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A transposing instrument is a musical instrument whose music is written at a pitch different from concert pitch. Concert pitch is the pitch as notated for piano (or any other non-transposing instrument) - e.g., the note "C" on piano is a concert C. On a transposing instrument, a concert C is written as another note. On the surface, this may be confusing, but there are several reasons for the existence of transposing instruments. The difference between a transposing instrument and a non-transposing instrument is only in whether or not the music is written at its sounding (concert) pitch. Pitch is the perceived fundamental frequency of a sound. ...
In music, pitch is the perception of the frequency of a note. ...
Transposing harmoniums or electronic keyboards with a transpose function can also play a different set of pitches from what is notated, but these are not usually called transposing instruments. These instruments allow the player to change the instrument's transposition electronically or mechanically. The instruments discussed in this article, on the other hand, have set pitches but merely do not read their music at concert pitch. A Harmonium or Reed Organ is a free-standing musical keyboard instrument similar to a pipe organ. ...
Reasons for transposing
At first sight it might seem awkward to use transposing instruments. The use of the transposing instrument entails more work for the composer or arranger, for example. There are, however, some clear reasons for preferring a transposing instrument: - Families of instruments
- Some instruments belong to a family of instruments of different sizes (and, therefore, sounding at different pitches), such as the clarinet or the saxophone family. Musicians can read the same notes on the page for each instrument in the family without having to learn new fingerings. For example, the note that is written as middle C for the alto saxophone and the tenor saxophone is fingered the same on each instrument, but the alto's sounding pitch (E♭) will be a fourth higher than the tenor's (B♭).
- Transposing at the octave
- If an instrument has a range that is too high or too low for their music to be easily written on bass or treble clef, the music may be written either an octave higher or lower than it sounds, in order to reduce the use of ledger lines. Instruments that “transpose at the octave” are not playing in a different key from concert pitch instruments, but sound an octave higher or lower than written. Some instruments with extremely high or low ranges use a two-octave transposition.
- Historical reasons
- Historically, some instruments have come to be accepted (and widely manufactured) with a certain transposition as a standard.
- Tone and sound quality
- Because of tone quality issues, some C (concert pitch) instruments — the C melody saxophone, C soprano saxophone, and C soprano clarinet, for example — have declined in popularity in favor of the standard versions (B♭ soprano and tenor saxophone; B♭ and A clarinets).
Two soprano clarinets: a Bâ™ clarinet (left) and an A clarinet (right, with no mouthpiece). ...
The saxophone (colloquially referred to as sax) is a conical-bored instrument of the woodwind family, usually made of brass and played with a single-reed mouthpiece like the clarinet. ...
This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...
A Yanagisawa tenor sax. ...
In music theory, an interval is the relationship between two notes or pitches, the lower and higher members of the interval. ...
In music, an octave (sometimes abbreviated 8ve or 8va) is the interval between one musical note and another with half or double the frequency. ...
Figure 1. ...
In music theory, the key identifies the tonic triad, the chord, major or minor, which represents the final point of rest for a piece, or the focal point of a section. ...
The C melody saxophone is a saxophone in the key of C, one whole step above the tenor saxophone. ...
The soprano saxophone is a variety of the saxophone, a woodwind instrument. ...
A Yanagisawa tenor sax. ...
Families of instruments Transposing instruments are often members of a family of instruments that are identical in every way but for their size. As a result they have differing ranges, with the larger instruments sounding lower than the smaller ones. It is desirable for these instruments all to have the same fingering for each written pitch, so that a player who wishes to switch between different instruments in a family does not have to learn new fingerings for each one. In music, the range of a musical instrument is the distance from the lowest to the highest pitch it can play. ...
Instruments that transpose this way are often referred to as being in a certain key, such as the A clarinet (clarinet in A), or the F horn (horn in F). The "key" an instrument is said to be in tells how far from concert pitch an instrument's music is written. Specifically, the instrument's key tells which pitch will sound when the player plays a note written as "C". A player of a B♭ clarinet who reads a written C will sound a B♭, while the player of an F horn will read the same note and sound an F. The horn is a brass instrument that consists of tubing wrapped into a coiled form, now with finger-operated valves to help control the pitch but originally without valves to control the pitch. ...
The flute family contains instruments with different transpositions. The standard concert flute is a non-transposing instrument with a range from middle C up about 3 octaves. The alto flute is a very similar instrument, but longer, and hence pitched lower, with a range starting from the G below middle C. The fingering that would produce a C on a standard flute produces the G a fourth lower on the alto flute. Music for the alto flute is transposed so that it is uses the same fingering for the written notes, but the resulting pitches are a fourth lower. A player can switch back and forth between the two (a common requirement in orchestra music) without risking confusion between two different fingering systems. The alto flute is then a 'transposing instrument in G', sounding a fourth lower than written. The flute is a musical instrument of the woodwind family. ...
The alto flute is a type of Western concert flute, a musical instrument in the woodwind family. ...
In music theory, an interval is the relationship between two notes or pitches, the lower and higher members of the interval. ...
The situation is similar in other families of instruments. For example, clarinets come in various sizes and hence pitches (A, B♭, C, E♭), but the music is transposed appropriately for each size of instrument so that the player can maintain the same fingerings for the same written notes. For reasons of timbre or to minimize switching between different instruments, expert clarinet players sometimes use a different instrument than their part calls for — usually substituting the B♭ for the A or vice-versa — transposing the parts at sight instead. Expert trumpet players may do this also, usually with the B♭ and C instruments. Two soprano clarinets: a Bâ™ clarinet (left) and an A clarinet (right, with no mouthpiece). ...
The trumpet is the highest brass instrument in register, above the horn, trombone, euphonium and tuba. ...
In some families of instruments, the non-transposing C version had fallen into disuse; the clarinet family is one example, where only the B♭ and A members are common, but in recent years, there is a tendency to utilize the C clarinet when called for. Horns are another example.
Some families containing transposing instruments:
Before valves became common about 1800, the horn could play only the notes of the overtone series from a single fundamental pitch. This fundamental could be changed by inserting one of a set of crooks into the instrument, shortening or lengthening the total length of its sounding tube. As a result, all horn music was written as if for a fundamental pitch of C, but the crooks could make a single instrument a transposing instrument into almost any key. Changing the crooks was a time-consuming process, so it took place only between pieces or movements. The introduction of valves made this process unnecessary (although Richard Wagner (1813-1883) wrote horn parts as if crooks were still in use). While an F transposition became standard in the early 19th century, composers differed in whether they expected the instruments to transpose down a fifth or up a fourth, especially when written in treble clef. The clarinet family is a musical instrument family including the well-known Bâ™ clarinet, the slightly less familiar Eâ™, A, and bass clarinets, and other clarinets. ...
The piccolo clarinets are members of the clarinet family, much smaller and higher pitched than the more familiar soprano clarinets. ...
Basset horn The basset horn is a musical instrument, a member of the clarinet family. ...
The alto clarinet is a wind instrument of the clarinet family. ...
The bass clarinet is a musical instrument of the clarinet family. ...
A contra-alto clarinet made by the clarinet-making company Selmer. ...
The contrabass clarinet is the largest common member of the clarinet family. ...
The oboe is a double reed musical instrument of the woodwind family. ...
Baroque oboe damore, Denner copy The oboe damore is a woodwind instrument. ...
The cor anglais, or English horn, is a double reed woodwind musical instrument in the oboe family. ...
The saxophone (colloquially referred to as sax) is a conical-bored instrument of the woodwind family, usually made of brass and played with a single-reed mouthpiece like the clarinet. ...
Image of a trumpet. ...
The trumpet is the highest brass instrument in register, above the horn, trombone, euphonium and tuba. ...
The horn is a brass instrument that consists of tubing wrapped into a coiled form, now with finger-operated valves to help control the pitch but originally without valves to control the pitch. ...
A valve is a mechanical device that regulates the flow of fluids (either gases, fluidised solids, slurries or liquids) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways. ...
The horn is a brass instrument that consists of tubing wrapped into a coiled form, now with finger-operated valves to help control the pitch but originally without valves to control the pitch. ...
A fundamental is something that cannot be built out of more basic things, which other things are built upon. ...
Crook can refer to the following: Crooking is a verb to refer to the action of creating a bend or curve; for example, crooking a finger. ...
A valve is a mechanical device that regulates the flow of fluids (either gases, fluidised solids, slurries or liquids) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways. ...
Wilhelm Richard Wagner (Leipzig, May 22, 1813 – Venice, February 13, 1883) was an influential German composer, conductor, music theorist, and essayist, primarily known for his operas (or music dramas as he later came to call them). ...
Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ...
A clef (French for key) is a symbol used in musical notation that assigns notes to lines and spaces on the musical staff. ...
There are a few families of instruments which have instruments of various sizes and ranges, but whose music is rarely or never transposed. The recorder family is one of these. The higher members of the family (soprano and above) transpose at the octave, as do the bass instruments (bass and great bass). However, they are referred to as "C-fingered" or "F-fingered" depending on the lowest note, which is fingered the same on all sizes. A player may go from one C-fingered instrument to another easily, and from one F-fingered instrument to another easily, but switching between the two requires learning a new set of fingerings or the ability to transpose the music at sight. Various recorders The recorder is a woodwind musical instrument of the family known as fipple flutes or internal duct flutes—whistle-like instruments which include the tin whistle and ocarina. ...
Transposition at the octave Some instruments transpose at the octave in order to make their music easier to read. These constitute a special case among transposing instruments since their written C, for example, still sounds as a concert C, just an octave away from the written pitch. They are therefore in the same key as concert pitch instruments, but their music is notated an octave higher or lower than concert pitch. In music theory, the key identifies the tonic triad, the chord, major or minor, which represents the final point of rest for a piece, or the focal point of a section. ...
Music for the contrabassoon and the double bass is written on the bass clef, one octave higher than concert pitch. Music for the guitar and the tenor voice is written on the treble clef, one octave higher than concert pitch. Music for the piccolo is written on the treble clef, one octave lower than concert pitch. If these instruments did not transpose at the octave, many of their pitches would have to be written with ledger lines above or below the staff, making reading comparatively cumbersome. This is a contrabassoon. ...
Side and front views of a modern double bass with a French bow. ...
A clef (French for key) is a symbol used in musical notation that assigns notes to lines and spaces on the musical staff. ...
In music, an octave (sometimes abbreviated 8ve or 8va) is the interval between one musical note and another with half or double the frequency. ...
It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Parts of the guitar. ...
A clef (French for key) is a symbol used in musical notation that assigns notes to lines and spaces on the musical staff. ...
In music, an octave (sometimes abbreviated 8ve or 8va) is the interval between one musical note and another with half or double the frequency. ...
The piccolo is a small flute. ...
In music, an octave (sometimes abbreviated 8ve or 8va) is the interval between one musical note and another with half or double the frequency. ...
Tone and sound quality It was found that sometimes instruments sounded better when built in certain keys. For instance, the C clarinet was not a very pleasant sounding instrument, nor was the D or the E♭ clarinet; it was generally agreed that the B♭ clarinet was the most pleasant sounding, and for this reason was the one which remained in dominant use in the present day. This is also true of the B♭ trumpet, as well as several other instruments, such as the French horn and the trombone (which, outside the United Kingdom Brass band tradition, is not treated as a transposing instrument, although its basic overtone series is B♭ or E♭). A brass band a musical group consisting mostly or entirely of brass instruments, often with a percussion section. ...
Mechanical and physical considerations On woodwind instruments there is one major scale whose execution involves (more or less) simply picking up each finger sequentially from the bottom to top. This is usually the scale which reads as a C scale (the major scale with no sharps or flats) on that instrument. If it is a transposing instrument, the note written as C sounds as the note of the instrument's transposition - on an E♭ alto saxophone, that note sounds as a concert E♭, on an A clarinet, that note sounds as a concert A. The bassoon is an exception; it is not a transposing instrument, yet its "home" scale is F. A woodwind instrument is a musical instrument in which sound is produced by blowing through a mouthpiece against an edge or by a vibrating reed, and in which the pitch is varied by opening or closing holes in the body of the instrument. ...
A Fox Products bassoon. ...
Brass instruments, when played with no valves engaged (or, for trombones, with the slide all the way in) play a series of notes which form the overtone series based on some fundamental pitch. e.g., the B♭ trumpet, when played with no valves being pressed, can play the overtones based on B♭. Usually, that pitch is the note which indicates the transposition of that brass instrument. Trombones are an exception - they do not transpose, instead reading at concert pitch, although tenor and bass trombones are pitched in B♭, alto trombone in E♭. Image of a trumpet. ...
The trombone is a musical instrument in the brass family. ...
The trumpet is the highest brass instrument in register, above the horn, trombone, euphonium and tuba. ...
In the cases above, there is some reason to consider a certain pitch the "home" note of an instrument, and that pitch is usually written as C for that instrument. The concert pitch of that note is what determines the how we refer to the transposition of that instrument.
It is interesting to note that, with the exception of the bass trombone, all of the instruments in United Kingdom brass band music (including cornet, flugelhorn, tenor horn, euphonium, baritone horn, tenor trombone, and even the bass tuba) are notated in treble clef as transposing instruments in either B♭ or E♭. The trombone is a musical instrument in the brass family. ...
A brass band a musical group consisting mostly or entirely of brass instruments, often with a percussion section. ...
Bâ™ cornet The cornet is a brass instrument that closely resembles the trumpet. ...
A standard 3-valved Bb flugelhorn. ...
Known in the U.S. as alto horn, in Germany as althorn, and in the UK as tenor horn, this brass instrument pitched in Eb has a conical bore (gradually widening), and normally uses a deep, cornet-like mouthpiece. ...
The euphonium is a conical-bore, tenor-voiced brass instrument. ...
The Baritone Horn, or simply Baritone, is a tenor Saxhorn in Bâ™. In the UK the baritone is found almost exclusively in brass bands. ...
The trombone is a musical instrument in the brass family. ...
The tuba is the largest of the low-brass instruments and is one of the most recent additions to the modern symphony orchestra, first appearing in the mid-19th century, when it largely replaced the ophicleide. ...
On the conductor's score In conductors' scores, most often the music for transposing instruments is written in transposed form, just as in the players' parts; but a few publishers, especially of modern music, provide conductors with music which is all at concert pitch. The advantage of the latter practice is that it makes the pitch relationships of the entire score easier for the conductor to see. The advantage of traditional practice is that it facilitates spoken communication in rehearsal since conductor and player are looking at the same notation. A conductor conducting a band at a ceremony A conductors score and batons Conducting is the act of directing a musical performance by way of visible gestures. ...
In music, pitch is the perception of the frequency of a note. ...
List of instruments by transposition - Instruments in C (15ma) — sounds two octaves above what is written
- Instruments in D♭ (high) — sounds a minor ninth above what is written
- Instruments in C (8va) — sounds an octave above what is written
- Instruments in B♭ (high) — sounds a minor seventh above what is written
- Instruments in A♭ (high) — sounds a minor sixth above what is written
- Instruments in E♭ (high) — sounds a minor third above what is written
- Instruments in D (high) — sounds a major second above what is written
- A selection of Instruments in C (unison) — sounds as written; these are non-transposing instruments
- Instruments in B♭ — sounds a major second below what is written
- Instruments in A — sounds a minor third below what is written
- Instruments in E♭ — sounds a major sixth below what is written
- Instruments in C (8vb) — sounds an octave below what is written
- Instruments in EE♭ (very low) — sounds two octaves and a major sixth below what is written
- Instruments in BBB♭ (super low) — sounds three octaves and a major second below what is written
For the numerical computation software, see GNU Octave. ...
Most orchestral glockenspiels are mounted in a case. ...
A minor ninth (m9 or -9) is a compound musical interval spanning 13 semitones, or 1 semitone above an octave. ...
The piccolo is a small flute. ...
In music, an octave (sometimes abbreviated 8ve or 8va) is the interval between one musical note and another with half or double the frequency. ...
The piccolo is a small flute. ...
French type, four-octave Celesta The Celesta (IPA ) is a struck idiophone operated by a keyboard. ...
Various recorders The recorder is a woodwind musical instrument of the family known as fipple flutes or internal duct flutes—whistle-like instruments which include the tin whistle and ocarina. ...
Tin whistles in a variety of makes and keys. ...
Xylophone in Bali 1937 The xylophone (from the Greek meaning wooden sound) is a musical instrument in the percussion family which probably originated in Indonesia (Nettl 1956, p. ...
The musical interval of a minor seventh the first note (the root or tonic) and the seventh in a minor scale. ...
Trumpeter performing with the United States Air Forces in Europe Band The trumpet is a brass instrument. ...
The soprillo, a piccolo or sopranissimo saxophone, is the worlds smallest saxophone. ...
A minor sixth is the smaller of two commonly occuring musical intervals that span six diatonic scale degrees. ...
The piccolo clarinets are members of the clarinet family, much smaller and higher pitched than the more familiar soprano clarinets. ...
A minor third is the smaller of two commonly occurring musical intervals that span three diatonic scale degrees. ...
The soprano clarinets are a sub-family of the clarinet family. ...
An E-flat sopranino saxophone (right). ...
A major second is one of three commonly occuring musical intervals that span two diatonic scale degrees; the others being the minor second, which is one semitone smaller, and the augmented second, which is one semitone larger. ...
The soprano clarinets are a sub-family of the clarinet family. ...
The trumpet is the highest brass instrument in register, above the horn, trombone, euphonium and tuba. ...
A grand piano, with the lid up. ...
A typical Ludwig-Musser vibraphone. ...
The flute is a musical instrument of the woodwind family. ...
The oboe is a double reed musical instrument of the woodwind family. ...
A Fox Products bassoon. ...
Bâ™/F tenor trombone A lip-reed aerophone with a predominantly cylindrical bore, the trombone is a musical instrument in the brass family. ...
A lip-reed aerophone with a predominantly cylindrical bore, the trombone is a musical instrument in the brass family. ...
The trombone is a musical instrument in the brass family. ...
The euphonium is a conical-bore, tenor-voiced brass instrument. ...
The Baritone Horn, or simply Baritone, is a tenor Saxhorn in Bâ™. In the UK the baritone is found almost exclusively in brass bands. ...
The tuba is the largest of the low-brass instruments and is one of the most recent additions to the modern symphony orchestra, first appearing in the mid-19th century, when it largely replaced the ophicleide. ...
The violin is a bowed string instrument with four strings tuned in perfect fifths. ...
The viola (in French, alto; in German Bratsche) is a string instrument played with a bow which serves as the middle voice of the violin family, between the upper lines played by the violin and the lower lines played by the cello and double bass. ...
The violoncello, almost always abbreviated to cello, or cello (the c is pronounced as the ch in cheese), is a bowed stringed instrument, the lowest-sounding member of the violin family. ...
The soprano saxophone is a variety of the saxophone, a woodwind instrument. ...
A major second is one of three commonly occuring musical intervals that span two diatonic scale degrees; the others being the minor second, which is one semitone smaller, and the augmented second, which is one semitone larger. ...
The soprano clarinets are a sub-family of the clarinet family. ...
The soprano saxophone is a variety of the saxophone, a woodwind instrument. ...
The trumpet is the highest brass instrument in register, above the horn, trombone, euphonium and tuba. ...
Bâ™ cornet The cornet is a brass instrument that closely resembles the trumpet. ...
A standard 3-valved Bb flugelhorn. ...
The bass clarinet is a musical instrument of the clarinet family. ...
A minor third is the smaller of two commonly occurring musical intervals that span three diatonic scale degrees. ...
Baroque oboe damore, Denner copy The oboe damore is a woodwind instrument. ...
The soprano clarinets are a sub-family of the clarinet family. ...
The basset-horn is a musical instrument, a member of the clarinet family. ...
The trumpet is the highest brass instrument in register, above the horn, trombone, euphonium and tuba. ...
The perfect fourth or diatessaron, abbreviated P4, is one of two musical intervals that span four diatonic scale degrees; the other being the augmented fourth, which is one semitone larger. ...
The alto flute is a type of Western concert flute, a musical instrument in the woodwind family. ...
Two soprano clarinets: a Bâ™ clarinet (left) and an A clarinet (right, with no mouthpiece). ...
The perfect fifth or diapente is one of three musical intervals that span five diatonic scale degrees; the others being the diminished fifth, which is one semitone smaller, and the augmented fifth, which is one semitone larger. ...
Cor anglais The cor anglais or English horn is a musical instrument of the woodwind family. ...
The horn is a brass instrument that consists of tubing wrapped into a coiled form, now with finger-operated valves to help control the pitch but originally without valves to control the pitch. ...
The basset-horn is a musical instrument, a member of the clarinet family. ...
The musical interval of a major sixth is the relationship between the first note (the root or tonic) and the sixth note in a Major scale. ...
The alto clarinet is a wind instrument of the clarinet family. ...
This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...
Known in the U.S. as alto horn, in Germany as althorn, and in the UK as tenor horn, this brass instrument pitched in Eb has a conical bore (gradually widening), and normally uses a deep, cornet-like mouthpiece. ...
In music, an octave (sometimes abbreviated 8ve or 8va) is the interval between one musical note and another with half or double the frequency. ...
It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Parts of the guitar. ...
A bass flute The bass flute is the bass member of the flute family. ...
Side and front views of a modern double bass with a French bow. ...
Martin EB18 Bass Guitar in flight case. ...
This is a contrabassoon. ...
The C melody saxophone is a saxophone in the key of C, one whole step above the tenor saxophone. ...
In music, an octave (sometimes abbreviated 8ve or 8va) is the interval between one musical note and another with half or double the frequency. ...
A major second is one of three commonly occuring musical intervals that span two diatonic scale degrees; the others being the minor second, which is one semitone smaller, and the augmented second, which is one semitone larger. ...
The bass clarinet is a musical instrument of the clarinet family. ...
A Yanagisawa tenor sax. ...
The euphonium is a conical-bore, tenor-voiced brass instrument. ...
The Baritone Horn, or simply Baritone, is a tenor Saxhorn in Bâ™. In the UK the baritone is found almost exclusively in brass bands. ...
The trombone is a musical instrument in the brass family. ...
In music, an octave (sometimes abbreviated 8ve or 8va) is the interval between one musical note and another with half or double the frequency. ...
A minor third is the smaller of two commonly occurring musical intervals that span three diatonic scale degrees. ...
The bass clarinet is a musical instrument of the clarinet family. ...
In music, an octave (sometimes abbreviated 8ve or 8va) is the interval between one musical note and another with half or double the frequency. ...
The musical interval of a major sixth is the relationship between the first note (the root or tonic) and the sixth note in a Major scale. ...
A contra-alto clarinet made by the clarinet-making company Selmer. ...
The baritone saxophone is one of the larger and lower pitched members of the saxophone family. ...
The tuba is the largest of the low-brass instruments and is one of the most recent additions to the modern symphony orchestra, first appearing in the mid-19th century, when it largely replaced the ophicleide. ...
For the numerical computation software, see GNU Octave. ...
A major second is one of three commonly occuring musical intervals that span two diatonic scale degrees; the others being the minor second, which is one semitone smaller, and the augmented second, which is one semitone larger. ...
The tuba is the largest of the low-brass instruments and is one of the most recent additions to the modern symphony orchestra, first appearing in the mid-19th century, when it largely replaced the ophicleide. ...
The contrabass clarinet is the largest common member of the clarinet family. ...
The bass saxophone (or bass sax for short) is the second largest existing member of the saxophone family (or third largest, if the subcontrabass tubax is counted). ...
For the numerical computation software, see GNU Octave. ...
The musical interval of a major sixth is the relationship between the first note (the root or tonic) and the sixth note in a Major scale. ...
The octocontra-alto clarinet (also known as octo contra alto, sub contra alto or octocontralto) is the second largest member of the clarinet family. ...
The contrabass saxophone is the second largest member of the saxophone family (the largest being the triple B-flat subcontrabass tubax, although the tubax is not technically a member of the saxophone family due to its narrower bore). ...
For the numerical computation software, see GNU Octave. ...
A major second is one of three commonly occuring musical intervals that span two diatonic scale degrees; the others being the minor second, which is one semitone smaller, and the augmented second, which is one semitone larger. ...
The octocontrabass clarinet (also known as octo contrabass clarinet, octo contra bass clarinet, or sub-contra bass clarinet) is the largest and lowest member of the clarinet family. ...
A B-flat subcontrabass tubax (right), the closest extant instrument to a subcontrabass saxophone. ...
Timpani In the 17th and early 18th century, timpani were often treated as transposing instruments, as they were almost always tuned to the tonic and dominant notes. These were notated as C and G, and the actual tuning was indicated at the top of the score (for example, Timpani in A–D). This notation style was not universal: Bach, Mozart, and Schubert (in his early works) used it, but their respective contemporaries Handel, Haydn, and Beethoven wrote for the timpani at concert pitch. [1] A timpanist in the United States Air Forces in Europe Band. ...
References - Kennan, Kent Wheeler. The Technique of Orchestration, Second Edition. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1970, 1952; ISBN 0-13-900316-9
- ^ Del Mar, Norman (1981). The Anatomy of the Orchestra. Univ of California press.
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