Trans–New Guinea (TNG) is a hypothetical family of Papuan languages spoken in New Guinea and neighboring islands. There have been three main versions of the proposed family. A hypothesis (= assumption in ancient Greek) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. ... Current distribution of Human Language Families A language family is a group of related languages said to have descended from a common proto-language. ... The term Papuan languages refers to those languages of the western Pacific which are neither Austronesian nor Australian. ...

History of the proposal

Although Papuan languages for the most part are poorly documented, several of the branches of Trans–New Guinea have been recognized for some time. The Eleman languages were first proposed by S. Ray in 1907, parts of Marind were recognized by Ray and JHP Murray in 1918, and the Rai Coast languages in 1919, again by Ray. 1907 (MCMVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... 1918 (MCMXVIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. ... Year 1919 (MCMXIX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar). ...

The original Trans–New Guinea proposal was published in 1970 by C.L. Voorhoeve and Kenneth McElhanon. They noted 91 lexical resemblances between the Finisterre–Huon languages and the Central and South New Guinea languages. Although they did not work out regular sound correspondences, and so could not distinguish between cognates due to genealogical relationship, cognates due to borrowing, and chance resemblances, their research was taken seriously. The name Trans–New Guinea was chosen because this new family was the first to cover large areas of eastern New Guinea.

Then in 1975 Stephen Wurm expanded TNG into an enormous language phylum that covered most of the island of New Guinea, as well as Timor and neighboring islands, and included over 500 languages spoken by some 2 300 000 people. However, part of the evidence for this revision was typological, and Wurm stated that he did not expect it to stand up well to scrutiny. Although he based the phylum on characteristic personal pronouns, several of the branches had no pronouns in common with the rest of the family, or even had pronouns related to non-TNG families, but were included because they were grammatically similar to TNG. Other families which had typical TNG pronouns were excluded because they did not resemble other TNG families in their grammatical structure. Stephen Adolphe Wurm (August 19, 1922–October 24, 2001) was an Australian linguist. ... Timor is an island at the south end of the Malay Archipelago, divided between the independent state of East Timor, and West Timor, part of the Indonesian province of East Nusa Tenggara with the surface of 11,883 sq mi (30,777 km²). The name is a variant of timur... Typology is the classification of languages by grammatical features. ... Personal pronouns are pronouns often used as substitutes for proper or common nouns. ...

Because grammatical typology is readily borrowed — many of the Austronesian languages in New Guinea have grammatical structures similar to their Papuan neighbors, for example, and conversely many Papuan languages resemble typical Austronesian languages typologically, — later linguists such as William Foley rejected Wurm's results, and broke TNG into its constituent parts: several dozen small but clearly valid families, plus a number of apparent isolates The Austronesian languages are a language family widely dispersed throughout the islands of Southeast Asia and the Pacific, with a few members spoken on continental Asia. ... William Foley is a linguist and professor at the University of Sydney. ... A language isolate, in the absolute sense, is a natural language with no demonstrable genealogical (or genetic) relationship with other living languages; that is, one that has not been demonstrated to descend from an ancestor common to any other language. ...

In 2005 Malcolm Ross published a draft proposal re-evaluating Trans–New Guinea, and found what he believed to be overwhelming evidence for a reduced version of the phylum, based solely on lexical resemblances, which retained as much as 85% of Wurm's hypothesis.

The strongest lexical evidence for any language family is shared morphological paradigms. For example, if the only recorded German words were gut "good" and besser "better", that alone would be enough to demonstrate that in all probability German is related to English. However, because of the great morphological complexity of many Papuan languages, and the poor state of documentation of nearly all, in New Guinea this approach is essentially restricted to comparing pronouns. Ross reconstructed pronouns sets for Foley's basic families and compared these reconstructions, rather than using a direct mass comparison of all Papuan languages; attempted to then reconstruct the ancestral pronouns of the proto–Trans–New Guinea language, such as *ni "we", *ŋgi "you", *i "they"; and then compared poorly supported branches directly to this reconstruction. Families required at least two apparent cognates to be included. For other uses, see Morphology. ... In linguistics and grammar, a pronoun is a pro-form that substitutes for a noun phrase. ...

Ross also included in his proposal several better-attested families for non-pronominal evidence, despite a lack of pronouns common to other branches of TNG, and he suggested that there may be other families that would have been included if they had been better attested. Several additional families are only tentatively linked to TNG. Note also that because the boundaries of Ross's proposal is based primarily on a single parameter, pronouns, all internal structure remains tentative.

The languages

Most TNG languages are spoken by only a few thousand people, with only four (Melpa, Enga, Western Dani, and Ekari) being spoken by more than 100 000. The most populous language outside of mainland New Guinea is Makasai in Timor, with 70 000.

The greatest linguistic diversity in Ross's Trans–New Guinea proposal, and therefore perhaps the location of the proto–Trans–New Guinea homeland, is in the interior highlands of Papua New Guinea, in the central-to-eastern New Guinea cordillera. Indonesian Papua and the southeastern peninsula of New Guinea (the "bird's tail") have fewer and more widely extended branches of TNG, and were therefore likely settled by TNG speakers after the protolanguage broke up. Ross speculates that the TNG family may have spread with the high population densities that resulted from the domestication of taro, settling quickly in the highland valleys along the length of the cordillera but spreading much more slowly into the malarial lowlands, and not at all into areas such as the Sepik River valley where the people already had yam agriculture and thus supported high population densities. Ross suggests that TNG may have arrived at its western limit, the islands near Timor, perhaps four to 4.5 thousand years ago, before the expansion of Austronesian into this area. Papua is a province of Indonesia comprising a majority part of the western half of the island of New Guinea and nearby islands (see also Western New Guinea). ... Proto-language may either refer to a language that preceded a certain set of given languages, or to system of communication during a stage in glottogony that may not yet be properly called a language. ... Binomial name Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Taro corms for sale Taro (from Tahitian), more rarely kalo (from Hawaiian), is a tropical plant grown primarily as a vegetable food for its edible corm, and secondarily as a leaf vegetable. ... Malaria is a vector-borne infectious disease that is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions, including parts of the Americas, Asia, and Africa. ... Location of the Sepik River The Sepik River is the longest river in Papua New Guinea (although the Fly River also claims to be the longest). ... Timor is an island at the south end of the Malay Archipelago, divided between the independent state of East Timor, and West Timor, part of the Indonesian province of East Nusa Tenggara with the surface of 11,883 sq mi (30,777 km²). The name is a variant of timur...

Classification

Wurm's TNG

An updated version of Wurm's 1975 classification can be found at Ethnologue here. Wurm identifies the subdivisions of his Papuan classification as families (on the order of relatedness of the Germanic languages), stocks (on the order of the Indo-European languages), and phyla (on the order of the Afro-Asiatic languages). Trans–New Guinea is a phylum in this terminology. A language that is not related to any other at a family level or below is called an isolate in this scheme. Ethnologue: Languages of the World is a web and print publication of SIL International (formerly known as the Summer Institute of Linguistics), a Christian linguistic service organization which studies lesser-known languages primarily to provide the speakers with Bibles in their native language. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... The Indo-European languages comprise a family of several hundred related languages and dialects [1], including most of the major languages of Europe, as well as many spoken in the Indian subcontinent (South Asia), the Iranian plateau (Southwest Asia), and Central Asia. ... The Afro-Asiatic languages constitute a language family with about 375 languages (SIL estimate) and more than 300 million speakers spread throughout North Africa, East Africa, the Sahel, and Southwest Asia (including some 200 million speakers of Arabic). ... A language isolate, in the absolute sense, is a natural language with no demonstrable genealogical (or genetic) relationship with other living languages; that is, one that has not been demonstrated to descend from an ancestor common to any other language. ...

Ross' TNG

Ross does not use specialized terms for different levels of classification. In the list given here, the uncontroversial families that are accepted by Foley and other Papuanists and which are the building blocks of Ross's TNG are printed in boldface. Language isolates are printed in italics.

Ross removed about 100 languages from Wurm's proposal, and only tentatively retained a few dozen more, but in one instance he added a language, the erstwhile isolate Porome. The Porome or Kibiri language is a Papuan language of southern Papua New Guinea. ...

Ross did not have sufficient evidence to classify all Papuan groups. In addition, the lower-level classification of a few of the groups illustrated here are taken from Ethnologue, which is based on Wurm. Ethnologue: Languages of the World is a web and print publication of SIL International (formerly known as the Summer Institute of Linguistics), a Christian linguistic service organization which studies lesser-known languages primarily to provide the speakers with Bibles in their native language. ...

Trans–New Guinea phylum (Ross 2005)

• West Trans–New Guinea linkage [a suspected old dialect continuum]
  • West Timor-Alor-Pantar [not well supported as a group]
    • Adabe isolate
    • Bunak isolate
    • Kolana isolate
    • Tanglapui family: Sawila, Kula
    • Alor-Pantar
      • Alor branch: Kamang (Woisika), Abui, Adang, Hamap, Kabola, Kafoa, Kui, Klon,
      • Pantar branch: Blagar, Tewa, Lamma, Nedebang, Retta, Tereweng
  • East Timor [perhaps closest to West Bomberai]
    • Fataluku isolate
    • Maku'a (Lovaea) isolate
    • Oirata isolate
    • Makasai isolate
  • West Bomberai [perhaps closest to East Timor]
    • Karas isolate
    • West Bomberai family: Baham, Iha
  • Wissel Lakes family: Wolani, Moni, Ekari, Auye, Dao
  • Dani family
    • Wano language
    • Dani proper: Hupla, Nggem, Walak, Upper Grand Valley Dani, Lower Grand Valley Dani, Mid Grand Valley Dani, Western Dani
    • Ngalik branch [no data available]: Nduga, Silimo, Ninia Yali, Pass Valley Ninia, Angguruk Ninia

• South Bird's Head (South Doberai) family
  • South Bird's Head proper: Barau, Weriagar (Kemberano), Arandai, Kokoda (Tarof), Kais (Kampong Baru), Puragi, Kaburi, Kasuweri
  • Inanwatan branch: Duriankere, Suabo (Inanwatan)
  • Konda-Yahadian branch: Konda, Yahadian

• Tanah Merah isolate

• Mor isolate

• Dem isolate

• Damal (Uhunduni) isolate

• Mek family
  • Western branch: Ketengban, Sirkai, Kinome
  • Eastern branch: Una (Goliath), Eipomek, Kosarek Yale, Korupun, Dagi, Sisibna, Deibula, Sela, Nalca, Nipsan

•  ? Kaure-Kapori [Inclusion in TNG tentative. No pronouns can be reconstructed from the available data.]
  • Kapori isolate
  • Kaure family: Kaure, Kosadle, Narau

•  ? Pauwasi family [Inclusion in TNG tentative. No pronouns can be reconstructed from the available data.]
  • Eastern Pauwasi branch: Yafi, Emumu
  • Western Pauwasi branch: Dubu, Towei

• Kayagar family: Atohwaim (Kaugat), Kayagar (Kaygir), Tamagario

• Kopolom family: Kimaama (Kimaghana), Riantana, Ndom

• Moraori isolate

• Kiwai-Porome [TNG identity of pronouns suspect]
  • Kiwaian family: Northeastern Kiwai, Arigibi, Southern Kiwai, Bamu, Morigi, Kerewo, Waboda
  • Porome (Kibiri) isolate

• Marind family
  • Boazi branch: Kuni-Boazi, Zimakani
  • Marind proper: Bian Marind, Marind
  • Yaqay branch: Warkay-Bipim, Yaqay

• Central and South New Guinea (reduced) [Part of the original TNG proposal. Not clear if the pronoun similarities are retentions in separate branches, or shared innovations defining a single branch of TNG. Voorhoeve argues independently for an Awyu-Ok relationship.]
  • Asmat family [a recent expansion along the south coast]: Casuarina Coast Asmat, Yaosakor Asmat, Central Asmat, North Asmat, Buruwai (Asienara), Citak, Tamnim Citak, Diuwe, Kamberau (Iria), Kamoro, Sempan
  • Awyu-Dumut family:
    • Sawi (Sawuy) language
    • Awyu branch: Aghu-Tsakwambo (Kotogut), South Awyu (Siagha), Central Awyu, Jair Awyu, Edera Awyu, Asue Awyu (Pisa), North Awyu
    • Dumut branch: Atas Mandobo (Kaeti), Bawah Mandobo, Kombai, Wambon, Wanggom
    • unclassified: Korowai, North Korowai, Ketum
  • Mombum family: Koneraw, Mombum
  • Ok family
    • Tangko language
    • Western branch: Burumakok, Kwer, Kopkaka
    • Lowland branch: Iwur, North Muyu (Northern Kati), South Muyu (Southern Kati), Ninggerum, Yonggom
    • Mountain branch: Bimin, Faiwol, Kauwol, Mian, Nakai, Setaman, Suganga, Ngalum, Tifal, Telefol, Urapmin

• Oksapmin isolate

• Gogodala-Suki family
  • Suki language
  • Gogodala branch: Gogodala, Ari, Waruna

• Tirio family: Tirio (Makayam, Aturu), Bitur (Mutum), Baramu, Were

• Eleman family
  •  ? Purari isolate
  • Kaki Ae (Tate) isolate (links Eleman proper with TNG)
  • Eleman proper: Keuru, Opao, Orokolo, Toaripi, Tairuma (Uaripi)

• Inland Gulf family
  • Ipiko language (quite distinct)
  • Minanibai branch: Minanibai, Tao, Mubami, Karami, Mahigi

• Turama-Kikorian family
  • Rumu (Kairi) isolate (links Turuma to TNG)
  • Turama branch: Omati, Ikobi, Mena)

•  ? Teberan family [inclusion in TNG tentative]: Dadibi, Folopa (Podopa)

• Pawaia isolate [has proto–TNG vocabulary, but inclusion questionable]

• Angan family:
  • Angaatiha language
  • Angan proper
    • A (pronouns ni, ti): Hamtai (Kapau), Kamasa, Kawatsa, Menya, Yagwoia
    • B: Akoye (Lohiki), Baruya, Safeyoka, Simbari, Susuami, Tainae (Ivori)

• West Kutubu family [has proto–TNG vocabulary, but inclusion somewhat questionable]: Fasu, Some, Namumi

• East Kutubu family [has proto–TNG vocabulary, but inclusion somewhat questionable]: Fiwaga, Foe

• Duna-Pogaya family: Bogaya, Duna

• Awin-Pa family: Aekyowm (Awin), Pare (Pa)

• East Strickland family: Fembe (Agala), Gobasi (Nomad), Kubo, Odoodee (Tomu), Konai, Samo

• Bosavi family: Aimele (Kware), Kaluli, Beami, Dibiyaso (Bainapi), Edolo, Kasua, Onobasulu, Sonia

• Kamula isolate

• Engan family
  • North Engan: Enga, Ipili, Lembena, Bisorio (Iniai)
  • Sount Engan: Huli, Angal, Samberigi (Sau), Kewa, Mendi

• Wiru isolate (lexical similarities with Engan)

• Chimbu-Wahgi family [not Ross's classification]
  • Chimbu branch: Chuave, Dom, Golin, Kuman, Nomane, Salt-Yui, Sinasina
  • Hagen branch
    • Melpa (Medlpa) language
    • Kaugel languages: Imbo Ungu, Mbo-Ung, Umbu-Ungu
  • Jimi branch: Maring, Narak, Kandawo
  • Wahgi branch: Nii, Wahgi, North Wahgi

• Kainantu-Goroka [first noticed by Capell 1948]
  • Goroka family
    • Isabi language
    • Gende language
    • Gahuku branch: Dano (Upper Asaro), Alekano (Gahuku), Tokano (Lower Asaro)
    • Siane branch: Siane, Yaweyuha
    • South Goroka linkage
      • Benabena language
      • Fore branch: Fore, Gimi
      • Kamono-Yagaria branch: Kamono, Kanite, Ke’yagana, Yagaria
  • Kainantu family
    • Binumarien
    • Tairoa
    • Waffa
    • Gauwa branch: Agarabi, Awiyaana, Awa, Gadsup, Usarufa

• Madang
  • Southern Adelbert Range–Kowan
    • Kowan family: Korak, Waskia
    • Southern Adelbert Range
      • Josephstaal
        • Osum (Utarmbung) isolate
        • Wadaginam isolate
        • Sikan family: Mum (Katiati), Sileibi
        • Pomoikan family: Anam (Pondoma), Anamgura (Ikundun), Moresada
      • Wanang
        • Paynamar isolate
        • Atan family: Atemble, Nend (Angaua)
        • Emuan family: Apali (Emerum), Musak
      • Faita isolate
  • Rai Coast–Kalam
    • Rai Coast family
      • Mindjim branch: Anjam (Bom), Bongu, Male, Pulabu, Sam (Songum)
      • Yaganon branch: Ganglau, Saep, Yabong
      • Kow-Usino: Asas, Sinsauru, Sop (Usino)
      • Erima-Duduela: Duduela, Ogea (Erima)
      • Jilim
      • Wasembo
      • Sub-Rai [includes much of the Brahman family]: Arawum, Biyom, Danaru, Dumpu, Kesawai, Kolom, Kwato, Lemio, Rerau, Sausi, Siroi, Sumau, Tauya, Urigina, Uya (Usu), Yangulam
    • Kalam family (perhaps part of Rai Coast): Gants, Kalam-Kobon, Tai
  • Croisilles linkage
    • Dimir-Malas: Dimir, Malas
    • Kaukombar: Bargam (Mugil), Mala (Pay), Miani (Tani), Maia (Pila, Saki)
    • Kumil: Brem (Bunabun), Bepour, Mauwake (Ulingan), Moere, Musar
    • Tibor-Omosa: Pal (Abasakur), Kobol (Koguman), Kowaki, Mawak, Pamosu (Hinihon), Wanambre
    • Amaimon isolate
    • Numugen-Mabuso
      • Numugen: Bilakura, Parawen, Ukuriguma, Usan (Wanuma), Yaben, Yarawata
      • Mabuso [Ross does not subclassify except to separate Kare]
        • Kare isolate
        • Kokon: Girawa, Munit, Kein (Bemal)
        • Gum: Amele, Bau, Gumalu, Isebe, Panim, Sihan
        • Hanseman: Baimak, Bagupi, Gal, Nobonob (Garuh), Garus, Mawan, Matepi, Mosimo, Murupi, Nake, Rempi, Rapting, Saruga, Samosa, Utu, Wamas, Silopi, Yoidik, Wagi (Kamba)

• Finisterre-Huon [part of the original TNG proposal. Has verbs which are suppletive per the person & number of the object.]
  • Finisterre family (internal classification difficult)
    • Abaga language
    • Erap branch: Finongan, Gusan, Mamaa, Munkip, Nakama, Nimi, Nuk, Nek, Numanggang, Sauk, Uri
    • Gusap-Mot branch: Madi (Gira), Iyo (Nahu), Neko, Nekgini, Ngaing, Rawa, Ufim
    • Uruwa branch: Nukna (Komutu), Sakam, Som, Weliki, Yau
    • Wantoat branch: Awara, Tuma-Irumu, Wantoat (Yagawak, Bam)
    • Warup branch: Asaro'o (Morafa), Bulgebi, Degenan, Forak, Guya (Guiarak), Gwahatike (Dahating), Muratayak (Asat), Yagomi
    • Yupna branch: Bonkiman, Domung, Gabutamon, Ma (Mebu), Nankina, Yopno (Kewieng, Wandabong, Nokopo, Isan)
  • Huon family (internal classification difficult)
    • Kovai language
    • Eastern Huon branch: Dedua, Kube, Kâte, Borong (Kosorong), Mape, Migabac, Momare, Sene
    • Western Huon branch: Burum (Mindik), Kinalakna, Komba, Kumokio, Mese, Nabak, Nomu, Ono, Sialum, Selepet, Timbe, Tobo

• Southeast Papuan (Bird's Tail)
  •  ? Goilalan family [inclusion in TNG tentative]: Fuyug, Tauade, Biangai-Kunimaipa-Weri
  • Koiarian family
    • Koiaric branch: Grass Koiari, Mountain Koiari, Koitabu
    • Baraic branch: Barai, Ese (Managalasi), Namiae, Ömie
  • Kwalean family: Humene, Uare (Kwale), Mulaha
  • Manubaran family: Doromu, Maria
  • Yareban family: Aneme Wake (Abia), Bariji, Moikodi (Doriri), Nawaru (Sirio), Yareba
  • Mailuan family: Bauwaki, Binahari, Domu, Laua, Mailu (Magi), Morawa
  • Dagan family: Daga, Ginuman, Dima (Jimajima), Mapena, Maiwa, Onjob, Kanasi (Sona), Turaka, Umanakaina (Gwedena)

• Binanderean [a recent expansion from the north]
  • Guhu-Semane isolate
  • Binandere family: Ambasi, Aeka, Binandere, Baruga, Doghoro, Ewage (Notu), Gaina, Hunjara, Korafe, Mawae, Orokaiva, Suena, Yega, Yekora, Zia

A dialect continuum is a range of dialects spoken across a large geographical area, differing only slightly between areas that are geographically close, and gradually decreasing in mutual intelligibility as the distances become greater. ... The Bunak (also known as Bunaq, Buna, Bunake) live in the mountainous region of central Timor, split between the political boundary between West Timor, Indonesia and East Timor. ... Maaro is also a term used to describe a 13. ... Makasae (also known as Makassai, Macassai, Maasae, and Makasai) is a Papuan language spoken by about 70,000 people on the eastern part of East Timor, in the districts of Baucau and Viqueque, just to the west of Fataluku. ... The Porome or Kibiri language is a Papuan language of southern Papua New Guinea. ... The Asmat are an ethnic group of New Guinea, residing in what is currently the Papua province of Indonesia. ... Oksapmin is a Trans-New Guinea language spoken in Telefomin District, Sandaun, Papua New Guinea. ... The Tao (Chinese: ) language, also known referred to as Yami (雅美), is spoken by a Taiwanese aboriginal people, native to tiny outlying Orchid Island. ... Dadibi (also Daribi or Karimui) is a language of Papua New Guinea. ... The Susuami language is a heavily endangered Papuan language, spoken in the resettlement village of Manki along the upper Watut River, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea. ... Location of Enga Province Enga (also Caga, Tsaga, Tchaga) is a language of the East New Guinea Highlands that is spoken by approximately 180,000 people in Enga Province, Papua New Guinea. ... Huli is a Papuan language spoken by the Huli people of the Southern Highlands province of Papua New Guinea. ... Golin (also Gollum, Gumine) is a Papuan language of Papua New Guinea. ... Linkage can refer to: Genetic linkage Linkage (mechanical engineering) This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Location of Madang Province Brahman is a proposed family of languages spoken in Madang Province, Papua New Guinea. ... Linkage can refer to: Genetic linkage Linkage (mechanical engineering) This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... In linguistics and etymology, suppletion is the use of one word as the inflected form of another word when the two words are not cognate. ... Maria is a Manubaran language spoken in Papua New Guinea. ...

Wurmian TNG languages left unclassified by Ross

Although Ross based his classification on pronoun systems, many languages in New Guinea are too poorly documented for even this to work. Thus there are several isolates that were placed in TNG by Wurm but which cannot be addressed by Ross's classification.

• Kenati isolate
• Komyandaret isolate
• Massep isolate
• Molof isolate
• Momuna family: Momina, Momuna (Somahai)
• Samarokena isolate
• Tofamna isolate
• Usku isolate

Wurmian TNG languages moved to other families by Ross

Ross removed 95 languages from TNG. These are small families with no pronouns in common with TNG languages, but which are typologically similar, perhaps due to long periods of contact with TNG languages.

• Border and Morwap (Elseng), as an independent Border family (15)
• Isirawa (Saberi), as a language isolate
• Lakes Plain, as an independent Lakes Plain family (19)
• Mairasi, as an independent Mairasi family (4)
• Nimboran, as an independent Nimboran family (5)
• Piawi, as an independent Piawi family (2)
• Senagi, as an independent Senagi family (2)
• Sentani (4 languages), within an East Bird's Head-Sentani family
• Tor and Kwerba, joined as a Tor-Kwerba family (17)
• Trans-Fly–Bulaka River is broken into five groups: three remaining in TNG (Kiwaian, Moraori, Tirio), plus the independent South-Central Papuan and Eastern Trans-Fly families (22 and 4 languages).

The Border (Tami) languages are an independent family of Papuan languages in the classification of Malcolm Ross, that had been part of Stephen Würms Trans-New Guinea proposal. ... The Isirawa language is a language isolate in Malcolm Ross classification of Papuan languages, and linked to the Dani languages within the Trans-New Guinea family by Stephen Würm. ... The Lakes Plain languages are a small independent family of Papuan languages in the classification of Malcolm Ross, that had been part of Stephen Würms Trans-New Guinea proposal and later classified with the Geelvink Bay languages by Clouse (1997). ... The Mairasi languages are a small independent family of Papuan languages in the classification of Malcolm Ross, that had been part of Stephen Würms Trans-New Guinea proposal. ... The Nimboran languages are a small independent family of Papuan languages in the classification of Malcolm Ross, that had been part of Stephen Würms Trans-New Guinea proposal. ... The Piawi languages are a small independent family of Papuan languages in the classification of Malcolm Ross, that had been part of Stephen Würms Trans-New Guinea proposal. ... The Senagi languages are a small independent family of Papuan languages in the classification of Malcolm Ross, that had been part of Stephen Würms Trans-New Guinea proposal. ... The East Birds Head-Sentani languages form a family of Papuan languages proposed by Malcolm Ross which combines the East Birds Head and Sentani families along with the Burmeso and Tause language isolates. ... The Tor-Kwerba languages are an independent family of Papuan languages proposed in 2005 by Malcolm Ross. ... The South-Central Papuan languages are a family of Papuan languages proposed in 2005 by Malcolm Ross. ... The Eastern Trans-Fly languages are a small independent family of Papuan languages in the classification of Malcolm Ross, that inherits much of the Trans Fly-Bulaka River branch of Stephen Würms Trans-New Guinea proposal. ...

Pronouns

Ross reconstructs the following pronominal paradigm for Trans–New Guinea, with *a~*i ablaut for singular~non-singular: In linguistics, the term ablaut (from German ab- in the sense down, reducing + Laut sound) designates a system of vowel gradations in Proto-Indo-European and its far-reaching consequences in all of the modern Indo-European languages. ...

I	*na	we	*ni
thou	*ga	you	*gi
s/he	*(y)a, *ua	they	*i

There is a related but less commonly attested form for 'we', *nu, as well as a *ja for 'you', which Ross speculates may have been a polite form. In addition, there were dual suffixes *-li and *-t, and a plural suffix *-nV, as well collective number suffixes *-pi- (dual) and *-m- (plural) which functioned as inclusive we when used in the first person. (Reflexes of the collective suffixes, however, are limited geographically to the central and eastern highlands, and so might not be as old as proto–Trans–New Guinea.) Common Slavic had a complete singular-dual-plural number system, although the dual paradigms showed considerable syncretism. ... Note: This page contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. ... In linguistics, collective number is a number referring to a set of things. ... Inclusive we is a pronoun that indicates the speaker, the addressee, and perhaps other people, as opposed to the exclusive we that excludes the addressee. ...

See also

• Papuan languages

The term Papuan languages refers to those languages of the western Pacific which are neither Austronesian nor Australian. ...

References

• Andrew Pawley (1998). "The Trans New Guinea Phylum hypothesis: A reassessment." In: Jelle Miedema, Cecilia Odé and Rien A.C. Dam, ed.s, Perspectives on the Bird's Head of Irian Jaya, Indonesia, 655–90. Amsterdam: Rodopi.
• Andrew Pawley (2005). "The chequered career of the Trans New Guinea hypothesis: recent research and its implications." In: Andrew Pawley, Robert Attenborough, Robin Hide and Jack Golson, eds, Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples, 67–107. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
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