itself, Mummius disobeyed, attacked the Spartacan forces, and was subsequently routed.^[35] Despite this initial loss, Crassus' engaged Spartacus and defeated him, killing some 6,000 of the rebels.^[36] Regio V - Picenum Picenum was a region of ancient Roman Italy. ... Samnium (Oscan Safinim) was a region of the southern Apennines in Italy that was home to the Samnites, a group of Sabellic tribes that controlled the area from about 600 BC to about 290 BC. Samnium was delimited by Latium in the north, by Lucania in the south, by Campania... A legatus (often anglicized as legate) was equivalent to a modern general officer in the Roman army. ...

The tide seemed to have turned in the war. Crassus' legions were victorious in several engagements, killing thousands of the rebel slaves, and forcing Spartacus to retreat south through Lucania to the straits near Messina. According to Plutarch, Spartacus made a bargain with Cilician pirates to transport him and some 2,000 of his men to Sicily, where he intended to incite a slave revolt there and gather reinforcements. However, he was betrayed by the pirates, who took payment and then abandoned the rebel slaves.^[35] Minor sources mention that there were some attempts at raft and shipbuilding by the rebels as a means to escape, but that Crassus took unspecified measures to ensure the rebels could not cross to Sicily, and their efforts were abandoned.^[37] For the mountain in Canada named after Lucania, see Mount Lucania. ... Messina, Italy Strait of Messina, Italy. ... Mestrius Plutarchus (Greek: Πλούταρχος; 46 - 127), better known in English as Plutarch, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist. ... Cilicia as Roman province, 120 AD In Antiquity, Cilicia (Κιλικία) was the name of a region, now known as Çukurova, and often a political unit, on the southeastern coast of Asia Minor (modern Turkey), north of Cyprus. ... Sicily (Sicilia in Italian and Sicilian) is an autonomous region of Italy and the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 25,708 km² (9,926 sq. ...

Spartacus' forces then retreated towards Rhegium. Crassus' legions followed and upon arrival built fortifications across the isthmus at Rhegium, despite harassing raids from the rebel slaves. The rebels were under siege and cut off from their supplies.^[38] Categories: Italy-related stubs | Coastal cities | Towns in Calabria ...

Reinforcement legions arrive; the end of the war

The last events of the war in 71 BC, where the army of Spartacus broke the siege by Crassus' legions and retreated toward the mountains near Petelia. Shows the initial skirmishes between elements of the two sides, the turn-about of the Spartacan forces for the final confrontation. Note the legions of Pompey moving in from the north to capture survivors.

At this time, the legions of Pompey were returning to Italia, having put down the rebellion of Quintus Sertorius in Hispania. Image File history File links Last_battle. ... Image File history File links Last_battle. ... Spartacus by Denis Foyatier, 1830 Spartacus (ca. ... Marcus Licinius Crassus (Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS[1]) (c. ... The Roman Legion (from Latin , from lego, legere, legi, lectus — to collect) is a term that can apply both as a transliteration of legio (conscription or army) to the entire Roman army and also, more narrowly (and more commonly), to the heavy infantry that was the basic military unit of... Pompey, Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir [1] (Classical Latin abbreviation: CN·POMPEIVS·CN·F·SEX·N·MAGNVS[2], Gnaeus or Cnaeus Pompeius Magnus) (September 29, 106 BC–September 29, 48 BC), was a distinguished military and political leader of the late Roman republic. ... Pompey, Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir [1] (Classical Latin abbreviation: CN·POMPEIVS·CN·F·SEX·N·MAGNVS[2], Gnaeus or Cnaeus Pompeius Magnus) (September 29, 106 BC–September 29, 48 BC), was a distinguished military and political leader of the late Roman republic. ... Quintus Sertorius (died 72 BC), Roman statesman and general. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Iberian Peninsula. ...

Sources disagree on whether Crassus had requested reinforcements, or whether the Senate simply took advantage of Pompey's return to Italia, but Pompey was ordered to bypass Rome and head south to aid Crassus.^[39] The Senate also sent reinforcements under the command of "Lucullus", mistakenly thought by Appian to be Lucius Licinius Lucullus, commander of the forces engaged in the Third Mithridatic War at the time, but who appears to have been the proconsul of Macedonia, Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus, the former's younger brother.^[40] With Pompey's legions marching out of the north, and Lucullus' troops landing in Brundisium, Crassus realized that if he did not put down the slave revolt quickly, credit for the war would go to the general who arrived with reinforcements, and thus he spurred his legions on to end the conflict quickly.^[41] Appian (c. ... Lucius Licinius Lucullus (c. ... Third Mithridatic War (75 - 65 BC) Mithridates VI had long been a thorn in Romes side, having launched two wars against the Roman Republic, in the early 1st century B.C. In response to the chaos in Rome, following the terror of Marius and Sullas dictatorship, the Empire... For the Miocene ape, see Proconsul (genus) Under the Roman Empire a proconsul was a promagistrate filling the office of a consul. ... Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus (c. ... Brundisium (Gr. ...

Hearing of the approach of Pompey, Spartacus attempted to negotiate with Crassus to bring the conflict to a close before Roman reinforcements arrived.^[42] When Crassus refused, a portion of Spartacus' forces broke out of confinement and fled toward the mountains west of Petelia (modern Strongoli) in Bruttium, with Crassus' legions in pursuit.^[43] The legions managed to catch a portion of the rebels – under the command of Gannicus and Castus – separated from the main army, killing 12,300.^[44] However, Crassus' legions also suffered losses, as some of the army of escaping slaves turned to meet the Roman forces under the command of a cavalry officer named Lucius Quinctius and the quaestor Gnaeus Tremellius Scrofa, routing them.^[45] The rebel slaves were not, however, a professional army, and had reached their limit. They were unwilling to flee any farther, and groups of men were breaking away from the main force to independently attack the oncoming legions of Crassus.^[46] With discipline breaking down, Spartacus turned his forces around and brought his entire strength to bear on the oncoming legions. In this last stand, Spartacus' forces were finally routed completely, with the vast majority of them being killed on the battlefield.^[47] The eventual fate of Spartacus himself is unknown, as his body was never found, but he is accounted by historians to have perished in battle along with his men.^[48] Strongoli is a comune and town with a population of over 6000 people in the province of Crotone, in Calabria, Italy. ... Calabria, formerly Brutium, is a region in southern Italy which occupies the toe of the Italian peninsula south of Naples. ... Quaestores were elected officials of the Roman Republic who supervised the treasury and financial affairs of the state, its armies and its officers. ...

Aftermath

The Fall of Spartacus.

The rebellion of the Third Servile War had been annihilated by Crassus. Image File history File links Spartacus_II.JPG The fall of Spartacus (http://www. ... Image File history File links Spartacus_II.JPG The fall of Spartacus (http://www. ...

Pompey's forces did not directly engage Spartacus' forces at any time, but his legions moving in from the north were able to capture some 5,000 rebels fleeing the battle, "all of whom he slew".^[49] Because of this, Pompey sent a dispatch to the Senate, saying that while Crassus certainly had conquered the slaves in open battle, he himself had ended the war, thus claiming a large portion of the credit and earning the enmity of Crassus.^[50]

While most of the rebel slaves had been killed on the battlefield, some 6,000 survivors had been captured by the legions of Crassus. All 6,000 were crucified along the road between Rome and Capua.^[51] Crucifixion is an ancient method of execution, where the condemned is tied or nailed to a large wooden cross and left to hang until dead. ... Nickname: Motto: SPQR: Senatus Populusque Romanus Location of the city of Rome (yellow) within the Province of Rome (red) and region of Lazio (grey) Coordinates: Region Lazio Province Province of Rome Founded 21 April 753 BC Government  - Mayor Walter Veltroni Area  - City 1,285 km²  (580 sq mi)  - Urban 5... Capua is a city in the province of Caserta, (Campania, Italy) situated 25 km (16 mi) north of Napoli, on the northeastern edge of the Campanian plain. ...

Pompey and Crassus reaped political benefit for having put down the rebellion. Both Crassus and Pompey returned to Rome with their legions and refused to disband them, instead encamping them outside Rome.^[52] Both men stood for the consulship of 70 BC, even though Pompey was ineligible to do so because of his age, nor had he ever served as praetor or quaestor.^[53] Nonetheless, both men were elected consul for 70 BC,^[54] partly due to the implied threat of their armed legions encamped outside the city.^[55] Consul (abbrev. ... Ordinary Magistrates Extraordinary Magistrates Titles and Honors Emperor Politics and Law Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities: the commander of an army, either before it was mustered or more typically in the field, or an elected... Quaestores were elected officials of the Roman Republic who supervised the treasury and financial affairs of the state, its armies and its officers. ... Consul (abbrev. ...

The effects of the Third Servile War on the Roman attitudes towards slavery, and the institution of slavery in Rome, are harder to determine. Certainly the revolt had shaken the Roman people, who "out of sheer fear seem to have begun to treat their slaves less harshly than before."^[56] The wealthy owners of the latifundia began to reduce the number of agricultural slaves, opting to employ the large pool of formerly dispossessed freemen in sharecropping arrangements.^[57] With the end of Julius Caesar's Gallic Wars in 52 BC, the major Roman wars of conquest would cease until the reign of emperor Trajan (reigned 98-117 AD), and with them the supply of plentiful and inexpensive slaves through military conquest, further promoting the use of freemen laborers in agricultural estates. Latifundia are pieces of landed property covering tremendous areas. ... Chopping cotton on rented land near White Plains, Greene County, Ga. ... Gaius Julius Caesar [1] (Latin pronunciation ; English pronunciation ; July 12 or July 13, 100 BC or 102 BC – March 15, 44 BC), was a Roman military and political leader and one of the most influential men in world history. ... Combatants Roman Republic Several Gallic tribes Commanders Julius Caesar Titus Labienus Mark Antony Quintus Cicero Vercingetorix, Ambiorix, Commius, among other The Gallic Wars were a series of military campaigns by several invading Roman legions under the command of Julius Caesar into Gaul, and the subsequent uprisings of the Gallic tribes. ... This article is about the Roman Emperor. ...

The legal status and rights of the Roman slave also began to change. During the time of emperor Claudius (reigned 41-54 AD), a constitution was enacted which made the killing of an old or infirm slave an act of murder, and decreed that if such slaves were abandoned by their owners, they became freedmen.^[58] Under Antoninus Pius (reigned 138-161 AD), the legal rights of slaves were further extended, holding owners responsible for the killing of slaves, forcing the sale of slaves when it could be shown that they were being mistreated, and providing a (theoretically) neutral third party authority to which a slave could appeal.^[59] While these legal changes occurred much too late to be direct results of the Third Servile War, they represent the legal codification of changes in the Roman attitude toward slaves which would have been evolving for decades. This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... For other persons named Claudius, see Claudius (disambiguation). ... Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus Pius (September 19, 86–March 7, 161) was Roman emperor from 138 to 161. ...

It is difficult to determine the extent to which the events of this war contributed to the changes in the use and legal rights of Roman slaves. It seems that the end of the Servile Wars coincided with the end of the period of most prominent use of slaves in Rome, and the beginning of a new perception of the slave within Roman society and law. The Third Servile War was the last of the Servile Wars, and Rome would not see another slave uprising of this type again.

References

Books

Classical works

• Appian, Civil wars, Penguin Classics; New Ed edition, 1996. ISBN 0-14-044509-9.
• Caesar, Julius, Commentarii de Bello Gallico.
• Cicero, M. Tullius. The Orations of Marcus Tullius Cicero, literally translated by C. D. Yonge, "for Quintius, Sextus Roscius, Quintus Roscius, against Quintus Caecilius, and against Verres". London. George Bell & Sons. 1903. OCLC: 4709897
• Florus, Publius Annius, Epitome of Roman History. Harvard University Press, 1984. ISBN 0-674-99254-7
• Frontinus, Sextus Julius, Stratagems, Loeb edition, 1925 by Charles E. Bennett. ISBN 0-674-99192-3
• Gaius the Jurist, Gai Institvtionvm Commentarivs Primvs
• Livius,Titus, This History of Rome
• Livius,Titus, Periochae, K.G. Saur Verlag, 1981. ISBN 3-519-01489-0
• Orosius, Histories.
• Plutarchus, Mestrius , Plutarch's Lives, "The Life of Crassus" and "The Life of Pompey". Modern Library, 2001. ISBN 0-375-75677-9.
• Sallust, Histories, P.McGUSHIN (Oxford,1992/1994) ISBN 0-19-872140-4
• Seneca, De Beneficiis
• Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars: The Life of Claudius.

Appian (c. ... Gaius Julius Caesar [1] (Latin pronunciation ; English pronunciation ; July 12 or July 13, 100 BC or 102 BC – March 15, 44 BC), was a Roman military and political leader and one of the most influential men in world history. ... An 18th century edition of Commentarii de Bello Gallico Commentarii de Bello Gallico (literally Commentaries on the Gallic War in Latin) is an account written by Julius Caesar about his nine years of war in Gaul. ... Cicero at about age 60, from an ancient marble bust Marcus Tullius Cicero (IPA:Classical Latin pronunciation: , usually pronounced in American English or in British English; January 3, 106 BC – December 7, 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, political theorist, philosopher, widely considered one of Romes greatest orators... Publius Annius Florus, Roman poet and rhetorician, identified by some authorities with the historian Florus. ... Sextus Julius Frontinus (c. ... Gaius was a celebrated Roman jurist. ... A portrait of Titus Livius made long after his death. ... A portrait of Titus Livius made long after his death. ... Paulus Orosius (c. ... Mestrius Plutarchus (Greek: Πλούταρχος; 46 - 127), better known in English as Plutarch, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist. ... Gaius Sallustius Crispus, simply known as Sallust, (86-34 BC). ... Lucius, or Marcus, Annaeus Seneca, known as Seneca the Elder and Seneca the Rhetorician (c. ... Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus ( 69/75 - after 130), also known as Suetonius, was a prominent Roman historian and biographer. ... The Twelve Caesars is a set of twelve biographies of Julius Caesar and the first 11 emperors of the Roman Empire. ... The Twelve Caesars is a set of twelve biographies of Julius Caesar and the first 11 emperors of the Roman Empire. ...

Modern works

• Bradley, Keith. Slavery and Rebellion in the Roman World. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989. ISBN 0-7134-6561-1.
• Broughton, T. Robert S. Magistrates of the Roman Republic, vol. 2. Cleveland: Case Western University Press, 1968.
• Davis,William Stearns ed., Readings in Ancient History: Illustrative Extracts from the Sources, 2 Vols, Vol. II: Rome and the West. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1912-13.
• Matyszak, Philip, The enemies of Rome, Thames & Hudson, 2004. ISBN 0-500-25124-X.
• Strachan-Davidson, J. L. (ed.), Appian, Civil Wars: Book I, Oxford University Press, 1902 (repr. 1969).
• Mommsen, Theodor, The History of Rome, Books I-V, project Gutenburg electronic edition, 2004. ISBN 0-415-14953-3.
• William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D., A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London, 1875.

Christian Matthias Theodor Mommsen (November 30, 1817–November 1, 1903) was a German classical scholar, jurist and historian, generally regarded as the greatest classicist of the 19th century. ... Project Gutenberg (PG) was launched by Michael Hart in 1971 in order to provide a library, on what would later become the Internet, of free electronic versions (sometimes called e-texts) of physically existing books. ...

Multimedia

• Fagan, Garret G., "The History of Ancient Rome: Lecture 23, Sulla's Reforms Undone", The Teaching Company. [sound recording:CD].

The Teaching Company is an American company that produces recordings of lectures by nationally top-ranked university professors. ...

Notes

• References to the Mommsen text is based on the Project Gutenburg e-text edition of the books. References are therefore given in terms of line numbers within the text file, and not page numbers as would be the case with physical books.
• References to "classical works" (Livy, Plutarch, Appian, etc.) are given in the traditional "Book:verse" format, rather than edition-specific page numbers.

Project Gutenberg (PG) was launched by Michael Hart in 1971 in order to provide a library, on what would later become the Internet, of free electronic versions (sometimes called e-texts) of physically existing books. ... An e-text (from electronic text; sometimes written as etext) is, generally, any text-based information that is available in a digitally encoded human-readable format and read by electronic means, but more specifically it refers to files in the ASCII character encoding. ... In computing, a line number is a way of specifying a point in a file by enumerating each line in the file by a number. ... In ancient geography, Cilicia (Ki-LIK-ya) formed a district on the southeastern coast of Asia Minor (modern Turkey), north of Cyprus. ... The Aduatuci or Atuatuci were a tribe formed in Southern Gaul by remnants of the Ambrones, originally from Northern Germany/Southern Jutland, and local fragments of Germanic and Celtic peoples and tribes. ... Auxiliaries (from Latin: auxilia = supports) formed the standing non-citizen corps of the Roman army of the Principate (30 BC - 284 AD), alongside the citizen legions. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... September 23 is the 266th day of the year (267th in leap years). ... An ombudsman (English plural: ombudsmans or ombudsmen) is an official, usually (but not always) appointed by the government or by parliament, who is charged with representing the interests of the public by investigating and addressing complaints reported by individual citizens. ...

External links

Many of the primary source texts referenced in this article are available, in their entirety, online. Interested readers are urged to read the original historians to better understand this conflict. In historical scholarship, a primary source is a document, or other source of information that was created at or near the time being studied, by an authoritative source, usually one with direct personal knowledge of the events being described. ...

Classical historical works

Works at LacusCurtius.

• Appian's The Civil Wars.
• Frontinus's The Strategemata.
• Plutarch's, Life of Crassus
• Plutarch's, Life of Pompey

Works at Livius.org. Appian (c. ... Sextus Julius Frontinus (c. ... Mestrius Plutarchus (Greek: Πλούταρχος; 46 - 127), better known in English as Plutarch, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist. ...

• Appian on Spartacus (excerpts from the The Civil Wars).
• Florus on Spartacus (excerpts from the Epitome of Roman History).
• Livy's Periochae. 95:2.
• Livy's Periochae. 96:1 and 97:1.
• Plutarch on Spartacus (excerpts from the Life of Crassus).

Works at The Internet Classics Archive. A portrait of Titus Livius made long after his death. ...

• Livy's Histories

Modern works

• William Smith's, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities at LacusCurtius. A scanned page version is also available at The Ancient Library.