The old Steel cable of a colliery winding tower

Steel is a metal alloy whose major component is iron, with carbon content between 0.02% and 1.7% by weight. Carbon is the most cost effective alloying material for iron, but many other alloying elements are also used.^[1] Carbon and other elements act as a hardening agent, preventing dislocations in the iron atom crystal lattice from sliding past one another. Varying the amount of alloying elements and their distribution in the steel controls qualities such as the hardness, elasticity, ductility, and tensile strength of the resulting steel. Steel with increased carbon content can be made harder and stronger than iron, but is also more brittle. The maximum solubility of carbon in iron is 1.7% by weight, occurring at 1130° Celsius; higher concentrations of carbon or lower temperatures will produce cementite which will reduce the material's strength. Alloys with higher carbon content than this are known as cast iron because of their lower melting point.^[1] Steel is also to be distinguished from wrought iron with little or no carbon, usually less than 0.035%. It is common today to talk about 'the iron and steel industry' as if it were a single thing; it is today, but historically they were separate products. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1366x1708, 2319 KB) Description: Steel Wire rope of the the German colliery Zeche Zollern headgear Source: Taken with an OLYMPUS C2500L Date: 16. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1366x1708, 2319 KB) Description: Steel Wire rope of the the German colliery Zeche Zollern headgear Source: Taken with an OLYMPUS C2500L Date: 16. ... Hot metal work from a blacksmith In chemistry, a metal (Greek: Metallon) is an element that readily forms positive ions (cations) and has metallic bonds. ... An alloy is a combination, either in solution or compound, of two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal, and where the resulting material has metallic properties. ... General Name, Symbol, Number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Atomic mass 55. ... General Name, Symbol, Number carbon, C, 6 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 14, 2, p Appearance black (graphite) colorless (diamond) Atomic mass 12. ... In materials science, a dislocation is a linear crystallographic defect, or irregularity, within a crystal structure. ... In mineralogy and crystallography, a crystal structure is a unique arrangement of atoms in a crystal. ... In materials science, hardness is the characteristic of a solid material expressing its resistance to permanent deformation. ... Elasticity has meanings in two different fields: In physics and mechanical engineering, the theory of elasticity describes how a solid object moves and deforms in response to external stress. ... Ductility is the physical property of being capable of sustaining large plastic deformations without fracture (in metals, such as being drawn into a wire). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Strength of materials. ... A material is brittle if it is subject to fracture when subjected to stress i. ... Cementite or iron carbide is a chemical compound with the formula Fe3C, and an orthorhombic crystal structure. ... Cast iron usually refers to grey cast iron, but can mean any of a group of iron-based alloys containing more than 2% carbon (alloys with less carbon are carbon steel by definition). ... A wrought iron railing in Troy, New York. ...

Currently there are several classes of steels in which carbon is replaced with other alloying materials, and carbon, if present, is undesired. A more recent definition is that steels are iron-based alloys that can be plastically formed (pounded, rolled, etc.). In physics and materials science, plasticity is a property of a material to undergo a non-reversible change of shape in response to an applied force. ...

Iron and steel

Iron ore pellets for the production of steel

Iron, like most metals, is not found in the Earth's crust in an elemental state. Iron can be found in the crust only in combination with oxygen or sulfur. Typically Fe₂O₃—the form of iron oxide (rust) found as the mineral hematite, and FeS₂—Pyrite (fool's gold). Iron oxide is a soft sandstone-like material with limited uses on its own. Iron is extracted from ore by removing the oxygen by combining it with a preferred chemical partner such as carbon. This process, known as smelting, was first applied to metals with lower melting points. Copper melts at just over 1000 °C, while tin melts around 250 °C. Steel melts at around 1370 °C. Both temperatures could be reached with ancient methods that have been used for at least 6000 years (since the Bronze Age). Since the oxidation rate itself increases rapidly beyond 800 °C, it is important that smelting take place in a low-oxygen environment. Unlike copper and tin, liquid iron dissolves carbon quite readily, so that smelting results in an alloy containing too much carbon to be called steel. Image:LightningVolt Iron Ore Pellets. ... Image:LightningVolt Iron Ore Pellets. ... This heap of iron ore pellets will be used in steel production. ... General Name, Symbol, Number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Atomic mass 55. ... Earth (IPA: , often referred to as the Earth, Terra, the World or Planet Earth) is the third planet in the solar system in terms of distance from the Sun, and the fifth largest. ... Look up Crust in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... General Name, Symbol, Number oxygen, O, 8 Chemical series Nonmetals, chalcogens Group, Period, Block 16, 2, p Appearance colorless (gas) very pale blue (liquid) Atomic mass 15. ... General Name, Symbol, Number sulfur, S, 16 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 16, 3, p Appearance lemon yellow Atomic mass 32. ... Iron oxide pigment There are a number of iron oxides: Iron oxides Iron(II) oxide or ferrous oxide (FeO) The black-coloured powder in particular can cause explosions as it readily ignites. ... Minerals are natural compounds formed through geological processes. ... Hematite (AE) or haematite (BE) is the mineral form of Iron(III) oxide, (Fe2O3), one of several iron oxides. ... This article is about the mineral Pyrite or Fools Gold. ... Red sandstone interior of Lower Antelope Canyon, Arizona, worn smooth due to erosion by flash flooding over millions of years Sandstone is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-size mineral or rock grains. ... Iron ore (Banded iron formation) Manganese ore Lead ore Gold ore An ore is a volume of rock containing components or minerals in a mode of occurrence which renders it valuable for mining. ... Electric phosphate smelting furnace in a TVA chemical plant (1942) Chemical reduction, or smelting, is a form of extractive metallurgy. ... In physics, melting is the process of heating a solid substance to a point (called the melting point) where it turns liquid. ... General Name, Symbol, Number copper, Cu, 29 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 4, d Appearance metallic pinkish red Atomic mass 63. ... Celsius is, or relates to, the Celsius temperature scale. ... General Name, Symbol, Number tin, Sn, 50 Chemical series poor metals Group, Period, Block 14, 5, p Appearance silvery lustrous gray Atomic mass 118. ... The Bronze Age is a period in a civilizations development when the most advanced metalworking has developed the techniques of smelting copper from natural outcroppings and alloys it to cast bronze. ...

Iron-carbon phase diagram, showing the conditions necessary to form different phases

Even in the narrow range of concentrations that make up steel, mixtures of carbon and iron can form into a number of different structures, or allotropes, with very different properties; understanding these is essential to making quality steel. At room temperature, the most stable form of iron is the body-centered cubic (BCC) structure ferrite or α-iron, a fairly soft metallic material that can dissolve only a small concentration of carbon (no more than 0.021 wt% at 910 °C). Above 910 °C ferrite undergoes a phase transition from body-centered cubic to a face-centered cubic (FCC) structure, called austenite or γ-iron, which is similarly soft and metallic but can dissolve considerably more carbon (as much as 2.03 wt% carbon at 1154 °C).^[2] As carbon-rich austenite cools, the mixture attempts to revert to the ferrite phase, resulting in an excess of carbon. One way for carbon to leave the austenite is for cementite to precipitate out of the mix, leaving behind iron that is pure enough to take the form of ferrite, and resulting in a cementite-ferrite mixture. Cementite is a stoichiometric phase with the chemical formula of Fe₃C. Cementite forms in regions of higher carbon content while other areas revert to ferrite around it. Self-reinforcing patterns often emerge during this process, leading to a patterned layering known as pearlite due to its pearl-like appearance, or the similar but less beautiful bainite. Image File history File links Phase_diag_iron_carbon-color_temp. ... Image File history File links Phase_diag_iron_carbon-color_temp. ... In physical chemistry and materials science, a phase diagram is a type of graph used to show the equilibrium conditions between the thermodynamically-distinct phases. ... Allotropy (Gr. ... In crystallography, the cubic crystal system is the most symmetric of the 7 crystal systems. ... Iron-carbon phase diagram, showing the conditions under which ferrite (α) is stable. ... In physics, a phase transition, (or phase change) is the transformation of a thermodynamic system from one phase to another. ... In crystallography, the cubic crystal system is the most symmetric of the 7 crystal systems. ... In crystallography, the cubic crystal system is the most symmetric of the 7 crystal systems. ... Iron-carbon phase diagram, showing the conditions under which austenite (γ) is stable in carbon steel. ... Cementite or iron carbide is a chemical compound with the formula Fe3C, and an orthorhombic crystal structure. ... [[Media:[[Media: == Stoichiometry (sometimes called reaction stoichiometry to distinguish it from composition stoichiometry) is the calculation of quantitative (measurable) relationships of the reactants and products in chemical reactions (chemical equations). ... Pearlite occurs at the eutectoid of the iron-carbon phase diagram (near the lower left). ... White pearls strung on a necklace A pearl is a hard, rounded object produced by certain animals, primarily mollusks such as oysters. ... Iron-carbon phase diagram, showing the eutectoid temperature and composition, at which bainite can form. ...

Perhaps the most important allotrope is martensite, a chemically metastable substance with about four to five times the strength of ferrite. A minimum of 0.4 wt% of carbon is needed in order to form martensite. When the austenite is quenched to form martensite, the carbon is "frozen" in place when the cell structure changes from FCC to BCC. The carbon atoms are much too large to fit in the interstitial vaccancies and thus distort the cell structure into a Body Centered Tetragonal (BCT) structure. Martensite and austenite have an identical chemical composition. As such, it requires extremely little thermal activation energy to form. Martensite, named after the German metallurgist Adolf Martens, is a class of hard minerals occurring as lathe- or plate-shaped crystals. ... Metastability is the ability of a non-equilibrium state to persist for a long period of time. ... The sparks generated by striking steel against a flint provide the activation energy to initiate combustion in this Bunsen burner. ...

The heat treatment process for most steels involves heating the alloy until austenite forms, then quenching the hot metal in water or oil, cooling it so rapidly that the transformation to ferrite or pearlite does not have time to take place. The transformation into martensite, by contrast, occurs almost immediately, due to a lower activation energy. Quenching is a general term for non-radiative de-excitation. ... Water is a tasteless, odourless substance that is essential to all known forms of life and is known as the universal solvent. ... Natural olive oil Synthetic motor oil Oil, in a general sense, is a chemical compound that is not miscible with water, and is in a liquid state at ambient temperatures. ...

Martensite has a lower density than austenite, so that the transformation between them results in a change of volume. In this case, expansion occurs. Internal stresses from this expansion generally take the form of compression on the crystals of martensite and tension on the remaining ferrite, with a fair amount of shear on both constituents. If quenching is done improperly, these internal stresses can cause a part to shatter as it cools; at the very least, they cause internal work hardening and other microscopic imperfections. It is common for quench cracks to form when water quenched, although they may not always be visible. Physical compression is the result of the subjection of a material to compressive stress, resulting in reduction of volume. ... Tension is a reaction force applied by a stretched string (rope or a similar object) on the objects which stretch it. ... In physics and mechanics, shear refers to a deformation that causes parallel surfaces to slide past one another (as opposed to compression and tension, which cause parallel surfaces to move towards or away from one another). ... Work hardening, or strain hardening, is an increase in mechanical strength due to plastic deformation. ...

At this point, if the carbon content is high enough to produce a significant concentration of martensite, the result is an extremely hard but very brittle material. Often, steel undergoes further heat treatment at a lower temperature to destroy some of the martensite (by allowing enough time for cementite, etc., to form) and help settle the internal stresses and defects. This softens the steel, producing a more ductile and fracture-resistant metal. Because time is so critical to the end result, this process is known as tempering, which forms tempered steel. Tempering is a heat treatment technique for metals and alloys. ...

Other materials are often added to the iron-carbon mixture to tailor the resulting properties. Nickel and manganese in steel add to its tensile strength and make austenite more chemically stable, chromium increases the hardness and melting temperature, and vanadium also increases the hardness while reducing the effects of metal fatigue. Large amounts of chromium and nickel (often 18% and 8%, respectively) are added to stainless steel so that a hard oxide forms on the metal surface to inhibit corrosion. Tungsten interferes with the formation of cementite, allowing martensite to form with slower quench rates, resulting in high speed steel. On the other hand sulfur, nitrogen, and phosphorus make steel more brittle, so these commonly found elements must be removed from the ore during processing. General Name, Symbol, Number nickel, Ni, 28 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 10, 4, d Appearance lustrous, metallic Atomic mass 58. ... General Name, Symbol, Number manganese, Mn, 25 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 7, 4, d Appearance silvery metallic Atomic mass 54. ... General Name, Symbol, Number chromium, Cr, 24 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 6, 4, d Appearance silvery metallic Atomic mass 51. ... General Name, Symbol, Number vanadium, V, 23 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 5, 4, d Appearance silver-grey metal Atomic mass 50. ... In materials science, hardness is the characteristic of a solid material expressing its resistance to permanent deformation. ... Metal Fatigue is a 1999 real-time strategy and mecha computer game developed by Zono, Inc and released by Psygnosis. ... The 630 foot high, stainless-clad (type 304) Gateway Arch defines St. ... Passivation is the process of making a material passive in relation to another material prior to using the materials together. ... General Name, Symbol, Number tungsten, W, 74 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 6, 6, d Appearance grayish white, lustrous Atomic mass 183. ... High speed steel (HSS) is a material usually used in the manufacture of machine tool bits and cutters. ... General Name, Symbol, Number sulfur, S, 16 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 16, 3, p Appearance lemon yellow Atomic mass 32. ... General Name, Symbol, Number nitrogen, N, 7 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 15, 2, p Appearance colorless Atomic mass 14. ... General Name, Symbol, Number phosphorus, P, 15 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 15, 3, p Appearance waxy white/ red/ black/ colorless Atomic mass 30. ...

When iron is smelted from its ore by commercial processes, it contains more carbon than is desirable. To become steel, it must be melted and reprocessed to remove the correct amount of carbon, at which point other elements can be added. Once this liquid is cast into ingots, it usually must be "worked" at high temperature to remove any cracks or poorly mixed regions from the solidification process, and to produce shapes such as plate, sheet, wire, etc. It is then heat-treated to produce a desirable crystal structure, and often "cold worked" to produce the final shape. In modern steelmaking these processes are often combined, with ore going in one end of the assembly line and finished steel coming out the other. These can be streamlined by a deft control of the interaction between work hardening and tempering. 1913 Ford Model T assembly line. ... Work hardening, or strain hardening, is an increase in mechanical strength due to plastic deformation. ...

History of iron and steelmaking

It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Iron#History. (Discuss)

It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Cast_iron#Historical_Uses. (Discuss)

Iron was in limited use long before it became possible to smelt it. The first signs of iron use come from Ancient Egypt and Sumer, where around 4000 BC small items, such as the tips of spears and ornaments, were being fashioned from iron recovered from meteorites (see Iron: History). About 6% of meteorites are composed of an iron-nickel alloy, and iron recovered from meteorite falls allowed ancient peoples to manufacture small numbers of iron artifacts. Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... General Name, Symbol, Number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Atomic mass 55. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Cast iron usually refers to grey cast iron, but can mean any of a group of iron-based alloys containing more than 2% carbon (alloys with less carbon are carbon steel by definition). ... General Name, Symbol, Number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Atomic mass 55. ... Khafres Pyramid (4th dynasty) and Great Sphinx of Giza (c. ... Sumer (or Shumer, Egyptian Sangar, Bib. ... (5th millennium BC – 4th millennium BC – 3rd millennium BC - other millennia) Events City of Ur in Mesopotamia (40th century BC). ... A spear is an ancient weapon, used for hunting and war. ... A meteorite is an extraterrestrial body that survives its impact with the Earths surface without being destroyed. ... General Name, Symbol, Number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Atomic mass 55. ... A meteorite is an extraterrestrial body that survives its impact with the Earths surface without being destroyed. ... General Name, Symbol, Number nickel, Ni, 28 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 10, 4, d Appearance lustrous, metallic Atomic mass 58. ...

Meteoric iron was also fashioned into tools in precontact North America. Beginning around the year 1000, the Thule people of Greenland began making harpoons and other edged tools from pieces of the Cape York meteorite. These artifacts were also used as trade goods with other Arctic peoples: tools made from the Cape York meteorite have been found in archaeological sites more than 1000 miles (1600 km) away. When the American polar explorer Robert Peary shipped the largest piece of the meteorite to the American Museum of Natural History in New York City in 1897, it still weighed over 33 tons. World map showing North America A satellite composite image of North America. ... // Events World Population 300 million. ... Thule as Tile on the Carta Marina by Olaus Magnus. ... Whaling harpoon. ... The Cape York meteorite, which collided with Earth nearly 10,000 years ago, is named for Cape York, the location of its discovery in Greenland, and is one of the largest meteorites in the world. ... Robert Edwin Peary (1856-1920) Robert Edwin Peary (May 6, 1856 – February 20, 1920) was an American explorer who claimed to have been the first person, on April 6, 1909, to reach the geographic North Pole Peary, born in Pittsburgh area town of Cresson, Pennsylvania, was a graduate of Bowdoin... The American Museum of Natural History is a landmark of Manhattans Upper West Side in New York, USA, at 79th Street and Central Park West. ... Nickname: Big Apple, City that never Sleeps Location in the state of New York Coordinates: Country United States State New York Boroughs Bronx (The Bronx) New York (Manhattan) Queens (Queens) Kings (Brooklyn) Richmond (Staten Island) Mayor Michael Bloomberg (R) Area    - City 1,214. ... 1897 (MDCCCXCVII) was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... The word ton or tonne is derived from the Old English tunne, and ultimately from the Old French tonne, and referred originally to a large cask with a capacity of 252 wine gallons, which holds approximately 2100 pounds of water. ...

The name for iron in several ancient languages means "sky metal" or something similar. In distant antiquity, iron was regarded as a precious metal, suitable for royal ornaments.

Presently iron is the most recycled substance on the planet. The international symbol for recycling. ...

Iron axehead from Swedish Iron Age, found at Gotland, Sweden

PD image, from Swedish Wikipedia This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... PD image, from Swedish Wikipedia This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ...

The Iron Age

Beginning between 3000 BC to 2000 BC increasing numbers of smelted iron objects (distinguishable from meteoric iron by their lack of nickel) appear in Anatolia, Egypt and Mesopotamia (see Iron: History). The oldest known samples of iron that appear to have been smelted from iron oxides are small lumps found at copper-smelting sites on the Sinai Peninsula, dated to about 3000 BC. Some iron oxides are effective fluxes for copper smelting; it is possible that small amounts of metallic iron were made as a by-product of copper and bronze production throughout the Bronze Age. (31st century BC - 30th century BC - 29th century BC - other centuries) (4th millennium BC - 3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC) Events 2925 - 2776 BC - First Dynasty wars in Egypt 2900 BC - Beginning of the Early Dynastic Period I in Mesopotamia. ... (Redirected from 2000 BC) (21st century BC - 20th century BC - 19th century BC - other centuries) (3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC) Events 2064 - 1986 BC -- Twin Dynasty wars in Egypt 2000 BC -- Farmers and herders travel south from Ethiopia and settle in Kenya. ... Electric phosphate smelting furnace in a TVA chemical plant (1942) Chemical reduction, or smelting, is a form of extractive metallurgy. ... General Name, Symbol, Number nickel, Ni, 28 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 10, 4, d Appearance lustrous, metallic Atomic mass 58. ... Anatolia lies east of the Bosphorus, between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Anatolia is a peninsula of Western Asia which forms the greater part of the Asian portion of Turkey, as opposed to the European portion (Thrace, or traditionally Rumelia). ... Mesopotamia refers to the region now occupied by modern Iraq, eastern Syria, southeastern Turkey, and Southwest Iran. ... General Name, Symbol, Number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Atomic mass 55. ... Iron oxide pigment There are a number of iron oxides: Iron oxides Iron(II) oxide or ferrous oxide (FeO) The black-coloured powder in particular can cause explosions as it readily ignites. ... Sinai Peninsula, Gulf of Suez (west), Gulf of Aqaba (east) from Space Shuttle STS-40 For other uses of the word Sinai, please see: Sinai (disambiguation). ...

In Anatolia, smelted iron was occasionally used for ornamental weapons: an iron-bladed dagger with a bronze hilt has been recovered from a Hattic tomb dating from 2500 BC. Also, the Egyptian ruler Tutankhamun died in 1323 BC and was buried with an iron dagger with a golden hilt. An Ancient Egyptian sword bearing the name of pharaoh Merneptah as well as a battle axe with an iron blade and gold-decorated bronze haft were both found in the excavation of Ugarit (see Ugarit). The early Hittites are known to have bartered iron for silver, at a rate of 40 times the iron's weight, with Assyria. Anatolia lies east of the Bosphorus, between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Anatolia is a peninsula of Western Asia which forms the greater part of the Asian portion of Turkey, as opposed to the European portion (Thrace, or traditionally Rumelia). ... Hatti is the reconstructed ancient name of a region in Anatolia inhabited by the Hattians between the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC, and later by the Hittites, who were at the height of their power ca 1400 BC–1200 BC. The capital city of both peoples was Hattusa (modern... (Redirected from 2500 BC) (26th century BC - 25th century BC - 24th century BC - other centuries) (4th millennium BC - 3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC) Events 2900 - 2334 BC -- Mesopotamian wars of the Early Dynastic period 2494 BC -- End of Fourth Dynasty, start of Fifth Dynasty in Egypt. ... Nebkheperure Lord of the forms of Re Nomen Tutankhaten Living Image of the Aten Tutankhamun Hekaiunushema Living Image of Amun, ruler of Upper Heliopolis Horus name Kanakht Tutmesut The strong bull, pleasing of birth Nebty name Neferhepusegerehtawy One of perfect laws, who pacifies the two lands[1] Wer-Ah-Amun... (Redirected from 1323 BC) Centuries: 15th century BC - 14th century BC - 13th century BC Decades: 1370s BC 1360s BC 1350s BC 1340s BC 1330s BC - 1320s BC - 1310s BC 1300s BC 1290s BC 1280s BC 1270s BC Events and Trends Egypt: End of Eighteenth Dynasty, start of Nineteenth Dynasty (1320... Map of Ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt was the civilization of the Nile Valley between about 3000 BC and the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great in 332 BC. As a civilization based on irrigation it is the quintessential example of an hydraulic empire. ... Swiss longsword, 15th or 16th century Look up Sword in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Pharaoh is a title used to refer to any ruler, usually male, of the Egyptian kingdom in the pre-Christian, pre-Islamic period. ... Merneptah (occasionally: Merenptah) was pharaoh of Ancient Egypt (1213 – 1203 BC), the fourth ruler of the 19th Dynasty. ... Swedish halberds from 16th century A halberd is a two-handed pole weapon that came to prominent use during the 14th and 15th centuries. ... Entrance to the Palace of Ugarit Ugarit (modern site Ras Shamra رأس شمرة; in Arabic) 35°35´ N; 35°45´E) was an ancient cosmopolitan port city, sited on the Mediterranean coast of northern Syria a few kilometers north of the modern city of Latakia. ... Entrance to the Palace of Ugarit Ugarit (modern site Ras Shamra رأس شمرة; in Arabic) 35°35´ N; 35°45´E) was an ancient cosmopolitan port city, sited on the Mediterranean coast of northern Syria a few kilometers north of the modern city of Latakia. ... Relief of Suppiluliuma II, last known king of the Hittite Empire The Hittites were an ancient people who spoke an Indo-European language, and established a kingdom centered at Hattusa (Hittite URU) in north-central Anatolia from the 18th century BC. In the 14th century BC, the Hittite empire was... Barter is a type of trade in which goods or services are exchanged for other goods and/or services; no money is involved in the transaction. ... General Name, Symbol, Number silver, Ag, 47 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 5, d Appearance lustrous white metal Atomic mass 107. ... Relief from Assyrian capital of Dur Sharrukin, showing transport of Lebanese cedar (8th c. ...

Iron did not, however, replace bronze as the chief metal used for weapons and tools for several centuries, despite some attempts. Working iron required more fuel and significantly more labor than working bronze, and the quality of iron produced by early smiths may have been inferior to bronze as a material for tools. Then, between 1200 and 1000 BC, iron tools and weapons displaced bronze ones throughout the near east. This process appears to have begun in the Hittite Empire around 1300 BC, or in Cyprus and southern Greece, where iron artifacts dominate the archaeological record after 1050 BC. Mesopotamia was fully into the Iron Age by 900 BC, central Europe by 800 BC. The reason for this sudden adoption of iron remains a topic of debate among archaeologists. One prominent theory is that warfare and mass migrations beginning around 1200 BC disrupted the regional tin trade, forcing a switch from bronze to iron. Egypt, on the other hand, did not experience such a rapid transition from the bronze to iron ages: although Egyptian smiths did produce iron artifacts, bronze remained in widespread use there until after Egypt's conquest by Assyria in 663 BC. (Redirected from 1200 BC) Centuries: 14th century BC - 13th century BC - 12th century BC Decades: 1250s BC 1240s BC 1230s BC 1220s BC 1210s BC - 1200s BC - 1190s BC 1180s BC 1170s BC 1160s BC 1150s BC Events and Trends 1204 BC - Theseus, legendary King of Athens is deposed after... (Redirected from 1000 BC) Centuries: 12th century BC - 11th century BC - 10th century BC Decades: 1050s BC 1040s BC 1030s BC 1020s BC 1010s BC - 1000s BC - 990s BC 980s BC 970s BC 960s BC 950s BC Events and Trends 1006 BC - David becomes king of the ancient Israelites (traditional... Hittites is the conventional English-language term for an ancient people who spoke an Indo-European language and established a kingdom centered in Hattusa (the modern village of Boğazköy in todayss north-central Turkey), through most of the second millennium BC. The Hittite kingdom, which at... (Redirected from 1300 BC) Centuries: 15th century BC - 14th century BC - 13th century BC Decades: 1350s BC 1340s BC 1330s BC 1320s BC 1310s BC - 1300s BC - 1290s BC 1280s BC 1270s BC 1260s BC 1250s BC Events and Trends Cecrops II, legendary King of Athens dies after a reign... (Redirected from 1050 BC) Centuries: 12th century BC - 11th century BC - 10th century BC Decades: 1100s BC 1090s BC 1080s BC 1070s BC 1060s BC - 1050s BC - 1040s BC 1030s BC 1020s BC 1010s BC 1000s BC Events and Trends 1053 BC - Death of Zhou kang wang, King of the... Mesopotamia refers to the region now occupied by modern Iraq, eastern Syria, southeastern Turkey, and Southwest Iran. ... Centuries: 11th century BC - 10th century BC - 9th century BC Decades: 950s BC 940s BC 930s BC 920s BC 910s BC - 900s BC - 890s BC 880s BC 870s BC 860s BC 850s BC Events and Trends 909 BC - Zhou xiao wang becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China. ... Centuries: 10th century BC - 9th century BC - 8th century BC Decades: 850s BC 840s BC 830s BC 820s BC 810s BC - 800s BC - 790s BC 780s BC 770s BC 760s BC 750s BC Events and Trends 804 BC - Hadad-nirari IV of Assyria conquers Damascus. ... Relief from Assyrian capital of Dur Sharrukin, showing transport of Lebanese cedar (8th c. ... Centuries: 8th century BC - 7th century BC - 6th century BC Decades: 710s BC 700s BC 690s BC 680s BC 670s BC - 660s BC - 650s BC 640s BC 630s BC 620s BC 610s BC Events and Trends 668 BC - Egypt revolts against Assyria 668 BC - Assurbanipal succeeds Esarhaddon as king of...

Iron smelting at this time was based on the bloomery, a furnace where bellows were used to force air through a pile of iron ore and burning charcoal. The carbon monoxide produced by the charcoal reduced the iron oxides to metallic iron, but the bloomery was not hot enough to melt the iron. Instead, the iron collected in the bottom of the furnace as a spongy mass, or bloom, whose pores were filled with ash and slag. The bloom then had to be reheated to soften the iron and melt the slag, and then repeatedly beaten and folded to force the molten slag out of it. The result of this time-consuming and laborious process was wrought iron, a malleable but fairly soft alloy containing little carbon. A bloomery is a type of furnace once widely used for smelting iron from its oxides. ... Hand bellows The bellows is a device for delivering pressured air in a controlled quantity to a controlled location. ... Charcoal is the blackish residue consisting of impure carbon obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances. ... Carbon monoxide,with the chemical formula CO, is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas. ... A wrought iron railing in Troy, New York. ...

Wrought iron can be carburized into a mild steel by holding it in a charcoal fire for prolonged periods of time. By the beginning of the Iron Age, smiths had discovered that iron that was repeatedly reforged produced a higher quality of metal. Quench-hardening was also known by this time. The oldest quench-hardened steel artifact is a knife found on Cyprus at a site dated to 1100 BC. Carburization (often referred to as carburizing) is the name of the process by which carbon is introduced into a metal. ... A quench refers to a rapid cooling. ... (Redirected from 1100 BC) Centuries: 13th century BC - 12th century BC - 11th century BC Decades: 1150s BC 1140s BC 1130s BC 1120s BC 1110s BC - 1100s BC - 1090s BC 1080s BC 1070s BC 1060s BC 1050s BC Events and Trends 1100 BC - Tiglath-Pileser I of Assyria conquers the Hittites...

Developments in China

Archaeologists and historians debate whether bloomery-based ironworking ever spread to China from the Middle East. Around 500 BC, however, metalworkers in the southern state of Wu developed an iron smelting technology that would not be practiced in Europe until late medieval times. In Wu, iron smelters achieved a temperature of 1130°C, hot enough to be considered a blast furnace. At this temperature, iron combines with 4.3% carbon and melts. As a liquid, iron can be cast into molds, a method far less laborious than individually forging each piece of iron from a bloom. Centuries: 7th century BC - 6th century BC - 5th century BC Decades: 550s BC - 540s BC - 530s BC - 520s BC - 510s BC - 500s BC - 490s BC - 480s BC - 470s BC - 460s BC - 450s BC Events and Trends 509 BC - Foundation of the Roman Republic 508 BC - Office of pontifex maximus created... Wu was a state during the Spring and Autumn Period in China. ... It has been suggested that Old Furnace, Ironbridge be merged into this article or section. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... One half of a bronze mould for casting a socketed spear head dated to the period 1400-1000 BC. There are no known parallels for this mould. ...

Cast iron is rather brittle and unsuitable for striking implements. It can, however, be decarburized to steel or wrought iron by heating it in air for several days. In China, these ironworking methods spread northward, and by 300 BC, iron was the material of choice throughout China for most tools and weapons. A mass grave in Hebei province, dated to the early third century BC, contains several soldiers buried with their weapons and other equipment. The artifacts recovered from this grave are variously made of wrought iron, cast iron, malleabilized cast iron, and quench-hardened steel, with only a few, probably ornamental, bronze weapons. Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 350s BC 340s BC 330s BC 320s BC 310s BC - 300s BC - 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC Years: 305 BC 304 BC 303 BC 302 BC 301 BC - 300 BC - 299 BC 298 BC... Hebei (Chinese: 河北; pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Ho-pei; Postal System Pinyin: Hopeh) is a northern province of the Peoples Republic of China. ...

During the Han Dynasty (202 BC–AD 220), Chinese ironworking achieved a scale and sophistication not reached in the West until the eighteenth century. In the first century, the Han government established ironworking as a state monopoly and built a series of large blast furnaces in Henan province, each capable of producing several tons of iron per day. By this time, Chinese metallurgists had discovered how to puddle molten pig iron, stirring it in the open air until it lost its carbon and became wrought iron. (In Chinese, the process was called chao, literally, stir frying.) The Han Dynasty (Traditional Chinese: ; Simplified Chinese: ; Hanyu Pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Han Chau; 206 BC–AD 220) followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 3rd century BC - 4th century BC Decades: 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC Years: 207 BC 206 BC 205 BC 204 BC 203 BC - 202 BC - 201 BC 200 BC 199 BC 198 BC 197 BC Events October... Events Han Xiandi abdicates his throne to Cao Pi, symbolizing the end of the Han Dynasty and the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period in China. ... Henan (Chinese: 河南; Hanyu Pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Ho-nan), is a province of the Peoples Republic of China, located in the central part of the country. ... Schematic drawing of a puddling furnace The puddling furnace is a metalmaking technology to create wrought iron from the pig iron produced in a blast furnace. ... Stir frying is a common Chinese cooking technique used because of its fast cooking speed. ...

Also during this time, Chinese metallurgists had found that wrought iron and cast iron could be melted together to yield an alloy of intermediate carbon content, that is, steel. According to legend, the sword of Liu Bang, the first Han emperor, was made in this fashion. Some texts of the era mention "harmonizing the hard and the soft" in the context of ironworking; the phrase may refer to this process. Emperor Gao (256 BC or 247 BC–June 1, 195 BC), commonly known inside China as Gaozu, personal name Liu Bang, was the first emperor of the Chinese Han Dynasty, ruling over China from 202 BC until 195 BC, and one of only two dynasty founders who emerged from...

Steelmaking in India and Sri Lanka

Perhaps as early as 300 BC, although certainly by AD 200, high quality steel was being produced in southern India also by what Europeans would later call the crucible technique. In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in crucibles and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon. One of the earliest evidence of steel making comes to us from Samanalawewa area in Sri Lanka where thousands of sites were found. (Ref. Juleff, 1996). Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 350s BC 340s BC 330s BC 320s BC 310s BC - 300s BC - 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC Years: 305 BC 304 BC 303 BC 302 BC 301 BC - 300 BC - 299 BC 298 BC... For other uses, see number 200. ... Crucible steel describes a number of different techniques for making steel alloy by slowly heating and cooling iron and carbon (typically in the form of charcoal) in a crucible. ...

Steelmaking in early modern Europe

In the early 17th century, ironworkers in western Europe had found a means (called cementation) to carburize wrought iron. Wrought iron bars and charcoal were packed into stone boxes, then held at a red heat for up to a week. During this time, carbon diffused into the iron, producing a product called cement steel or blister steel (see cementation process). One of the earliest places where this was used in England was at Coalbrookdale, where Sir Basil Brooke had two cementation furnaces (recently excavated). For a time in the 1610s, he owned a patent on the process, but had to surrender this in 1619. He probably used Forest of Dean iron as his raw material. (16th century - 17th century - 18th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 17th century was that century which lasted from 1601-1700. ... The cementation process is a obsolete technique for making steel. ... Coalbrookdale is a settlement in a side valley of the Ironbridge Gorge in the borough of Telford and Wrekin and ceremonial county of Shropshire, England. ... The (Royal) Forest of Dean is a region in the county of Gloucestershire, England. ...

Ironmaking in early modern Europe

From the 16th century to the 18th century, most iron was made by a two-stage process involving a blast furnace and finery forge, using charcoal as fuel. Production was however limited by the supply of wood for making charcoal. (15th century - 16th century - 17th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 16th century was that century which lasted from 1501 to 1600. ... (17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ... It has been suggested that Old Furnace, Ironbridge be merged into this article or section. ... Iron tapped from the blast furnace is pig iron, and contains significant amounts of carbon and silicon. ...

By the 18th century, deforestation in western Europe was making ironworking and its charcoal-hungry processes increasingly expensive. In 1709 Abraham Darby began smelting iron using coke, a refined coal product, in place of charcoal at his ironworks at Coalbrookdale in England. Although coke could be produced less expensively than charcoal, coke-fired iron was initially of inferior quality compared to charcoal-fired iron. It was not until the 1750s, when Darby's son, also called Abraham, managed to start selling coke-smelted pig iron for the production of wrought iron in finery forges. Deforestation is the conversion of forested areas to non-forest land use such as arable land, urban use, logged area or wasteland. ... // Events January 12 - Two-month freezing period begins in France - The coast of the Atlantic and Seine River freeze, crops fail and at least 24. ... Abraham Darby (c. ... Coke is a solid carbonaceous residue derived from low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal. ... Coal Coal (IPA: ) is a fossil fuel extracted from the ground by underground mining or open-pit mining (surface mining). ... Ironworks at Coalbrookdale, Shropshire, England An ironworks or iron works is a building or site where iron is smelted and where heavy iron and/or steel products are made. ... Coalbrookdale is a settlement in a side valley of the Ironbridge Gorge in the borough of Telford and Wrekin and ceremonial county of Shropshire, England. ... Motto: (French for God and my right) Anthem: Multiple unofficial anthems Capital London Largest city London Official language(s) English (de facto) Unification    - by Athelstan AD 927  Area    - Total 130,395 km² (1st in UK)   50,346 sq mi  Population    - 2005 est. ... Events March 2 - Small earthquake in London, England April 4 - Small earthquake in Warrington, England August 23 - Small earthquake in Spalding, England September 30 - Small earthquake in Northampton, England November 16 – Westminster Bridge officially opened Jonas Hanway is the first Englishman to use an umbrella James Gray reveals her sex... Abraham Darby II (1711-1763) was the second of that name of three generations of an English Quaker family that was key to the development of the Industrial Revolution. ... Pig iron is raw iron, the immediate product of smelting iron ore with coke and limestone in a blast furnace. ... Iron tapped from the blast furnace is pig iron, and contains significant amounts of carbon and silicon. ...

Another 18th century European development was the invention of the puddling furnace. In particular, the form of coal-fired puddling furnace developed by the British ironmaster Henry Cort in 1784 made it possible to convert cast iron into wrought iron in large batches (without charcoal), rendering the ancient finery forge obsolescent. Wrought iron produced using this method became a major raw material in the English midlands' iron manufacturing trades. Schematic drawing of a puddling furnace The puddling furnace is a metalmaking technology to create wrought iron from the pig iron produced in a blast furnace. ... During the Industrial Revolution in England, Henry Cort began refining iron from pig iron to wrought iron using innovative production systems. ... 1784 was a leap year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Iron tapped from the blast furnace is pig iron, and contains significant amounts of carbon and silicon. ...

Schematic drawing of a puddling furnace

Schematic drawing of a Bessemer converter

Schematic drawing of a puddling furnace. ... Schematic drawing of a puddling furnace. ... Bessemer converter. ... Bessemer converter. ...

Industrial steelmaking

The problem of mass-producing steel was solved in 1855 by Henry Bessemer, with the introduction of the Bessemer converter at his steelworks in Sheffield, England. (An early converter can still be seen at the city's Kelham Island Museum). In the Bessemer process, molten pig iron from the blast furnace was charged into a large crucible, and then air was blown through the molten iron from below, igniting the dissolved carbon from the coke. As the carbon burned off, the melting point of the mixture increased, but the heat from the burning carbon provided the extra energy needed to keep the mixture molten. After the carbon content in the melt had dropped to the desired level, the air draft was cut off: a typical Bessemer converter could convert a 25-ton batch of pig iron to steel in half an hour. 1855 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... Henry Bessemer (1813-1898) Sir Henry Bessemer (January 19, 1813 – March 15, 1898), English engineer, was born at Charlton near Hitchin in Hertfordshire. ... Bessemer converter, schematic diagram The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass-production of steel from molten pig iron. ... For other articles with similar names, see Sheffield (disambiguation). ... Motto: (French for God and my right) Anthem: Multiple unofficial anthems Capital London Largest city London Official language(s) English (de facto) Unification    - by Athelstan AD 927  Area    - Total 130,395 km² (1st in UK)   50,346 sq mi  Population    - 2005 est. ... The Kelham Island Industrial Museum occupies the site of a former steelworks on an island in the River Don in Sheffield, England. ... Coke is a solid carbonaceous residue derived from low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal. ...

Finally, the basic oxygen process was introduced at the Voest-Alpine works in 1952; a modification of the basic Bessemer process, it lances oxygen from above the steel (instead of bubbling air from below), reducing the amount of nitrogen uptake into the steel. The basic oxygen process is used in all modern steelworks; the last Bessemer converter in the U.S. was retired in 1968. Furthermore, the last three decades have seen a massive increase in the mini-mill business, where scrap steel only is melted with an electric arc furnace. These mills only produced bar products at first, but have since expanded into flat and heavy products, once the exclusive domain of the integrated steelworks. Basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS, Linz-Donawitz-Verfahren, LD-converter) is a method of converting molten iron to steel. ... An electric arc furnace is a system that heats the charged material by means of an electric arc. ...

Until these 19th century developments, steel was an expensive commodity and only used for a limited number of purposes where a particularly hard or flexible metal was needed, as in the cutting edges of tools and springs. The widespread availability of inexpensive steel powered the second industrial revolution and modern society as we know it. Mild steel ultimately replaced wrought iron for almost all purposes, and wrought iron is not now (or is hardly now) made. With minor exceptions, alloy steels only began to be made in the late 19th century. Stainless steel was only developed on the eve of the First World War and only began to come into widespread use in the 1920s. These alloy steels are all dependent on the wide availability of inexpensive iron and steel and the ability to alloy it at will. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (871x626, 1600 KB) Summary Summary Author: Tom Cool (User:Tomcool) Top Steel Producing Countries, 2005 a PNG image produced from a MS Excel bar graph. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (871x626, 1600 KB) Summary Summary Author: Tom Cool (User:Tomcool) Top Steel Producing Countries, 2005 a PNG image produced from a MS Excel bar graph. ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Second Industrial Revolution (1871–1914) involved significant developments for society and the world. ... A wrought iron railing in Troy, New York. ... A wrought iron railing in Troy, New York. ... The 630 foot high, stainless-clad (type 304) Gateway Arch defines St. ... Ypres, 1917, in the vicinity of the Battle of Passchendaele. ... The 1920s was a decade sometimes referred to as the Jazz Age or the Roaring Twenties, usually applied to America. ...

Steel is currently the most recycled material in the world, the industry estimates that of new metal produced each year some 42.3% is recycled material. All steel that is available is currently recycled, the long service life of steel in applications such as construction means that there is a vast 'store' of steel in use that is recycled as it becomes available. But new metal derived from raw materials is also necessary to make up demand.

Types of steel

Alloy steels were known from antiquity, being nickel-rich iron from meteorites hot-worked into useful products. In a modern sense, alloy steels have been made since the invention of furnaces capable of melting iron, into which other metals could be thrown and mixed. General Name, Symbol, Number nickel, Ni, 28 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 10, 4, d Appearance lustrous, metallic Atomic mass 58. ... A meteorite is an extraterrestrial body that survives its impact with the Earths surface without being destroyed. ...

Here is a table of the types of steel: http://claymore.engineer.gvsu.edu/eod/material/material-4.gif

Historic types

• Damascus steel, which was famous in ancient times for its durability and ability to hold an edge, was created from a number of different materials (some only in traces), essentially a complicated alloy with iron as main component.
• Blister steel - steel produced by the cementation process
• Crucible steel - steel produced by Benjamin Huntsman's crucible technique
• Styrian Steel, also called 'German steel' or 'Cullen steel' (being traded through Cologne) was made in the Styria in Austria (Roman province of Noricum) by fining cast iron from certain manganese-rich ores.
• Shear steel was blister steel that was broken up, faggotted, heated and welded to produce a more homogeneous product

Damascus steel, also known as Damascened steel and sometimes watered steel, now commonly refers to two types of steel used in custom knife and sword making, pattern-weld and wootz (true damascus). ... The cementation process is a obsolete technique for making steel. ... Benjamin Huntsman (1704 - 1776), English inventor and steel-manufacturer, was born in Lincolnshire. ... Crucible steel describes a number of different techniques for making steel alloy by slowly heating and cooling iron and carbon (typically in the form of charcoal) in a crucible. ... Köln may refer to: Cologne (German: Köln), the fourth largest city in Germany and largest city of the North Rhine-Westphalia state German Cruiser Köln that served from 1930-1945 mostly for the Kriegsmarine German Frigate Köln (1961-1982), a F120 Köln class frigate of... Noricum in ancient geography was a celtic kingdom in Austria and later a province of the Roman Empire. ...

Contemporary steel

• Carbon steel, composed simply of iron and carbon accounts for 90% of steel production.^[1]
• HSLA steel (high strength, low alloy) have small additions (usually <2% by weight) of other elements, typically 1.5% manganese, to provide additional strength for a modest price increase.
• Low alloy steel is alloyed with other elements, usually molybdenum, manganese, chromium, or nickel, in amounts of up to 10% by weight to improve the hardenability of thick sections.^[1]
• Stainless steels and surgical stainless steels contain a minimum of 10% chromium, often combined with nickel, to resist corrosion (rust). Some stainless steels are nonmagnetic.
• Tool steels are alloyed with large amounts of tungsten and cobalt or other elements to maximize solution hardening, allow precipitation hardening and improve temperature resistance.^[1]
• Advanced High Strength Steels
  • Complex Phase Steel
  • Dual Phase Steel
  • TRIP steel
  • TWIP steel
  • Maraging steel
  • Eglin Steel
• Ferrous superalloys
• Hadfield steel (after Sir Robert Hadfield) or Manganese steel, this contains 12-14% manganese which when abraded forms an incredibly hard skin which resists wearing. Some examples are tank tracks, bulldozer blade edges and cutting blades on the jaws of life.

Though not an alloy, there exists also galvanized steel, which is steel that has gone through the chemical process of being hot-dipped or electroplated in zinc for protection against rust. Finished steel is steel that can be sold without further work or treatment. Carbon steel is a metal alloy, a combination of two elements, iron and carbon, where other elements are present in quantities too small to affect the properties. ... HSLA steel (high strength low alloy steel) is a type of steel alloy that provides many benefits over regular steel alloys. ... General Name, Symbol, Number manganese, Mn, 25 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 7, 4, d Appearance silvery metallic Atomic mass 54. ... Low alloy steel is steel alloyed with other elements, usually molybdenum, manganese, chromium, vanadium, silicon, boron or nickel, in amounts of up to 10% by weight to improve the hardenability of thick sections. ... The 630 foot high, stainless-clad (type 304) Gateway Arch defines St. ... Surgical stainless steel is a variation of steel consisting of an alloy of chromium (12-20%), molybdenum (0. ... General Name, Symbol, Number chromium, Cr, 24 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 6, 4, d Appearance silvery metallic Atomic mass 51. ... General Name, Symbol, Number nickel, Ni, 28 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 10, 4, d Appearance lustrous, metallic Atomic mass 58. ... Corrosion is deterioration of intrinsic properties in a material due to reactions with its environment. ... A blacksmith removing rust with sand prior to welding Rust damage in automobiles can create hidden dangers. ... Tool steel refers to a variety of carbon and alloy steels that are particularly well-suited to be made into tools. ... Precipitation hardening is a heat treatment technique used to strengthen malleable materials, especially non-ferrous alloys including most structural alloys of aluminium and titanium. ... Maraging steel is an iron-based steel alloy which is known for possessing superior strength without losing malleability. ... Eglin Steel (ES-1) is a high-strength, high-performance, low-alloy, low-cost steel, developed for new generation of bunker buster type bombs, eg. ... A super-alloy, or high-performance alloy, is an FCC alloy with superior mechanical strength and creep resistance at high temperatures, good surface stability, and corrosion and oxidation resistance. ... General Name, Symbol, Number manganese, Mn, 25 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 7, 4, d Appearance silvery metallic Atomic mass 54. ... A Caterpillar D10N bulldozer at work A bulldozer is a very powerful crawler (caterpillar tracked tractor) equipped with a blade. ... The Jaws Of Life, with spreader and cutter capability The Jaws of Life, or Hurst Tool, is a line of tools originally developed by Hurst Performance and now under the registered trademark of Hale Products, Inc. ... Hot-dip galvanizing is a form of galvanization. ...

Modern steel

• TMT Steel : Thermo mechanically treated Steel: It is one of the latest developments in the history of Steel. The steel manufacturing process is improved and thereby the properties of this steel to suit to the RCC Construction work has been achieved. The steel wires are passed through cold water just after drawing from the extruder. This helps in rapid cooling of the skin and heat starts flowing from the center to the skin once the wire is out of the water. This acts as a heat treatment. The relatively soft core helps in ductility of the steel while the treated skin has good weldability to suit construction requirements.

Production methods

It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into siderurgy. (Discuss)

Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Siderurgy (from Latin sidus - star and Greek ergon - work) is a process consisting of extracting iron from iron ore by heating, first mixed with combustibles then separated in a melting pot. ...

Historical methods

• bloomery
• pattern welding
• catalan forge
• wootz steel (crucible technique): developed in India, used in the Middle East where it was known as Damascus steel.
• Cementation process used to convert bars of wrought iron into blister steel. This was the main process used in England from the early 17th century.
• crucible technique, similar to the wootz steel, independently redeveloped in Sheffield by Benjamin Huntsman in c.1740, and Pavel Anosov in Russia in 1837. Huntsman's raw material was blister steel.
• Puddling

A bloomery is a type of furnace once widely used for smelting iron from its oxides. ... Pattern welded pocket knife Pattern welding is the practice in sword and knife making of forming a blade of several metal pieces of differing composition that are forge-welded together and twisted and manipulated to form a pattern. ... Open hearth furnaces are the furnaces where excess carbon and other impurities are burnt out of Pig iron to produce Steel. ... Wootz is a steel alloy having a pattern of bands or sheets of micro carbides within a tempered martensite or pearlite matrix. ... Crucible steel describes a number of different techniques for making steel alloy by slowly heating and cooling iron and carbon (typically in the form of charcoal) in a crucible. ... A map showing countries commonly considered to be part of the Middle East The Middle East is a region comprising the lands around the southern and eastern parts of the Mediterranean Sea, a territory that extends from the eastern Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. ... Damascus steel, also known as Damascened steel and sometimes watered steel, now commonly refers to two types of steel used in custom knife and sword making, pattern-weld and wootz (true damascus). ... The cementation process is a obsolete technique for making steel. ... Motto: (French for God and my right) Anthem: Multiple unofficial anthems Capital London Largest city London Official language(s) English (de facto) Unification    - by Athelstan AD 927  Area    - Total 130,395 km² (1st in UK)   50,346 sq mi  Population    - 2005 est. ... Crucible steel describes a number of different techniques for making steel alloy by slowly heating and cooling iron and carbon (typically in the form of charcoal) in a crucible. ... For other articles with similar names, see Sheffield (disambiguation). ... Benjamin Huntsman (1704 - 1776), English inventor and steel-manufacturer, was born in Lincolnshire. ... Puddling was a pre-industrial means of making iron and steel. ...

Modern methods

• Electric arc furnace a form of secondary steelmaking from scrap, steel is hard as a resultant of this, though the process can also use direct-reduced iron
• Production of pig iron using blast furnace
• Converters (steel from pig iron):

1. Bessemer process, the first large-scale steel production process for mild steel.
2. The Siemens-Martin process, using an Open hearth furnace
3. Basic oxygen steelmaking

An electric arc furnace is a system that heats the charged material by means of an electric arc. ... Pig iron is raw iron, the immediate product of smelting iron ore with coke and limestone in a blast furnace. ... It has been suggested that Old Furnace, Ironbridge be merged into this article or section. ... Bessemer converter, schematic diagram The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass-production of steel from molten pig iron. ... Open hearth furnaces are one of a number of kinds of furnace where excess carbon and other impurities are burnt out of pig iron to produce steel. ... Basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS, Linz-Donawitz-Verfahren, LD-converter) is a method of converting molten iron to steel. ...

Uses of steel

Historically

Steel was expensive and was only used where nothing else would do, particularly for the cutting edge of knives, razors, swords, and other tools where a hard sharp edged was needed. It was also used for springs, including those used in clocks and watches. The word spring has several meanings: spring (device), a common mechanical part. ...

Since 1850

Steel has been easier to obtain and much cheaper, and it has replaced wrought iron for a multitude of purposes. It continues to be used in many situations, though the new availabilty of plastics during the 20th century has meant that it has ceased to be used for some. Household items made out of plastic. ... (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901&#8211;2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900&#8211;1999...

Long steel

• Wires
• Rail tracks
• As girders in building modern tall buildings, bridges

A wire is a single, usually cylindrical, elongated strand of drawn metal. ... Railroad or railway tracks are used on railways, which, together with railroad switches (points), guide trains without the need for steering. ... Buildings are combinatorial structures on which groups act; the theory of buildings was introduced by Jacques Tits and expounded in Kenneth S. Browns excellent monograph Buildings. ... A log bridge in the French Alps near Vallorcine. ...

Flat carbon steel

• For the inside and outside body of cars, trains
• Major appliances

This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... A typical North American steam train In rail transport, a train consists of rail vehicles that move along guides to transport freight or passengers from one place to another. ... A major appliance is a large machine which accomplishes some routine housekeeping task, which includes purposes such as cooking, food preservation, or cleaning, whether in a household, institutional, commercial or industrial setting. ...

Stainless steel

• Cutlery
• Rulers
• Wrist Watches

Starch-polyester disposable cutlery Cutlery refers to any hand utensil used in preparing, serving, and especially eating food. ... A ruler is a person in charge of a country. ...

The Royal Canadian Mint produce Dimes (value = $0.10)

• Composed of 92% Steel
• Since 2000
• The Coin Weighs 1.75 g

References

G. Juleff, "An ancient wind powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka", Nature 379 (3), 60-63 (January, 1996)

• An ancient wind-powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka, Gill Juleff

• Essays on geology, history, and people
• Early iron in China, Korea, and Japan
• Precursors of the blast furnace
• Early progress in the melting of iron
• Steel City founders
• Various articles on alloys in Historical Metallurgy 19(1) (1985).

1. ^ ^{a b c d e} Ashby, Michael F., & David R. H. Jones [1986] (1992). Engineering Materials 2, with corrections (in English), Oxford: Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-032532-7.
2. ^ Mittemeijer, E. J.; Slycke, J. T.. Chemical potentials and activities of nitrogen and carbon imposed by gaseous nitriding and carburising atmospheres (PDF). Surface Engineering 1996 Vol. 12 No. 2 pp. 156. Retrieved on 2006-08-10.

2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... August 10 is the 222nd day of the year (223rd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ...

See also

• Structural steel
• Rolling (metalworking)
• Cold rolling
• Hot rolling
• Steel producers
• Steel mill
• Rolling mill
• Foundry
• Tinplate
• Global steel industry trends
• Pelletizing - Process of creation of iron ore pellets

Structural steel is steel construction material, a profile, formed with a specific shape and certain standards of chemical composition and strength. ... profile rolling (to manufacture a cone) Rolling is a fabricating process in which the metal, plastic, paper, glass, etc. ... Rolling mill for cold rolling metal sheet like this piece of brass sheet. ... Hot rolling is a metallurgical process in which the metal is passed through a pair of rolls and the temperature of the metal is above its recrystallization temperature, as opposed to cold rolling, which takes place below it. ... This is a list of the largest steel producers in the world Mittal Steel Company NV (International) Arcelor (Europe) [1] Nippon Steel (Japan) JFE (Japan) [2] POSCO (South Korea) [3] Corus (Europe) Thyssen-Krupp (Europe) Shanghai Baosteel Group Corporation (China) Riva (Europe) Sumitomo (Japan) other producers United States Steel Corporation... A steel mill at the turn of the century in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania A steel mill (British English and Australian English steelworks) is an industrial plant for the manufacture of steel. ... A rolling mill is a machine or factory for shaping metal by passing it between rollers. ... This article is about the factory that makes castings of metal. ... Plating is the general name of surface-covering techniques in which a metal is coated onto a solid surface. ... The global steel industry has been going through major shifts in focus. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ...

External links

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• Science Aid: Steel Production and uses of steel, teen study guide
• Extensive picture gallery about all methods of making and shaping of iron and steel in North America and Europe. In German and English.
• International Iron & Steel Institute (IISI)
• Steel Alloys and Their Classification
• steeluniversity.org Free, award-winning e-learning resources on steel technologies for students and steel industry supply chain employees
• Quench hardening of steel
• CIMsteel Integration Standards (CIS/2)
• Steel in 20th-century architecture
• Steel Heat Treating
• Scottish Steel Works History