Cartography or mapmaking (in Greek chartis = map and graphein = write) is the study and practice of making maps or globes. Maps have traditionally been made using pen and paper, but the advent and spread of computers has revolutionized cartography. Most commercial quality maps are now made with map making software that falls into one of three main types; CAD, GIS, and specialized map illustration software. The Greek language (Greek Ελληνικά, IPA – Hellenic) is an Indo-European language with a documented history of some 3,000 years. ... A map of the world by Johannes Kepler A map is a simplified depiction of a space, a navigational aid which highlights relations between objects within that space. ... A cream coloured globe A globe is a three-dimensional scale model of a spheroid celestial body such as a planet, star or moon, in particular Earth, or, alternatively, a spherical representation of the sky with the stars (not the Sun, Moon, or planets, because their positions vary relative to... This article is about the writing implement. ... Piece of paper Paper is a thin, flat material produced by the compression of fibres. ... The tower of a personal computer (specifically a Power Mac G5). ... Computer software (or simply software) refers to one or more computer programs and data held in the storage of a computer for some purpose. ... Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of a wide range of computer-based tools that assist engineers and architects in their design activities. ... A geographic information system (GIS) is a system for managing spatial data and associated attributes. ...

Maps function as visualization tools for spatial data. Spatial data is acquired from measurement and can be stored in a database, from which it can be extracted for a variety of purposes. Current trends in this field are moving away from analog methods of mapmaking and toward the creation of increasingly dynamic, interactive maps that can be manipulated digitally. The cartographic process rests on the premise that there is an objective reality and that we can make reliable representations of that reality by adding levels of abstraction. Visualization can refer to: Visualization as in any technique for creating images, diagrams, or animations to communicate any message. ... A datum is a statement accepted at face value (a given). Data is the plural of datum. ... Measurement is the determination of the size or magnitude of something. ... A database is a collection of information stored in a computer in a systematic way, such that a computer program can consult it to answer questions. ...

History

World map from the Middle Ages.

The oldest known map dates from the 5th millennium BCE. The oldest maps emphasized topological relationships such as connectedness, adjacency, and containment. Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... For the historical era, see Middle Ages. ... (6th millennium BC – 5th millennium BC – 4th millennium BC – other millennia) Events 4713 BC – The epoch (origin) of the Julian Period described by Joseph Justus Scaliger occurred on January 1, the astronomical Julian day number zero. ...

A major development in mapmaking occurred with the advent of geometry, which was first used in Babylonia around the 23rd century BCE. An engraved map of the holy city of Nippur, from the Kassite period (14th – 12th centuries BCE) of Babylonian history, was found at Nippur [1]  (http://www-oi.uchicago.edu/OI/PROJ/NIP/PUB93/NSC/NSCFIG7.html). The Egyptians later used geometry to survey land and to resurvey it after the periodic flooding of the Nile obscured the property borders. Geometry (from the Greek words Ge = earth and metro = measure) is the branch of mathematics first introduced by Theaetetus dealing with spatial relationships. ... Babylonia was an ancient state in Iraq), combining the territories of Sumer and Akkad. ... (Redirected from 23rd century BCE) (24th century BC - 23rd century BC - 22nd century BC - other centuries) (4th millennium BC - 3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC) Events 2334 - 2279 BC (short chronology) Sargon of Akkads conquest of Mesopotamia 2217 - 2193 BC - Nomadic invasions of Akkad 2205 BC - Foundation of the... The city of Nippur (Sumerian Nibru, Akkadian Nibbur) was one of the most ancient of all the Babylonian cities of which we have any knowledge, the special seat of the worship of the Sumerian god, Enlil, ruler of the cosmos subject to An alone. ... (Redirected from 14th century BCE) (15th century BC - 14th century BC - 13th century BC - other centuries) (1400s BC - 1390s BC - 1380s BC - 1370s BC - 1360s BC - 1350s BC - 1340s BC - 1330s BC - 1320s BC - 1310s BC - 1300s BC - other decades) (3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC) Events... (Redirected from 12th century BCE) (13th century BC - 12th century BC - 11th century BC - other centuries) (1200s BC - 1190s BC - 1180s BC - 1170s BC - 1160s BC - 1150s BC - 1140s BC - 1130s BC - 1120s BC - 1110s BC - 1100s BC - other decades) (3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC) Events... Map of Ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt was the civilization of the Nile Valley between about 3000 BC and the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great in 332 BC. As a civilization based on irrigation, it is the quintessential example of a hydraulic empire. ... There is also Nile, a death metal band from South Carolina, USA. The Nile in Egypt Length 6 695 km Elevation of the source 1 134 m Average discharge 2 830 m³/s Area watershed 3 400 000 km² Origin Africa Mouth the Mediterranean Basin countries Uganda - Sudan - Egypt The...

The ancient Greeks added a great deal to the art and science of cartography. Strabo (c. 63 BCE – c. 21 CE) is credited as the father of geography because he wrote Geographia, in which he documented and criticized the works of others (most of whom would not be known today had Strabo not mentioned them). Thales of Miletus (c. 600 BCE) thought that the earth was a disk supported by water. Anaximander of Miletus theorized at about the same time that the earth was cylindrical. In 288 BCE, Aristarchus of Samos was the first to say that the sun was the center of universe (see heliocentric theory). In approximately 250 BCE, Eratosthenes of Cyrene estimated the circumference of the earth to within 15 per cent of the modern-day accepted value. The Greek language (Greek Ελληνικά, IPA // – Hellenic) is an Indo-European language with a documented history of some 3,000 years. ... Strabo (squinty) was a term employed by the Romans for anyone whose eyes were distorted or deformed. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC - 60s BC - 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC Years: 68 BC 67 BC 66 BC 65 BC 64 BC 63 BC 62 BC 61 BC 60... For other uses, see number 21. ... Physical map of the Earth (Medium) (Large 2 MB) Geography is the scientific study of the locational and spatial variation in both physical and human phenomena on Earth. ... For the French electronics and defence contractor, see Thales Group Thales (in Greek: Θαλης) of Miletus (circa 635 BC - 543 BC), also known as Thales the Milesian, was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher and one of the Seven Sages of Greece. ... (7th century BC - 6th century BC - 5th century BC - other centuries) (600s BC - 590s BC - 580s BC - 570s BC - 560s BC - 550s BC - 540s BC - 530s BC - 520s BC - 510s BC - 500s BC - other decades) (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium AD) Events Cyrus the Great conquered many... Anaximander (609/610 BC - c. ... (Redirected from 288 BCE) Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 330s BC 320s BC 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC - 280s BC - 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 293 BC 292 BC 291 BC 290 BC 289 BC 288 BC 287... Aristarchus (310 BC _ circa 230 BC) was a Greek astronomer and mathematician, born in Samos, Greece. ... A Sun is the star at the centre of a solar system. ... In astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Universe and/or the Solar System. ... (Redirected from 250s BCE) Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC - 250s BC - 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC Years: 259 BC 258 BC 257 BC 256 BC 255 BC 254 BC... Eratosthenes (Ερατοσθένης) Eratosthenes (Ερατοσθένης) (276 BC - 194 BC) was a Greek mathematician, geographer and astronomer with (probably) Chaldean origins. ...

Pythagoras of Ionia, who was the founder of a mathematical cult that developed many number-based superstitions that later became the basis of mathematics, was the first notable person to say that the earth was a sphere. Aristotle later provided arguments in support of this idea. Those arguments can be summarized as follows: Pythagoras (582 BC – 496 BC, Greek: Πυθαγόρας) was an Ionian mathematician and philosopher, known best for formulating the Pythagorean theorem. ... Mathematics, often abbreviated maths in Commonwealth English and math in American English, is the study of abstraction. ... Aristotle (sculpture) Aristotle ( Greek: Αριστοτέλης Aristotelēs) ( 384 BC – March 7, 322 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher. ...

• The lunar eclipse is always circular.
• Ships seem to sink as they move away from view and pass the horizon.
• Some stars can only be seen from certain parts of the earth.

The Greeks also developed the science of map projections, which are methods of representing the curved surface of the earth on a plane. Eratosthenes, Anaximander, and Hipparchus are credited with developing a grid system of longitude and latitude, and Eratosthenes seems to have developed the equirectangular map projection around 200 BCE. Claudius Ptolemy developed map projections as well, including the equidistant conic, around 150 BCE. An eclipse occurs whenever the Sun, Earth and Moon line up exactly. ... A map projection is any of many methods used in cartography (mapmaking) to represent the two-dimensional curved surface of the earth or other body on a plane. ... Eratosthenes (Ερατοσθένης) Eratosthenes (Ερατοσθένης) (276 BC - 194 BC) was a Greek mathematician, geographer and astronomer with (probably) Chaldean origins. ... Anaximander (609/610 BC - c. ... For the Athenian tyrant, see Hipparchus (son of Pisistratus). ... Map of Earth showing curved lines of longitude Longitude, sometimes denoted λ, describes the location of a place on Earth east or west of a north-south line called the Prime Meridian. ... Latitude, denoted φ, gives the location of a place on Earth north or south of the Equator. ... (Redirected from 200s BCE) Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC Years: 209 BC 208 BC 207 BC 206 BC 205 BC 204 BC... This article is about the geographer and astronomer Ptolemy. ... (Redirected from 150s BCE) Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC - 150s BC - 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC Years: 159 BC 158 BC 157 BC 156 BC 155 BC 154 BC...

European scientific cartography slept through the Middle Ages, when philosophical thought turned toward religion. Though the field advanced in some ways, such as Roger Bacon's investigations of map projections and the appearance of portolano and then portolan charts for plying the European trade routes, there was little impetus for systematic study or application of cartography. Most world 'maps' of the period were Christian cosmological diagrams not intended as rigorous geographical representations. Typically rectangular or circular, they followed the style of the so-called "T and O map," which represents the earth's single land mass as disk-shaped and surrounded by ocean. Large-scale mapping tended toward diagrammatic as well, since cadastral needs generally were met by descriptions of landmarks rather than by measurements. In contrast, the Chinese during this time were using a rectangular coordinate system suitable for real, if rough, surveying. The Chinese did not produce world maps because their cosmology supplied no dogma describing distant lands outside their experience. Writings suggest that Chinese philosophers believed the earth to be flat. With the exception of a few theologians of minority opinion, notably Lactantius, Christian and Islamic philosophers adhered to the Greek conception of a spherical earth. The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... For the Nova Scotia premier see Roger Bacon (politician) Statue of Roger Bacon in the Oxford University Museum Roger Bacon (1214-1294), also known as Doctor Mirabilis (Latin: astounding doctor), was an English philosopher who placed considerable emphasis on empiricism, and has been presented as one of the earliest advocates... Hereford Mappa Mundi, about 1300, Hereford Cathedral, England. ... Ocean (Okeanos, a Greek god of sea and water; Greek ωκεανός) covers almost three quarters (71%) of the surface of the Earth. ... See Cartesian coordinate system or Coordinates (elementary mathematics) for a more elementary introduction to this topic. ... Lucius Caelius (or Caecilius?) Firmianus Lactantius was an early Christian author who wrote in Latin (around A.D. 240 - around 320). ...

The discovery of the Americas by Europeans and the subsequent effort to control and divide those lands necessitated the invention of scientific mapping methods. The trend of globalism that was started with the Age of Exploration would continue during the Renaissance. This would, in turn, eventually lead to the Enlightenment a concern for scientific accuracy and a desire to classify the world would further develop scientific mapmaking. The so-called Age of Exploration was a period from the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century, during which European ships were traveled around the world to search for new trading routes and partners to feed burgeoning capitalism in Europe. ... By Region: Italian Renaissance Northern Renaissance -French Renaissance -German Renaissance -English Renaissance The Renaissance was an influential cultural movement which brought about a period of scientific revolution and artistic transformation, at the dawn of modern European history. ... The Age of Enlightenment (or The Enlightenment for short) was an intellectual movement in 18th-century Europe. ...

Technological changes

In cartography, technology has continually changed in order to meet the demands of new generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps were manually constructed with brushes and parchment and therefore varied in quality and were limited in distribution. The advent of magnetic devices, such as the compass and much later magnetic storage devices, allowed for the creation of far more accurate maps and the ability to store and manipulate them digitally. This article is about the navigational instrument. ... Magnetic storage is a term from engineering referring to the storage of data on a magnetised medium. ...

Advances in mechanical devices such as the printing press, quadrant and vernier allowed for the mass production of maps and the ability to make accurate reproductions from more accurate data. Optical technology, such as the telescope, sextant and other devices that use telescopes, allowed for accurate surveying of land and the ability of mapmakers and navigators to find their latitude by measuring angles to the North Star at night or the sun at noon. The printing press is a mechanical device for printing many copies of a text on rectangular sheets of paper. ... The word quadrant can mean: A region of the Cartesian coordinate plane with a specific sign for the x and y coordinates: (+, +), (-, +), (-, -) or (-, +). It is the 2-dimensional case of an Orthant Another name for sextant Also see the Wiktionary entry on Quadrant. ... A vernier scale lets one read more precisely from a measurement scale. ... 50 cm refracting telescope at Nice Observatory. ... A sextant is a measuring instrument used to measure the angle of elevation of a celestial object above the horizon. ... Latitude, denoted φ, gives the location of a place on Earth north or south of the Equator. ... The North Star is a title of the star best suited for navigation northwards. ... A Sun is the star at the centre of a solar system. ...

Advances in photochemical technology, such as the lithographic and photochemical processes, have allowed for the creation of maps that have fine details, do not distort in shape and resist moisture and wear. This also eliminated the need for engraving which further shortened the time it takes to make and reproduce maps. Lens and mounting of a large format camera Photography is the technique of recording and generating permanent images, by the capturing and preservation of physical stimulus-patterns on a layer of photosensitive material. ...

In the mid to late 20th century advances in electronic technology have led to a new revolution in cartography. Specifically computer hardware devices such as computer screens, plotters, printers, scanners (remote and document) and analytic stereo plotters along with visualization, image processing, spatial analysis and database software, have democratized and greatly expanded the making of maps. (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999 in the... Hardware comprises all of the physical parts of a computer, as distinguished from the data it contains or operates on, and the software that provides instructions for the hardware to accomplish tasks. ...

Map types

In understanding basic maps, the field of cartography can be divided into two general categories: general cartography and thematic cartography. General cartography involves those maps that are constructed for a general audience and thus contain a variety of features. General maps exhibit many reference and location systems and often are produced in a series. For example the 1:24,000 scale topographic maps of the United States Geological Survey are a standard as compared to the 1:50,000 scale Canadian maps.

A topographical map is primarily concerned with the topography of a place, and is typically different from other maps by its use of elevation lines.

Thematic cartography involves maps of specific geographic themes oriented toward specific audiences. A couple of examples might be a dot map showing corn production in Indiana or a shaded area map of Ohio counties divided into numerical choropleth classes. As the volume of geographic data has exploded over the last century, thematic cartography has become increasingly useful and necessary to interpret spatial cultural and social data. A choropleth map is a map in which areas are shaded or patterened in proportion to the measurement of the statistical variable being displayed on the map, such as population density or per-capita income. ...

Two of the most influential American cartographers, especially in thematic cartography have been Arthur H. Robinson at the University of Wisconsin-Madison and George F. Jenks at the University of Kansas. Arthur H. Robinson ( January 5, 1915 – October 19, 2004) was an American geographer and cartographer. ... Plaque on Bascom Hall, UW-Madison. ... Seal of The University of Kansas The University of Kansas (often referred to as KU) is an institution of higher learning located in Lawrence, Kansas. ...

Naming conventions

There are several ways to name the places on a map. Early explorers named them in several ways — after themselves, people in their homeland, and the ruler(s) of their countries. Features were also named by appearance, local climate, incidents that happened in the vicinity, and location. Many places along the coast of Brazil were named by Portuguese explorers in the early 1500s after the saint of the day of discovery in the Catholic calendar of saints (so that the detailed timetable of their expeditions can often be recovered from the list of assigned names). The Federative Republic of Brazil (República Federativa do Brasil in Portuguese) is the largest and most populous country in South America, and fifth largest in the world. ... The Republic of Portugal (Portuguese: República Portuguesa) is a democratic republic located on the west and southwest parts of the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe, the westernmost country in continental Europe. ... Centuries: 15th century - 16th century - 17th century Decades: 1450s 1460s 1470s 1480s 1490s - 1500s - 1510s 1520s 1530s 1540s 1550s Years: 1500 1501 1502 1503 1504 1505 1506 1507 1508 1509 1510 Events and Trends Leonardo da Vinci paints the Mona Lisa External links 1500-1524 Events 1500-1509 Events Categories... General definition of saint In general, the term Saint refers to someone who is exceptionally virtuous and holy. ... Catholic is a term generally used in relation to the members, beliefs and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. ... The calendar of saints is a traditional Christian method of organising a liturgical year on the level of days by associating each day with a saint, and referring to the day as the saints day of that saint. ...

Cartographers also borrowed native names, sometimes by transliterating the written form into the Latin alphabet, but most often by transcribing the sound, or attempting to do so. Often the explorer would address the nearest native, pointing at the landmark in question and speaking in a loud voice; whatever the native said was then written down as its name. The Yucatan Peninsula was named in this way. Transliteration in a narrow sense is a mapping from one script into another script. ... The Latin alphabet, also called the Roman alphabet, is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world, the standard script of the English language and most of the languages of western and central Europe, and of those areas settled by Europeans. ... The Yucatán Peninsula separates the Caribbean Sea from the Gulf of Mexico. ...

See also

• List of cartographers
• Sea level
• Geocode
• Geographic Information System (GIS)
• Cartogram
• Animated mapping
• Map design
• Figure-Ground in Map Design
• The article titled great circle distance explains how to find that quantity if one knows the two latitudes and longitudes.

Cartography is the study of map making and cartographers are map makers. ... For considerations of sea level change, in particular rise associated with possible global warming, see sea level rise. ... A geocode is a geographical code to identify a point or area at the surface of the earth. ... A geographic information system (GIS) is a system for managing spatial data and associated attributes. ... Categories: Stub ... This article needs cleanup. ... Maps are abstract objects used to represent real places and things by use of symbolization. ... An effectively designed map is one in which the intended message is clearly communicated to the percipient, or map user. ... Great circle distance is the shortest distance between any two points on the surface of the Earth measured along a path on the surface of the Earth (as opposed to going through the Earths interior). ...

External links

• List of maps of all countries (http://www.populationdata.net/cartes/cartes.html)
• Online Map Catalogs in North America and Europe (http://www.sunysb.edu/libmap/libcats.htm) Lists some good places to search for online maps
• The fascinating world of maps and mapping (http://oddens.geog.uu.nl) Lists all kinds of maps
• Map collections (http://www.maphistory.info/collections.html) Intorductory page to help navigate the online map resources
• A listing of over 5000 websites (http://www.uidaho.edu/special-collections/Other.Repositories.html) describing holdings of manuscripts, archives, rare books, historical photographs, and other primary sources for the research scholar
• http://www.mapref.org The Collection of Map Projections and Reference Systems for Europe - Zusammenstellung Europäischer Referenzsysteme und Kartenprojektionen
• Links for maps (http://www.links4maps.com) Directory for maps and cartography links
• Antique and Rare Maps - Art Source International (http://www.rare-maps.com/links.cfm) - Links to rare and antique maps and to cartography resources.

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Historical maps

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Reference

• Fran Evanisko, American River College, lectures for Geography 20: "Cartographic Design for GIS", Fall 2002