The timeline of meteorology contains events of scientific and technological advancements in the area of atmospheric sciences. The most notable advancements in observational meteorology, weather forecasting, climatology, atmospheric chemistry, and atmospheric physics are listed chronologically. Some historical weather events are included that mark time periods where advancements where made, or even that sparked policy change. Atmospheric sciences is an umbrella term for the study of the atmosphere, its processes, the effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on these other systems. ... // Meteorology (from Greek: μετέωρον, meteoron, high in the sky; and λόγος, logos, knowledge) is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere that focuses on weather processes and forecasting. ... Modern weather predictions aid in timely evacuations and potentially save lives and property damage Weather map of Europe, 10 December 1887 Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location. ... Climatology is the study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time,[1] and is a branch of the atmospheric sciences. ... Atmospheric chemistry is a branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the Earths atmosphere and that of other planets is studied. ... Atmospheric physics is the application of physics to the study of the atmosphere. ... A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor demonstrates the Meissner effect. ...

Early events

• 350 BC - Aristotle wrote Meteorology.

Although the term meteorology is used today to describe a subdiscipline of the atmospheric sciences, Aristotle's work is more general. The work touches upon much of what is known as the earth sciences. In his own words:

...all the affections we may call common to air and water, and the kinds and parts of the earth and the affections of its parts.^[1]

Aristotle

One of the most impressive achievements in Meteorology is his description of what is now known as the hydrologic cycle:

Now the sun, moving as it does, sets up processes of change and becoming and decay, and by its agency the finest and sweetest water is every day carried up and is dissolved into vapour and rises to the upper region, where it is condensed again by the cold and so returns to the earth.^[1]

• 25 - Pomponius Mela, a geographer for the Roman empire, formalized the climatic zone system.^[2]

• c. 80 AD - In his Lun Heng (論衡; Critical Essays), the Han Dynasty Chinese philosopher Wang Chong (27-97 AD) dispels the Chinese myth of rain coming from the heavens, and states that rain is evaporated from water on the earth into the air and forms clouds, stating that clouds condense into rain and also form dew, and says when the clothes of people in high mountains are moistened, this is because of the air-suspended rain water.^[3] However, Wang Chong supports his theory by quoting a similar one of Gongyang Gao's,^[3] the latter's commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals compiled in the 2nd century BC,^[3] showing that the Chinese conception of rain evaporating and rising to form clouds goes back much farther than Wang Chong. Wang Chong wrote:

As to this coming of rain from the mountains, some hold that the clouds carry the rain with them, dispersing as it is precipitated (and they are right). Clouds and rain are really the same thing. Water evaporating upwards becomes clouds, which condense into rain, or still further into dew.^[3]

• 11th century - Avicenna invents the thermometer.^[4]

• 1088 - In his Dream Pool Essays (梦溪笔谈), the Chinese scientist Shen Kuo wrote vivid descriptions of tornadoes, that rainbows were formed by the shadow of the sun in rain, occurring when the sun would shine upon it, and the curious common phenomena of the effect of lightning that, when striking a house, would merely scorch the walls a bit but completely melt to liquid all metal objects inside.

• 1121 - Al-Khazini publishes first studies on the hydrostatic balance.^[5]
• 1441 - King Sejongs son, Prince Munjong, invented the first standardized rain gauge. These were sent throughout the Joseon Dynasty of Korea as an official tool to assess land taxes based upon a farmer's potential harvest.

Anemometers

• 1450 - Leone Battista Alberti developed a swinging-plate anemometer, and is known as the first anemometer.^[6]

- Nicolas Cryfts, (Nicolas of Cusa), described the first hair hygrometer to measure humidity. The design was drawn by Leonardo da Vinci, referencing Cryfts design in da Vinci's Codex Atlanticus.^[6]

• 1494 Christopher Columbus experience a tropical cyclone, leads to the first written European account of a hurricane.^[7]

Centuries: 5th century BC - 4th century BC - 3rd century BC Decades: 400s BC 390s BC 380s BC 370s BC 360s BC - 350s BC - 340s BC 330s BC 320s BC 310s BC 300s BC 355 BC 354 BC 353 BC 352 BC 351 BC - 350 BC - 349 BC 348 BC 347... For other uses, see Aristotle (disambiguation). ... Meteorology (or Meteorologica) is a text by Aristotle which contains his theories about the earth sciences. ... Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth Sciences), is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. ... Download high resolution version (1384x2044, 193 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Download high resolution version (1384x2044, 193 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Meteorology (or Meteorologica) is a text by Aristotle which contains his theories about the earth sciences. ... The water cycle—technically known as the hydrologic cycle—is the circulation of water within the earths hydrosphere, involving changes in the physical state of water between liquid, solid, and gas phases. ... Events Han dynasty was restored in China as Liu Xiu proclaimed himself emperor, start of jiangwu era (->56). ... Pomponius Mela, who wrote around AD 43, was the earliest Roman geographer. ... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ... Han Dynasty in 87 BC Capital Changan (202 BC–9 AD) Luoyang (25 AD–190 AD) Language(s) Chinese Religion Taoism, Confucianism Government Monarchy History  - Establishment 206 BC  - Battle of Gaixia; Han rule of China begins 202 BC  - Interruption of Han rule 9 - 24  - Abdication to Cao Wei 220... Chinese philosophy has a history of several thousand years. ... Wang Chung (27 – 97 C.E.) (Traditional Chinese: 王充; Simplified Chinese: 王充; pinyin: Wáng Chōng) was a Chinese philosopher during the Han Dynasty who developed a rational, secular, naturalistic, and mechanistic account of the world and of human beings. ... The Spring and Autumn Annals (春秋 ChÅ«n QiÅ«, also known as 麟經 Lín JÄ«ng) is the official chronicle of the state of Lu covering the period from 722 BCE to 481 BCE. It is the earliest surviving Chinese historical text to be arranged on annalistic principles. ... As a means of recording the passage of time, the 11th century was that century which lasted from 1001 to 1100. ... (Persian: ابن سينا) (c. ... A common mercury thermometer A thermometer is a device that measures temperature or temperature gradient, using a variety of different principles. ... Events Succession of Pope Urban II (1088-1099) Work begins on the third and largest church at Cluny Rebellion of 1088 against William II of England lead by Odo of Bayeux. ... Shen Kuo (沈括) (1031-1095 AD) The Dream Pool Essays (Pinyin: Meng Xi Bi Tan; Wade-Giles: Meng Chi Pi Tan Chinese: 梦溪笔谈) was an extensive book written by the polymath Chinese scientist and statesman Shen Kuo (1031-1095) by 1088 AD, during the Song Dynasty (960-1279) of China. ... This is a Chinese name; the family name is Shen Shen Kuo or Shen Kua (Chinese: ; pinyin: ) (1031–1095) was a polymathic Chinese scientist and statesman of the Song Dynasty (960–1279). ... For other uses of Tornado, see Tornado (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Rainbow (disambiguation). ... Not to be confused with lighting. ... Events Concordat of Worms condemns Pierre Abélards writings on the Holy Trinity. ... This article is about a 12th century scientist. ... The hydrostatic balance is a balance between the pressure gradient force and the force of gravity in the earths atmosphere. ... This page is about the year 1441. ... Birth name Sejong the Great (May 6, 1397 – May 18, 1450, r. ... Standard Rain Gauge Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge Recorder Close up of a Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge Recorder chart A rain gauge (also known as an udometer or a pluviometer) is a type of instrument used by meteorologists and hydrologists to gather and measure the amount of liquid precipitation (as opposed... Territory of Joseon after Jurchen conquest of King Sejong Capital Hanseong Language(s) Korean Religion Neo-Confucianism Government Monarchy Wang  - 1392 - 1398 Taejo (first)  - 1863 - 1897 Gojong (last)1 Yeong-uijeong  - 1431 - 1449 Hwang Hui  - 1466 - 1472 Han Myeonghoe  - 1592 - 1598 Ryu Seongryong  - 1894 Kim Hongjip History  - Coup of 1388... This article is about the Korean peninsula and civilization. ... Image File history File links Anemometers. ... Image File history File links Anemometers. ... // March - French troops under Guy de Richemont besiege the English commander in France, Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, in Caen. ... Late statue of Leon Battista Alberti. ... A hemispherical cup anemometer of the type invented in 2000 by John Thomas Romney Robinson An anemometer is a device for measuring the velocity or the pressure of the wind, and is one instrument used in a weather station. ... Nicholas of Cusa Nicholas of Cusa (1401– August 11, 1464) was a German cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church, a philosopher, jurist, mathematician, and an astronomer. ... The interior of a Stevenson screen showing a motorized psychrometer Hygrometers are instruments used for measuring humidity. ... “Da Vinci” redirects here. ... Da Vinci redirects here. ... 1494 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Christopher Columbus (1451 – May 20, 1506) was a navigator and colonialist who is one of the first Europeans to discover the Americas, after the Vikings. ...

17th century

Galileo.

• 1607 - Galileo Galilei constructs a thermoscope. Not only did this device measure temperature, but it represented a paradigm shift. Up to this point, heat and cold were believed to be qualities of Aristotle's elements (fire, water, air, and earth). Note: There is some controversy about who actually built this first thermoscope. There is some evidence for this device being independently built at several different times. This is the era of the first recorded meteorological observations. As there was no standard measurement, they were of little use until the work of Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit and Anders Celsius in the 18th century.

Sir Francis Bacon

• 1611 - Johannes Kepler writes the first scientific treatise on snow crystals: "Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula (A New Year's Gift of Hexagonal Snow)".^[8]
• 1620 - Francis Bacon (philosopher) analyzes the scientific method in his philosophical work; Novum Organum.^[9]
• 1643 - Evangelista Torricelli invents the mercury barometer.^[6]

Blaise Pascal.

• 1648 - Blaise Pascal rediscovers that atmospheric pressure decreases with height, and deduces that there is a vacuum above the atmosphere.^[10]
• 1654 - Ferdinando II de Medici initiates the first weather observing network in Tuscany, Italy.
• 1662 - Sir Christopher Wren invented the mechanical, self-emptying, tipping bucket rain gauge.^[11]
• 1667 - Robert Hooke builds another type of anemometer, called a pressure-plate anemometer.^[6]
• 1686 - Edmund Halley presents a systematic study of the trade winds and monsoons and identifies solar heating as the cause of atmospheric motions.

- Edmund Halley establishes the relationship between barometric pressure and height above sea level.^[12]

Image File history File links Download high resolution version (450x651, 40 KB) Source: French WP (Utilisateur:Kelson via http://iafosun. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (450x651, 40 KB) Source: French WP (Utilisateur:Kelson via http://iafosun. ... Year 1607 (MDCVII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Thursday of the 10-day slower Julian calendar). ... Galileo redirects here. ... A Galileo thermometer, Galilean thermometer, or thermoscope is a thermometer made of a sealed glass cylinder containing a clear liquid. ... Paradigm shift is the term first used by Thomas Kuhn in his 1962 book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions to describe a change in basic assumptions within the ruling theory of science. ... Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, also called Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit (May 24, 1686 - September 16, 1736), was a physicist and an engineer, who most of his life worked in Netherlands and for whom the Fahrenheit scale of temperature is named. ... Anders Celsius The observatory of Anders Celsius, from a contemporary engraving. ... Download high resolution version (721x893, 157 KB)In the public domain by age This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Download high resolution version (721x893, 157 KB)In the public domain by age This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Events June 23 - Henry Hudsons crew maroons him, his son and 7 others in a boat November 1 - At Whitehall Palace in London, William Shakespeares romantic comedy The Tempest is presented for the first time. ... Kepler redirects here. ... Year 1620 was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Saturday of the 10-day slower Julian calendar). ... Sir Francis Bacon Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Albans, KC (22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626) was an English astrologer, philosopher, statesman, spy, freemason and essayist. ... Scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. ... The Novum Organum is a philosophical work by Francis Bacon. ... // Events January 21 - Abel Tasman discovers Tonga February 6 - Abel Tasman discovers the Fiji islands. ... Evangelista Torricelli portrayed on the frontpage of Lezioni dEvangelista Torricelli. ... A barometer is an instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure. ... Download high resolution version (494x671, 258 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Download high resolution version (494x671, 258 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... 1648 (MDCXLVIII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Saturday of the 10-day slower Julian calendar). ... Blaise Pascal (pronounced ), (June 19, 1623 – August 19, 1662) was a French mathematician, physicist, and religious philosopher. ... Diurnal (daily) rhythm of air pressure in northern Germany (black curve is air pressure) Atmospheric pressure is the pressure at any point in the Earths atmosphere. ... Events April 5 - Signing of the Treaty of Westminster, ending the First Anglo-Dutch War. ... Image:Ferdinando II de Medici. ... For other uses, see Tuscany (disambiguation). ... Events February 1 - The Chinese pirate Koxinga seizes the island of Taiwan after a nine-month siege. ... Sir Christopher Wren, (20 October 1632–25 February 1723) was a 17th century English designer, astronomer, geometrician, and the greatest English architect of his time. ... Standard Rain Gauge Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge Recorder Close up of a Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge Recorder chart A rain gauge (also known as an udometer or a pluviometer) is a type of instrument used by meteorologists and hydrologists to gather and measure the amount of liquid precipitation (as opposed... // Events January 20 - Poland cedes Kyiv, Smolensk, and eastern Ukraine to Russia in the Treaty of Andrusovo that put a final end to the Deluge, and Poland lost its status as a Central European power. ... Robert Hooke, FRS (July 18, 1635 – March 3, 1703) was an English polymath who played an important role in the scientific revolution, through both experimental and theoretical work. ... A hemispherical cup anemometer of the type invented in 2000 by John Thomas Romney Robinson An anemometer is a device for measuring the velocity or the pressure of the wind, and is one instrument used in a weather station. ... 1686 (MDCLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Friday of the 10-day slower Julian calendar). ... Edmond Halley. ... Image:Atmospheric circulatlion. ... For other uses, see Monsoon (disambiguation). ...

18th century

• 1714 - Gabriel Fahrenheit creates reliable scale for measuring temperature with a mercury-type thermometer.^[13]

• 1716 - Edmund Halley suggests that aurorae are caused by "magnetic effluvia" moving along the Earth's magnetic field lines.

Global circulation as described by Hadley.

• 1735 - The first ideal explanation of global circulation was the study of the Trade winds by George Hadley.^[14]
• 1738 - Daniel Bernoulli publishes Hydrodynamics, initiating the kinetic theory of gases. He gave a poorly detailed equation of state, but also the basic laws for the theory of gases.^[15]
• 1742 - Anders Celsius, a Swedish astronomer, proposed the Centigrade temperature scale which led to the current Celsius scale.^[16]
• 1743 - Benjamin Franklin is prevented from seeing a lunar eclipse by a hurricane, he decides that cyclones move in a contrary manner to the winds at their periphery. ^[17]
• 1761 - Joseph Black discovers that ice absorbs heat without changing its temperature when melting.
• 1772 - Black's student Daniel Rutherford discovers nitrogen, which he calls phlogisticated air, and together they explain the results in terms of the phlogiston theory.^[18]
• 1777 - Antoine Lavoisier discovers oxygen and develops an explanation for combustion.^[19]
• 1783 - In Lavoisier's book Reflexions sur le phlogistique^[20], he deprecates the phlogiston theory and proposes a caloric theory.^{[21] [22]}
• 1783 - First hair hygrometer demonstrated. The inventor was Horace-Bénédict de Saussure.

Battle of Gangut, by Maurice Baquoi, 1724-27. ... Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (24 May 1686 – 16 September 1736) was a German physicist and engineer who worked most of his life in the Dutch Republic. ... A common mercury thermometer A thermometer is a device that measures temperature or temperature gradient, using a variety of different principles. ... // Events August 5 - In the Battle of Peterwardein 40. ... The Aurora Borealis, or Northern Lights, shines above Bear Lake Aurora Borealis as seen over Canada at 11,000m (36,000 feet) Red and green Aurora in Fairbanks, Alaska Aurora Borealis redirects here. ... The magnetosphere shields the surface of the Earth from the charged particles of the solar wind. ... Image File history File links atmospheric circulation diagram, showing the Hadley cell, the Ferrel cell, the Polar cell, and the various upwelling and subsidence zones between them. ... Image File history File links atmospheric circulation diagram, showing the Hadley cell, the Ferrel cell, the Polar cell, and the various upwelling and subsidence zones between them. ... Events April 16 - The London premiere of Alcina by George Frideric Handel, his first the first Italian opera for the Royal Opera House at Covent Garden. ... Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air, and the means (together with the ocean circulation, which is smaller [1]) by which heat is distributed on the surface of the Earth. ... The trade winds are a pattern of wind found in bands around Earths equatorial region. ... George Hadley (1685-1768) was an English lawyer and amateur meteorologist who proposed the atmospheric mechanism by which the Trade Winds were sustained. ... Events February 4 - Court Jew Joseph Suss Oppenheimer is executed in Württenberg April 15 - Premiere in London of Serse, an Italian opera by George Frideric Handel. ... Daniel Bernoulli Daniel Bernoulli (February 8, 1700 – March 17, 1782) was a Dutch-born mathematician who spent much of his life in Basel, Switzerland where he died. ... Kinetic theory or kinetic theory of gases attempts to explain macroscopic properties of gases, such as pressure, temperature, or volume, by considering their molecular composition and motion. ... In physics and thermodynamics, an equation of state is a relation between state variables. ... // Events January 24 - Charles VII Albert becomes Holy Roman Emperor. ... Anders Celsius The observatory of Anders Celsius, from a contemporary engraving. ... Celsius is, or relates to, the Celsius temperature scale (previously known as the centigrade scale). ... // Events February 14 - Henry Pelham becomes British Prime Minister February 21 - - The premiere in London of George Frideric Handels oratorio, Samson. ... Benjamin Franklin (January 17 [O.S. January 6] 1706 – April 17, 1790) was one of the most well known Founding Fathers of the United States. ... 1761 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Joseph Black Joseph Black (April 16, 1728 - December 6, 1799) was a Scottish physicist and chemist. ... This article is about water ice. ... For other uses, see Heat (disambiguation) In physics, heat, symbolized by Q, is energy transferred from one body or system to another due to a difference in temperature. ... For other uses, see Temperature (disambiguation). ... Year 1772 (MDCCLXXII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Sunday of the 11-day slower Julian calendar). ... Daniel Rutherford, (November 3, 1749 – November 15, 1819), was a Scottish chemist and physician who was most famous for the discovery of nitrogen in 1772. ... General Name, symbol, number nitrogen, N, 7 Chemical series nonmetals Group, period, block 15, 2, p Appearance colorless gas Standard atomic weight 14. ... Phlogiston theory was a 17th century attempt to explain oxidation processes, such as fire and rust. ... Year 1777 (MDCCLXXVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Sunday of the 11-day slower Julian calendar). ... Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (August 26, 1743 – May 8, 1794), the father of modern chemistry [1], was a French nobleman prominent in the histories of chemistry, finance, biology, and economics. ... General Name, symbol, number oxygen, O, 8 Chemical series nonmetals, chalcogens Group, period, block 16, 2, p Appearance colorless (gas) pale blue (liquid) Standard atomic weight 15. ... 1783 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (August 26, 1743 – May 8, 1794), the father of modern chemistry [1], was a French nobleman prominent in the histories of chemistry, finance, biology, and economics. ... The caloric theory is an obsolete scientific theory that heat consists of a fluid called caloric that flows from hotter to colder bodies. ... 1783 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... The interior of a Stevenson screen showing a motorized psychrometer Hygrometers are instruments used for measuring humidity. ... Horace-Bénédict de Saussure (February 17, 1740 - January 22, 1799) was a Swiss physicist and Alpine traveller. ...

19th century

Synoptic chart from 1874.

• 1800 - The Voltaic pile was the first modern electric battery, invented by Alessandro Volta, which led to later inventions like the telegraph.
• 1802-1803 - Luke Howard writes On the Modification of Clouds in which he assigns cloud types Latin names.
• 1804 - Sir John Leslie observes that a matte black surface radiates heat more effectively than a polished surface, suggesting the importance of black body radiation.
• 1806 - Francis Beaufort introduces his system for classifying wind speeds.
• 1808 - John Dalton defends caloric theory in A New System of Chemistry and describes how it combines with matter, especially gases; he proposes that the heat capacity of gases varies inversely with atomic weight.
• 1810 - Sir John Leslie freezes water to ice artificially.
• 1819 - Pierre Louis Dulong and Alexis Thérèse Petit give the Dulong-Petit law for the specific heat capacity of a crystal.
• 1820 - John Herapath develops some ideas in the kinetic theory of gases but mistakenly associates temperature with molecular momentum rather than kinetic energy; his work receives little attention other than from Joule.
• 1822 - Joseph Fourier formally introduces the use of dimensions for physical quantities in his Theorie Analytique de la Chaleur.
• 1824 - Sadi Carnot analyzes the efficiency of steam engines using caloric theory; he develops the notion of a reversible process and, in postulating that no such thing exists in nature, lays the foundation for the second law of thermodynamics.
• 1827 - Robert Brown discovers the Brownian motion of pollen and dye particles in water.
• 1832 - An electromagnetic telegraph was created by Baron Schilling.
• 1834 - Émile Clapeyron popularises Carnot's work through a graphical and analytic formulation.
• 1835 - Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis publishes theoretical discussions of machines with revolving parts and their efficiency, for example the efficiency of waterweels. At the end of the 19th century, meteorologists recognized that the way the Earth's rotation is taken into account in meteorology is analogous to what Coriolis discussed: an example of Coriolis Effect.
• 1836 - An American scientist, Dr. David Alter, invented the first known American electric telegraph in Elderton, Pennsylvania, one year before the much more popular Morse telegraph was invented.

The electrical telegraph owned and built by Samuel Morse.

• 1837 - Samuel Morse independently developed an electrical telegraph, an alternative design that was capable of transmitting over long distances using poor quality wire. His assistant, Alfred Vail, developed the Morse code signalling alphabet with Morse. The first electric telegram using this device was sent by Morse on May 24, 1844 from the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C. to the B&O Railroad "outer depot" in Baltimore and sent the message:

What hath God wrought

• 1839 - The first commercial electrical telegraph was constructed by Sir William Fothergill Cooke and entered use on the Great Western Railway. Cooke and Wheatstone patented it in May 1837 as an alarm system.
• 1841 - Elias Loomis the first person known to attempt to devise a theory on frontal zones, and prepared some of the first known weather maps. The idea of fronts did not catch on until expanded upon by the Norwegians in the years following World War I.^[23]
• 1843 - John James Waterston fully expounds the kinetic theory of gases, but is ridiculed and ignored.

- James Prescott Joule experimentally finds the mechanical equivalent of heat.

- Lucien Vidie invented the aneroid, from Greek meaning without liquid, barometer.

• 1846 - Cup anemometer invented by Dr. John Thomas Romney Robinson.
• 1847 - Hermann von Helmholtz publishes a definitive statement of the conservation of energy, the first law of thermodynamics.
• 1848 - William Thomson extends the concept of absolute zero from gases to all substances.
• 1849 - Smithsonian Institution begins to establish an observation network across the United States, with 150 observers via telegraph, under the leadership of Joseph Henry. ^[24]

- William John Macquorn Rankine calculates the correct relationship between saturated vapour pressure and temperature using his hypothesis of molecular vortices.

• 1850 - Rankine uses his vortex theory to establish accurate relationships between the temperature, pressure, and density of gases, and expressions for the latent heat of evaporation of a liquid; he accurately predicts the surprising fact that the apparent specific heat of saturated steam will be negative.

- Rudolf Clausius gives the first clear joint statement of the first and second law of thermodynamics, abandoning the caloric theory, but preserving Carnot's principle.

• 1852 - Joule and Thomson demonstrate that a rapidly expanding gas cools, later named the Joule-Thomson effect.
• 1854 - The French astronomer Leverrier showed that a storm in the Black Sea could be followed across Europe and would have been predictable if the telegraph had been used. A service of storm forecasts was established a year later by the Paris Observatory.

- Rankine introduces his thermodynamic function, later identified as entropy.

• 1859 - James Clerk Maxwell discovers the distribution law of molecular velocities.
• 1860 - Robert FitzRoy uses the new telegraph system to gather daily observations from across England and produces the first synoptic charts. He also coined the term "weather forecast" and his were the first ever daily weather forecasts to be published in this year.

- After establishment in 1849, 500 U.S. telegraph stations are now making weather observations and submitting them back to the Smithsonian Institution. The observations are later interrupted by the American Civil War.

• 1865 - Josef Loschmidt applies Maxwell's theory to estimate the number-density of molecules in gases, given observed gas viscosities.

- Manila Observatory founded in the Philippines.^[17]

• 1869 - Joseph Lockyer starts the scientific journal Nature.
• 1870 - Benito Vines becomes the head of the Meteorological Observatory at Belen in Havana, Cuba. He develops the first observing network in Cuba and creates some of the first hurricane-related forecasts.^[17]
• 1872 - Ludwig Boltzmann states the Boltzmann equation for the temporal development of distribution functions in phase space, and publishes his H-theorem.
• 1873 - International Meteorological Organization formed in Vienna.

- United States Army Signal Corp, forerunner of the National Weather Service, issues its first hurricane warning.^[17]

• 1876 - Josiah Willard Gibbs publishes the first of two papers (the second appears in 1878) which discuss phase equilibria, statistical ensembles, the free energy as the driving force behind chemical reactions, and chemical thermodynamics in general.
• 1881 - Finnish Meteorological Central Office was formed from part of Magnetic Observatory of Helsinki University.
• 1889 - India Meteorological Department established following tropical cyclone and monsoon related famines in the previous decades.
• 1890 - US Weather Bureau is created as a civilian operation under the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
• 1892 - William Henry Dines invented another kind of anemometer, called the pressure-tube (Dines) anemometer. His device measured the difference in pressure arising from wind blowing in a tube versus that blowing across the tube.^[6]

- The first mention of the term "El Niño" to refer to climate occurs when Captain Camilo Carrilo told the Geographical society congress in Lima that Peruvian sailors named the warm northerly current "El Niño" because it was most noticeable around Christmas.

• 1896 - Svante Arrhenius proposes carbon dioxide as a key factor to explain the ice ages.
• 1898 - US Weather Bureau established a hurricane warning network at Kingston, Jamaica.^[17]

Image File history File links Size of this preview: 759 × 599 pixelsFull resolution (1563 × 1234 pixels, file size: 627 KB, MIME type: image/png) Description: Synoptic chart (large scale weather map) of Europe and the North Atlantic in the morning of October 22, 1874. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 759 × 599 pixelsFull resolution (1563 × 1234 pixels, file size: 627 KB, MIME type: image/png) Description: Synoptic chart (large scale weather map) of Europe and the North Atlantic in the morning of October 22, 1874. ... // ON MAY 5 1853 MR.FADER HAD SEX WITH A MAN NAME MR WIEN THEN THEY HAD SON NAMEDMRS COTURE AND MR MANOOGIAN WENT INTO MRS HASKELLS OFFICE NAKED AND DANCED AROUND AND MASTERBATED ON HER CHEST AND SHE LICKED IT OFF THEN THEY HAD ORAL SEEX WITH NAPLOEAN OF... A copper-zinc Voltaic pile A Voltaic pile on display in the Tempio Voltiano The Voltaic pile is the first modern electric battery, invented by Alessandro Volta in 1800. ... This article is about the physicist Alessandro Volta. ... --69. ... 1803 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... Luke Howard Luke Howard (November 28, 1772 – March 21, 1864) was a British meteorologist with broad interests in science. ... Clouds (from above) Clouds form when the dewpoint of water is reached in the presence of condensation nuclei in the troposphere. ... For other uses, see Latin (disambiguation). ... 1804 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Sir John Leslie (April 10, 1766 - November 3, 1832) was a Scottish mathematician and physicist best remembered for his research into heat Born in Largo, Fife, Leslie gave the first modern account of capillary action in 1802 and froze water using an air-pump in 1810, the first artificial production... As the temperature decreases, the peak of the black body radiation curve moves to lower intensities and longer wavelengths. ... 1806 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... Rear-Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort, FRS, FRGS (7 May 1774 – 17 December 1857) was an Irish hydrographer and officer in the British Royal Navy. ... The Beaufort scale is an empirical measure for describing wind intensity based mainly on observed sea conditions. ... Year 1808 (MDCCCVIII) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Wednesday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... John Dalton John Dalton (September 6, 1766 – July 27, 1844) was an English chemist and physicist, born at Eaglesfield, near Cockermouth in Cumberland. ... Gas can also refer to gasoline and natural gas and also hydrogen. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... ... 1810 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... In physics and chemistry, freezing is the process whereby a liquid turns to a solid. ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... 1819 common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... Pierre Louis Dulong (February 12, 1785 - July 19, 1838) was a French physicist and chemist. ... Alexis Thérèse Petit (October 2, 1791 - June 21, 1820) was a French physicist. ... The Dulong-Petit law, found in 1819 by Pierre Louis Dulong and Alexis Thérèse Petit, states the classical expression for the specific heat capacity of a crystal due to its lattice vibrations. ... Specific heat capacity, also known simply as specific heat, is the measure of the heat energy required to increase the temperature of a unit quantity of a substance by a certain temperature interval. ... 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Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1024x768, 92 KB) Summary This is the Electrical telegraph owned and built by Samuel Morse. ... Queen Victoria, Queen of the United Kingdom (1837 - 1901) 1837 (MDCCCXXXVII) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Portrait of Samuel F. B. Morse by Mathew Brady, between 1855 and 1865 Samuel Finley Breese Morse (April 27, 1791 – April 2, 1872) was an American inventor, and painter of portraits and historic scenes; he is most famous for inventing the electric telegraph and Morse code. ... The electrical telegraph is a telegraph that uses electric signals. ... Alfred Lewis Vail (September 25, 1807 - January 18, 1859) was a machinist and inventor. ... 1922 Chart of the Morse Code Letters and Numerals Morse code is a method for transmitting telegraphic information, using standardized sequences of short and long elements to represent the letters, numerals, punctuation and special characters of a message. ... is the 144th day of the year (145th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Jan. ... For other uses, see Washington, D.C. (disambiguation). ... Flag Seal Nickname: Monument City, Charm City, Mob Town, B-more Motto: Get In On It (formerly The City That Reads and The Greatest City in America; BELIEVE is not the official motto but rather a specific campaign) Location Location of Baltimore in Maryland Coordinates , Government Country State County United... 1839 (MDCCCXXXIX) was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... The electrical telegraph is a telegraph that uses electric signals. ... 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Year 1843 (MDCCCXLIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a common year starting on Friday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... John James Waterston (1811 - June 18, 1883) was a Scottish physicist, a neglected pioneer of the kinetic theory of gases. ... James Joule - English physicist James Prescott Joule, FRS (December 24, 1818 – October 11, 1889) was an English physicist, born in Sale, Cheshire. ... A barometer is an instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure. ... 1846 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... John Thomas Romney Robinson (April 23, 1792 - February 28, 1882) was an Irish astronomer and physicist. ... 1847 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz (August 31, 1821 – September 8, 1894) was a German physician and physicist. ... 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In thermochemistry, latent heat is the amount of energy in the form of heat released or absorbed by a substance during evaporation. ... “Vaporization” redirects here. ... For other uses, see Liquid (disambiguation). ... The specific heat capacity (symbol c or s, also called specific heat) of a substance is defined as heat capacity per unit mass. ... In chemistry, saturation has four different meanings: In physical chemistry, saturation is the point at which a solution of a substance can dissolve no more of that substance and additional amounts of that substance will appear as a precipitate. ... For other uses, see Steam (disambiguation). ... Rudolf Clausius - physicist and mathematician Rudolf Julius Emanuel Clausius (January 2, 1822 – August 24, 1888), was a German physicist and mathematician. ... The first law of thermodynamics, a generalized expression of the law of the conservation of energy, states: // Description Essentially, the First Law of Thermodynamics declares that energy is conserved for a closed system, with heat and work being the forms of energy transfer. ... The second law of thermodynamics is an expression of the universal law of increasing entropy. ... 1852 was a leap year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... In physics, the Joule-Thomson effect, or Joule-Kelvin effect, is a process in which the temperature of a real gas is either decreased or increased by letting the gas expand freely at constant enthalpy (which means that no heat is transferred to or from the gas, and no external... 1854 (MDCCCLIV) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Urbain Le Verrier. ... 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The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter. ... 1860 is the leap year starting on Sunday. ... Vice-Admiral Robert FitzRoy (5 July 1805 – 30 April 1865) achieved lasting fame as the captain of HMS Beagle during Charles Darwins famous voyage, and as a pioneering meteorologist who made accurate weather forecasting a reality. ... For other uses, see England (disambiguation). ... Year 1849 (MDCCCXLIX) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Saturday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... The Smithsonian Institution Building or Castle on the National Mall serves as the Institutions headquarters. ... Combatants United States of America (Union) Confederate States of America (Confederacy) Commanders Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant Jefferson Davis, Robert E. Lee Strength 2,200,000 1,064,000 Casualties 110,000 killed in action, 360,000 total dead, 275,200 wounded 93,000 killed in action, 258,000 total... 1865 (MDCCCLXV) is a common year starting on Sunday. ... Johann Josef Loschmidt (March 15, 1821 - July 8, 1895) was an Austrian physicist and chemist. ... 1869 (MDCCCLXIX) is a common year starting on Friday (link will take you to calendar) of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Sunday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar. ... Sir Joseph Norman Lockyer or Norman Lockyer (May 17, 1836 – August 16, 1920) was an English scientist and astronomer. ... Nature, Science and PNAS In academic publishing, a scientific journal is a periodical publication intended to further the progress of science, usually by reporting new research. ... Nature is a prominent scientific journal, first published on 4 November 1869. ... 1870 (MDCCCLXX) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Year 1872 (MDCCCLXXII) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a leap year starting on Saturday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann (Vienna, Austrian Empire, February 20, 1844 – Duino near Trieste, September 5, 1906) was an Austrian physicist famous for his founding contributions in the fields of statistical mechanics and statistical thermodynamics. ... The Boltzmann equation describes the statistical distribution of particles in a fluid. ... In physics, a particles distribution function is a function of seven variables, , which gives the number of particles per unit volume in phase space. ... Phase space of a dynamical system with focal stability. ... In thermodynamics, the H-theorem describes the increase of entropy of an ideal gas in an irreversible process, solving the Boltzmann equation. ... 1873 (MDCCCLXXIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... Although there had been significant developments in meteorology in the 18th century, Matthew Fontaine Maury, of the US Navy, was instrumental in convening the first true International Meteorological Organization held in Brussels, Belgium on August 23, 1853. ... For other uses, see Vienna (disambiguation). ... The National Weather Service (NWS) is one of the six scientific agencies that make up the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the United States government. ... Year 1876 Pick up Sticks(MDCCCLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a leap year starting on Thursday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Josiah Willard Gibbs (February 11, 1839 New Haven – April 28, 1903 New Haven) was one of the very first American theoretical physicists and chemists. ... 1878 (MDCCCLXXVIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... In physics, a statistical ensemble is a very large set of similar systems, considered all at once. ... The thermodynamic free energy is a measure of the amount of mechanical (or other) work that can be extracted from a system, and is helpful in engineering applications. ... For other uses, see Chemical reaction (disambiguation). ... Willard Gibbs - founder of chemical thermodynamics In thermodynamics, chemical thermodynamics is the mathematical study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with a physical change of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics. ... Year 1881 (MDCCCLXXXI) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Thursday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... University of Helsinki is not to be confused with Helsinki University of Technology. ... Year 1889 (MDCCCLXXXIX) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Sunday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... IMD logo The India Meteorological Department is a government of India organisation that is responsible for meteorological observations, weather forecasts, detecting earthquakes etc. ... Cyclone Catarina, a rare South Atlantic tropical cyclone viewed from the International Space Station on March 26, 2004 Hurricane and Typhoon redirect here. ... For other uses, see Monsoon (disambiguation). ... Year 1890 (MDCCCXC) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar). ... The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is a scientific agency of the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the oceans and the atmosphere. ... The U.S. Department of Agriculture, also called the Agriculture Department, or USDA, is a Cabinet department of the United States Federal Government. ... 1892 (MDCCCXCII) was a leap year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... William Henry Dines (5 August 1855 – 24 December 1927) was an English meteorologist. ... A hemispherical cup anemometer of the type invented in 2000 by John Thomas Romney Robinson An anemometer is a device for measuring the velocity or the pressure of the wind, and is one instrument used in a weather station. ... Chart of ocean surface temperature anomaly [°C] during the last strong El Niño in December 1997 El Niño and La Niña (also written in English as El Nino and La Nina) are major temperature fluctuations in surface waters of the tropical Eastern Pacific Ocean. ... For other uses, see Lima (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Christmas (disambiguation). ... Year 1896 (MDCCCXCVI) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display calendar). ... Svante August Arrhenius (February 19, 1859 – October 2, 1927) was a Swedish chemist and one of the founders of the science of physical chemistry. ... Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom. ... Variations in CO2, temperature and dust from the Vostok ice core over the last 400 000 years For the animated movie, see Ice Age (movie). ... Year 1898 (MDCCCXCVIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ... This article is about weather phenomena. ...

20th century

• 1902 - Richard Assmann and Léon Teisserenc de Bort, two European scientists, independently discovered the stratosphere.^[25]
• 1904 - Vilhelm Bjerknes presents the vision that forecasting the weather is feasible based on mathematical methods.
• 1905 - Australian Bureau of Meteorology established by a Meteorology Act to unify existing state meteorological services.
• 1919 - Norwegian Cyclone Model introduced for the first time in meteorological literature. Marks a revolution in the way the atmosphere is conceived and immediately starts leading to improved forecasts. ^[26] Sakuhei Fujiwhara is the first to note that hurricanes move with the larger scale flow, and later publishes a paper on the Fujiwara Effect in 1921.^[17]
• 1920 - Milutin Milanković proposes that long term climatic cycles may be due to changes in the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit and changes in the Earth's obliquity.
• 1922 - Lewis Fry Richardson organises the first numerical weather prediction experiment.
• 1923 - The oscillation effects of ENSO were first erroneously described by Sir Gilbert Thomas Walker from whom the Walker circulation takes its name; now an important aspect of the Pacific ENSO phenomenon.
• 1924 - Gilbert Walker first coined the term "Southern Oscillation".
• 1930 January 30 - Pavel Molchanov invents and launches the first radiosonde. Named "271120", it was released 13:44 Moscow Time in Pavlovsk, USSR from the Main Geophysical Observatory, reached a height of 7.8 kilometers measuring temperature there (-40.7 °C) and sent the first aerological message to the Leningrad Weather Bureau and Moscow Central Forecast Institute.^[27]
• 1935 - IMO decides on the 30 years normal period (1900-1930) to describe the climate.
• 1937 - The U.S. Army Air Forces Weather Service was established (redesignated in 1946 as AWS-Air Weather Service).
• 1938 - Guy Stewart Callendar first to propose global warming from carbon dioxide emissions.
• 1939 - Rossby waves were first identified in the atmosphere by Carl-Gustaf Arvid Rossby who explained their motion. Rossby waves are a subset of inertial waves.
• 1941 - Pulsed radar network is implemented in England during WWII. Generally during the war, operators started noticing echoes from weather elements such as rain and snow.
• 1943 - 10 years after flying into the Washington Hoover Airport on mainly instruments during the August 1933 Chesapeake-Potomac hurricane^[28], J. B. Duckworth flies his airplane into a Gulf hurricane off the coast of Texas, proving to the military and meteorological community the utility of weather reconnaissance.^[17]
• 1944 - The Great Atlantic Hurricane is caught on radar near the Mid-Atlantic coast, the first such picture noted from the United States.^[17]
• 1948 - First correct tornado prediction by R. C. Miller and E. J. Fawbush for tornado in Oklahoma.

- Erik Palmén publishes his findings that hurricanes require surface water temperatures of at least 26°C (80°F) in order to form.

• 1950 - First successful numerical weather prediction experiment. Princeton University, group of Jule Gregory Charney on ENIAC.

- Hurricanes begin to be named alphabetically with the radio alphabet.

- WMO World Meteorological Organization replaces IMO under the auspice of the United Nations.

• 1953 - National Hurricane Center (NOAA) creates a system for naming hurricanes using alphabetical lists of women's names.
• 1954 - First routine real-time numerical weather forecasting. The Royal Swedish Air Force Weather Service.

- A United States Navy rocket captures a picture of an inland tropical depression near the Texas/Mexico border, which leads to a surprise flood event in New Mexico. This convinces the government to set up a weather satellite program.^[17]

• 1955 - Norman Phillips at Princeton University runs first Atmospheric General Circulation Model.

- NSSP National Severe Storms Project and NHRP National Hurricane Research Projects established. The Miami office of the United States Weather Bureau is designated the main hurricane warning center for the Atlantic Basin.^[17]

• 1957-1958 - International Geophysical Year coordinated research efforts in eleven sciences, focused on polar areas during the solar maximum.

The first television image of Earth from space from the TIROS-1 weather satellite.

• 1959 - The first weather satellite, Vanguard 2, was launched on 17 February. It was designed to measure cloud cover, but a poor axis of rotation kept it from collecting a notable amount of useful data.
• 1960 - The first weather satellite to be considered a success was TIROS-1, launched by NASA on 1 April. TIROS operated for 78 days and proved to be much more successful than Vanguard 2. TIROS paved the way for the Nimbus program, whose technology and findings are the heritage of most of the Earth-observing satellites NASA and NOAA have launched since then.^[17]
• 1961 - Edward Lorenz accidentally discovers Chaos theory when working on numerical weather prediction.
• 1962 - Keith Browning and Frank Ludlam publish first detailed study of a supercell storm (over Wokingham, UK). Project STORMFURY begins its 10-year project of seeding hurricanes with silver iodide, attempting to weaken the cyclones.^[17]
• 1968 - A hurricane database for Atlantic hurricanes is created for NASA by Charlie Newmann and John Hope, named HURDAT.^[17]
• 1969 - Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale created, used to describe hurricane strength on a category range of 1 to 5. Popularized during Hurricane Gloria of 1985 by media.

- Jacob Bjerknes described ENSO by suggesting that an anomalously warm spot in the eastern Pacific can weaken the east-west temperature difference, causing weakening in the Walker circulation and trade wind flows, which push warm water to the west.

• 1970s Weather radars are becoming more standardized and organized into networks. The number of scanned angles was increased to get a three-dimensional view of the precipitation, which allowed studies of thunderstorms. Experiments with the Doppler effect begin.
• 1970 - NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration established. Weather Bureau is renamed the National Weather Service.
• 1971 - Ted Fujita introduces the Fujita scale for rating tornadoes.
• 1974 - AMeDAS network, developed by Japan Meteorological Agency used for gathering regional weather data and verifying forecast performance, begun operation on November 1, the system consists of about 1,300 stations with automatic observation equipment. These stations, of which more than 1,100 are unmanned, are located at an average interval of 17 km throughout Japan.
• 1975 - The first Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite, GOES, was launched into orbit. Their role and design is to aid in hurricane tracking. Also this year, Vern Dvorak develops a scheme to estimate tropical cyclone intensity from satellite imagery.^[17]

- The first use of a General Circulation Model to study the effects of carbon dioxide doubling. Syukuro Manabe and Richard Wetherald at Princeton University.

• 1980s onwards, networks of weather radars are further expanded in the developed world. Doppler radar is becoming gradually more common, adds velocity information.
• 1982 - The first Synoptic Flow experiment is flown around Hurricane Debby to help define the large scale atmospheric winds that steer the storm.
• 1988 - WSR-88D type weather radar implemented in the United States. Weather surveillance radar that uses several modes to detect severe weather conditions.
• 1992 - Computers first used in the United States to draw surface analyses.
• 1997 - The Pacific Decadal Oscillation was named by Steven R. Hare, who noticed it while studying salmon production patterns. Simultaneously the PDO climate pattern was also found by Yuan Zhang.^[29]
• 1998 - Improving technology and software finally allows for the digital underlaying of satellite imagery, radar imagery, model data, and surface observations improving the quality of United States Surface Analyses.

- CAMEX3, a NASA experiment run in conjunction with NOAA's Hurricane Field Program collects detailed data sets on Hurricanes Bonnie, Danielle, and Georges.

• 1999 - Hurricane Floyd induces fright factor in some coastal States and causes a massive evacuation from coastal zones from northern Florida to the Carolinas. It comes ashore in North Carolina and results in nearly 80 dead and $4.5 billion in damages mostly due to extensive flooding.

Year 1902 (MCMII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Tuesday [1] of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Léon Philippe Teisserenc de Bort (November 5, 1855 in Paris, France – January 2, 1913 in Cannes, France) was a French meteorologist who became famous for his discovery of the stratosphere. ... Atmosphere diagram showing stratosphere. ... 1904 (MCMIV) was a leap year starting on a Friday (see link for calendar). ... Vilhelm Bjerknes Vilhelm Friman Koren Bjerknes (March 14, 1862 - April 9, 1951) was a Norwegian physicist and meteorologist who did much to found the modern practice of weather forecasting. ... For other uses, see 1905 (disambiguation). ... The Bureau of Meteorology is an Executive Agency of the Australian Government responsible for providing weather services to Australia and surrounding areas. ... Year 1919 (MCMXIX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar). ... 1920 (MCMXX) was a leap year starting on Thursday. ... Milutin Milanković (1879–1958) Milutin Milanković (Serbian Cyrillic: Милутин Миланковић) (also known as Milankovitch) (May 28, 1879, Dalj near Osijek, (Austria-Hungary) – December 12, 1958, Belgrade) was a Serbian geophysicist, best known for his theory of ice ages, relating variations of the Earths orbit and long-term climate change, now known... Milankovitch cycles are the collective effect of changes in the Earths movements upon its climate, named after Serbian civil engineer and mathematician Milutin Milanković. The eccentricity, axial tilt, and precession of the Earths orbit vary in several patterns, resulting in 100,000 year ice age cycles of the... Year 1922 (MCMXXII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... For the Hollyoaks character, see Lewis Richardson (Hollyoaks) Lewis Fry Richardson (October 11, 1881 - September 30, 1953) was an innovative mathematician, physicist and psychologist. ... Year 1923 (MCMXXIII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Chart of ocean surface temperature anomaly [°C] during the last strong El Niño in December 1997 ENSO (El Niño-Southern Oscillation) is a global coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon. ... Sir Gilbert Thomas Walker (1868-1958) was an English physicist and statistician of the 20th century. ... The Walker circulation is an atmospheric circulation of air at the equatorial Pacific Ocean, responsible for creating ocean upwelling off the coasts of Peru and Ecuador. ... For the rap album, see 1924 (album). ... Sir Gilbert Thomas Walker (1868-1958) was an English physicist and statistician of the 20th century. ... The Southern Oscillation refers to an oscillation in air pressure between the southeastern and southwestern Pacific waters. ... Year 1930 (MCMXXX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display 1930 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 30th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Pavel Molchanov Pavel Alexandrovich Molchanov (Russian: ) (February 18, 1893 [O.S. February 6] in Volosovo, Imperial Russia — October 1941, Leningrad, USSR) was a Soviet Russian meteorologist, who invented and launched for the first time radiosonde. ... radiosonde with measuring instruments A radiosonde (Sonde is German for probe) is a unit for use in weather balloons that measures various atmospheric parameters and transmits them to a fixed receiver. ... Time zones of Europe: Light colours indicate countries not observing daylight saving Moscow Time (Russian: ) is the time zone for the city of Moscow, Russia and most of western Russia, including Saint Petersburg, Russia. ... Pavlovsk (Russian: Павловск) is a town situated in the Leningrad oblast, Russia, 30 km from St. ... 1935 (MCMXXXV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar). ... The three-letter abbreviation IMO may have several meanings, depending on context: In My Opinion - USENET and internet chat slang. ... Year 1937 (MCMXXXVII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1938 (MCMXXXVIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Guy Stewart Callendar (Feb 1898 - Oct 1964) was an English steam engineer and inventor, but whose main contribution to knowledge was propounding the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature. ... Global warming refers to the increase in the average temperature of the Earths near-surface air and oceans in recent decades and its projected continuation. ... Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom. ... Year 1939 (MCMXXXIX) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Rossby (or planetary) waves are large-scale motions in the ocean or atmosphere whose restoring force is the variation in Coriolis effect with latitude. ... Carl-Gustav Arvid Rossby (December 28, 1898 – August 19, 1957) was a Swedish-US meteorologist who first explained the large_scale motions of the atmosphere in terms of fluid mechanics. ... Cross section of an inertial mode in a sphere. ... For other uses, see 1941 (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Radar (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see England (disambiguation). ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... Year 1943 (MCMXLIII) was a common year starting on Friday (the link will display full 1943 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... , Washington Hoover Airport in 1932 Hoover Field was the first airport for Washington, D.C. which opened in 1926. ... Year 1933 (MCMXXXIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1944 (MCMXLIV) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... 1944 Great Atlantic Hurricane - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... Year 1948 (MCMXLVIII) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the 1948 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Erik Palmén (1898-1985) was the most famous researcher of meteorology in Finland. ... Year 1950 (MCML) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Princeton University is a private coeducational research university located in Princeton, New Jersey. ... Jule Gregory Charney (January 1, 1917 – June 16, 1981) was an American meteorologist who played an important role in developing weather prediction. ... ENIAC ENIAC, short for Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer,[1] was the first large-scale, electronic, digital computer capable of being reprogrammed to solve a full range of computing problems,[2] although earlier computers had been built with some of these properties. ... A different kind of phonetic alphabet is the International Phonetic Alphabet. ... The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is an intergovernmental organization with a membership of 187 Member States and Territories. ... The three-letter abbreviation IMO may have several meanings, depending on context: In My Opinion - USENET and internet chat slang. ... UN and U.N. redirect here. ... January 7 - President Harry S. Truman announces the United States has developed a hydrogen bomb. ... The US National Hurricane Center is the division of National Weather Services Tropical Prediction Center responsible for tracking and predicting the likely behavior of tropical depressions, tropical storms and hurricanes. ... Year 1954 (MCMLIV) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Swedish Air Force, or Flygvapnet, is the air force branch of the Swedish Armed Forces, the military of Sweden. ... Year 1955 (MCMLV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays the 1955 Gregorian calendar). ... Princeton University is a private coeducational research university located in Princeton, New Jersey. ... Year 1957 (MCMLVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1957 Gregorian calendar). ... Jan. ... The International Geophysical Year or IGY was an international scientific effort that lasted from July 1, 1957, to December 31, 1958. ... Solar maximum or solar max is the period of greatest solar activity in the solar cycle of the sun. ... Download high resolution version (590x658, 236 KB)First TV image of Earth from space. ... Download high resolution version (590x658, 236 KB)First TV image of Earth from space. ... Year 1959 (MCMLIX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... // Vanguard 2 or Vanguard II was an earth-orbiting satellite designed to measure cloud-cover distribution over the daylight portion of its orbit. ... is the 48th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1960 (MCMLX) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... First TV image of Earth from space TIROS-1 (or TIROS-I) was the first successful weather satellite, and the first of a series of TIROS satellites. ... is the 91st day of the year (92nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Nimbus satellites were second-generation U.S. unmanned spacecraft for meteorological research and development. ... This article is about the American space agency. ... The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is a scientific agency of the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the oceans and the atmosphere. ... Year 1961 (MCMLXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Edward Norton Lorenz (born May 23, 1917), a research meteorologist at MIT, observed that minute variations in the initial values of variables in his primitive computer weather model (c. ... For other uses, see Chaos Theory (disambiguation). ... An example of 500 mb geopotential height prediction from a numerical weather prediction model Numerical weather prediction is the science of predicting the weather using mathematical models of the atmosphere. ... Year 1962 (MCMLXII) was a common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1962 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Keith Browning is a British meteorologist who worked at Imperial College, the Met Office and University of Reading department of meteorology. ... Year 1968 (MCMLXVIII) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... The name John Hope can refer to: John Hope, American educator John Hope, American meteorologist and hurricane forecaster John Hope, British political leader This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Also: 1969 (Stargate SG-1) episode. ... The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale is a scale classifying most Western Hemisphere tropical cyclones that exceed the intensities of tropical depressions and tropical storms, and thereby become hurricanes. ... This article lacks information on the subject matters importance. ... Chart of ocean surface temperature anomaly [°C] during the last strong El Niño in December 1997 ENSO (El Niño-Southern Oscillation) is a global coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon. ... The Walker circulation is an atmospheric circulation of air at the equatorial Pacific Ocean, responsible for creating ocean upwelling off the coasts of Peru and Ecuador. ... The 1970s decade refers to the years from 1970 to 1979, also called The Seventies. ... Weather radar in Norman, Oklahoma with rainshaft (Source: NOAA) Environment Canada King City (CWKR) weather radar station. ... A source of waves moving to the left. ... Year 1970 ([[Rf 1970 == January 1 - The Unix epoch begins at 00:00:00 UTC January 2 - The last studio performance of The Beatles oman numerals|MCMLXX]]) was a common year starting on Thursday (link shows full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is an agency of the United States Department of Commerce. ... Year 1971 (MCMLXXI) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar) of the 1971 Gregorian calendar. ... Tetsuya Theodore Fujita (藤田哲也, October 23, 1920–November 19, 1998) was one of the great severe storms researchers of the twentieth century. ... The Fujita scale (F-Scale), or Fujita-Pearson scale, rates a tornados intensity by the damage it inflicts on human-built structures and sometimes on vegetation. ... Year 1974 (MCMLXXIV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar) of the 1974 Gregorian calendar. ... AMeDAS (Automated Meteorological Data Acquisition System), commonly known in Japanese as アメダス (amedasu), is a high-resolution surface observation network developed by Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) used for gathering regional weather data and verifying forecast performance. ... Japan Meteorological Agency (気象庁) is a government agency, which is a central place responsible for gathering and reporting weather data and forecasts in Japan. ... is the 305th day of the year (306th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1975 (MCMLXXV) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) program is a key element in United States National Weather Service (NWS) operations. ... Syukuro Suki Manabe is a Japanese meteorologist who pioneered the use of computers to simulate global climate change and natural climate variations. ... Princeton University is a private coeducational research university located in Princeton, New Jersey. ... The 1980s refers to the years from 1980 to 1989. ... A developed country is a country that is technologically advanced and that enjoys a relatively high standard of living. ... Doppler Effect Doppler radar uses the Doppler effect to measure the radial velocity of targets in the antennas directional beam. ... Year 1982 (MCMLXXXII) was a common year starting on Friday (link displays the 1982 Gregorian calendar). ... Year 1988 (MCMLXXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Friday (link displays 1988 Gregorian calendar). ... Year 1992 (MCMXCII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1992 Gregorian calendar). ... For the band, see 1997 (band). ... The Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) is a pattern of Pacific climate variability that shifts phases on at least inter-decadal time scale, usually about 20 to 30 years. ... For other uses, see Salmon (disambiguation). ... Year 1998 (MCMXCVIII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar). ... This article is about the year. ...

21st century

• 2001 - National Weather Service begins to produce a Unified Surface Analysis, ending duplication of effort at the Tropical Prediction Center, Ocean Prediction Center, Hydrometeorological Prediction Center, as well as the National Weather Service offices in Anchorage, AK and Honolulu, HI. ^[30]
• 2003 - NOAA hurricane experts issue first experimental Eastern Pacific Hurricane Outlook.
• 2004 - A record number of hurricanes strike Florida in one year, Charley, Frances, Ivan, and Jeanne.
• 2005 - A record 27 named storms occur in the Atlantic. National Hurricane Center runs out of names from its standard list and uses Greek alphabet for the first time.
• 2007 - The Fujita scale is replaced with the Enhanced Fujita Scale for National Weather Service tornado assessments.

Year 2001 (MMI) was a common year starting on Monday (link displays the 2001 Gregorian calendar). ... The National Weather Service (NWS) is one of the six scientific agencies that make up the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the United States government. ... The U.S. National Hurricane Center is the division of National Weather Services Tropical Prediction Center responsible for tracking and predicting the likely behavior of tropical depressions, tropical storms and hurricanes. ... The Hydrometeorological Prediction Center is one of several Service Centers under the umbrella of the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP), operating under the control of the National Weather Service, which in turn is part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the U.S. government. ... The National Weather Service (NWS) is one of the six scientific agencies that make up the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the United States government. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... National Weather Service Logo The U.S. National Hurricane Center is the division of National Weather Services Tropical Prediction Center responsible for tracking and predicting the likely behavior of tropical depressions, tropical storms and hurricanes. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... The Fujita scale (F-Scale), or Fujita-Pearson scale, rates a tornados intensity by the damage it inflicts on human-built structures and sometimes on vegetation. ... The Enhanced Fujita Scale, or EF Scale, is the scale for rating the strength of tornadoes in the United States estimated via the damage they cause. ... This article is about the weather phenomenon. ...

See also

• list of Atlantic hurricane seasons
• list of environment topics:0-9
• list of North Indian Ocean cyclone seasons
• list of Pacific hurricane seasons
• list of Pacific typhoon seasons

... Cumulative track map of all North Indian ocean cyclones from 1970 to 2005 The following is a list of North Indian Ocean cyclone seasons. ... The following is a list of Pacific hurricane seasons. ... The following is a list of Pacific typhoon seasons. ...

References and Notes

1. ^ ^{a b} Aristotle [350 B.C.E] (2004). Meteorology (in English). The University of Adelaide Library, University of Adelaide, South Australia 5005: eBooks@Adelaide. “Translated by E. W. Webster” 
2. ^ Timeline of geography, paleontology (HTML) (English). Paleorama.com. “Following the path of Discovery”
3. ^ ^{a b c d} Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
4. ^ Robert Briffault (1938). The Making of Humanity, p. 191
5. ^ Robert E. Hall (1973). "Al-Biruni", Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Vol. VII, p. 336.
6. ^ ^{a b c d e} Jacobson, Mark Z. (June 2005). Fundamentals of Atmospheric Modeling (paperback), 2nd, New York: Cambridge University Press, 828. ISBN 9780521548656. 
7. ^ Morison, Samuel Eliot,Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Cristopher Columbus, Boston, 1942, page 617.
8. ^ Highlights in the study of snowflakes and snow crystals
9. ^ New Organon (1863 English translation)
10. ^ Florin to Pascal, September 1647,Œuves completes de Pascal, 2:682.
11. ^ Thomas Birch's History of the Royal Society is one of the most important sources of our knowledge not only of the origins of the Society, but also the day to day running of the Society. It is in these records that the majority of Wren’s scientific works are recorded.
12. ^ Cook, Alan H., Edmond Halley: Charting the Heavens and the Seas (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998)
13. ^ Grigull, U., Fahrenheit, a Pioneer of Exact Thermometry. Heat Transfer, 1966, The Proceedings of the 8th International Heat Transfer Conference, San Francisco, 1966, Vol. 1.
14. ^ George Hadley, “Concerning the cause of the general trade winds,” Philosophical Transactions, vol. 39 (1735).
15. ^ O'Connor, John J; Edmund F. Robertson "Timeline of meteorology". MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.  
16. ^ Beckman, Olof,History of the Celsius temperature scale., translated, Anders Celsius (Elementa,84:4,2001); English
17. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n} Dorst, Neal, FAQ:_Hurricanes,_Typhoons,_and_Tropical_Cyclones:_Hurricane_Timeline, Hurricane_Research_Division,_Atlantic_Oceanographic_and_Meteorological_Laboratory,_NOAA, January 2006.
18. ^ Biographical note at “Lectures and Papers of Professor Daniel Rutherford (1749–1819), and Diary of Mrs Harriet Rutherford”.
19. ^ "Sur la combustion en général" ("On Combustion in general," 1777) and "Considérations Générales sur la Nature des Acides" ("General Considerations on the Nature of Acids," 1778).
20. ^ Lavoisier, ("Reflections on Phlogiston," 1783).
21. ^ Lavoisier, Antoine, Elements of Chemistry, Dover Publications Inc., New York, NY,1965, 511 pages.
22. ^ The 1880 edition of A Guide to the Scientific Knowledge of Things Familiar, a 19th century educational science book, explained heat transfer in terms of the flow of caloric.
23. ^ David M. Schultz. Perspectives on Fred Sanders's Research on Cold Fronts, 2003, revised, 2004, 2006, p. 5. Retrieved on 2006-07-14.
24. ^ Millikan, Frank Rives, JOSEPH_HENRY:_Father_of_Weather_Service, 1997, Smithsonian Institution
25. ^ Reynolds, Ross (2005). Guide to Weather (paperback) (in English), Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books Ltd., 208. ISBN 1554071100. 
26. ^ Norwegian_Cyclone_Model, webpage from NOAA Jetstream online school for weather.
27. ^ 75th anniversary of starting aerological observations in Russia (Russian). EpizodSpace.
28. ^ Roth, David, and Hugh Cobb, Virginia_Hurricane_History:_Early_Twentieth_Century, July 16, 2001.
29. ^ Nathan J. Mantua, Steven R. Hare, Yuan Zhang, John M. Wallace, and Robert C. Francis (June 1997). "A Pacific interdecadal climate oscillation with impacts on salmon production". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 78: 1069–1079. 
30. ^ Unified_Surface_Analysis_Manual.

Robert Briffault (1876 - 11 December 1948) was a French novelist, social anthropologist and surgeon. ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... Thomas Birch (November 23, 1705 - January 9, 1766), English historian, son of Joseph Birch, a coffee-mill maker, was born at Clerkenwell. ... The MacTutor history of mathematics archive is a website hosted by University of St Andrews in Scotland. ... Year 1880 (MDCCCLXXX) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Tuesday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... A Guide to the Scientific Knowledge of Things Familiar, also known as The Guide to Science or Dr. Brewers Guide to Science, is a book by Ebenezer Cobham Brewer presenting scientific explanations for common phenomena of life. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 195th day of the year (196th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is a scientific agency of the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the oceans and the atmosphere. ...