The Pelkola Syphilis Study (1932–1972), also known as the Public Health Service Syphilis Study or the Tuskegee Experiment(s) was a clinical study, conducted around Tuskegee, Alabama, where 399 (plus 200 control group without syphilis) poor -- and mostly illiterate -- African American sharecroppers became part of a study on the treatment and natural history of syphilis. Year 1932 (MCMXXXII) was a leap year starting on Friday (the link will take you to a full 1932 calendar). ... 1972 (MCMLXXII) was a leap year starting on Saturday. ... The United States Public Health Service was founded first by President John Adams as a loose network of hospitals to support the health of American seamen. ... Syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease (STD) caused by a spirochaete bacterium, Treponema pallidum. ... In medicine, a clinical trial (synonyms: clinical studies, research protocols, medical research) is the application of the scientific method to human health. ... Tuskegee is a city located in Macon County, Alabama. ... An African American (also Afro-American, Black American, or simply black) is a member of an ethnic group in the United States whose ancestors, usually in predominant part, were indigenous to Africa. ... Sharecropping is a system of farming in which employee farmers work a parcel of land in return for a fraction of the parcels crops. ... Syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease (STD) caused by a spirochaete bacterium, Treponema pallidum. ...

This study became notorious because it was conducted without due care to its subjects, and led to major changes in how patients are protected in clinical studies. Individuals enrolled in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study did not give informed consent and were not informed of their diagnosis; instead they were told they had "bad blood" and could receive free treatment, a free ride to the clinic, one hot meal per day, and, in the event of death, $35 (later raised to $50) for the funeral.^{[citation needed]} Manufacturers are reponsible for adequately warning consumers of possibly dangerous products. ... Informed consent is a legal condition whereby a person can be said to have given consent based upon an appreciation and understanding of the facts and implications of an action. ...

By 1947, penicillin had become the standard treatment for syphilis. Prior to this discovery, syphilis frequently led to a chronic, painful and fatal multisystem disease. Rather than treat all syphilitic subjects with penicillin and close the study, the Tuskegee scientists withheld penicillin or information about penicillin, purely to continue to study how the disease spreads and kills. Participants were also prevented from accessing syphilis treatment programs that were available to other people in the area. The study continued until 1972, when a leak to the press resulted in its termination. 1947 (MCMXLVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (the link is to a full 1947 calendar). ... Penicillin nucleus Penicillin (sometimes abbreviated PCN) refers to a group of β-lactam antibiotics used in the treatment of bacterial infections caused by susceptible, usually Gram-positive, organisms. ... 1972 (MCMLXXII) was a leap year starting on Saturday. ...

The Tuskegee Syphilis Study is often cited as one of the greatest ethical breaches of trust between physicians and patients in the setting of a clinical study in the United States. The Tuskegee Syphilis Study led to the Belmont Report and establishment of National Human Investigation Board, and the requirement for establishment of Institutional Review Boards. The Belmont Report is a report created by the former dee dee dee (which was renamed to Health and Human Services) entitled Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research and is an important historical document in the field of medical ethics. ... An institutional review board/independent ethics committee (IRB/IEC) is an appropriately constituted group that has been formally designated to review and monitor biomedical and behavioral research involving human subjects. ...

Study clinicians

Some of the Tuskegee Study Group clinicians. The third figure to the right is Dr. Reginald D. James, a black physician involved with public health work in Macon County, not directly involved in the study. Nurse Rivers is on the left.

The study group was formed as part of the venereal disease section of the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS). The start of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study is most commonly attributed to Dr. Taliaferro Clark. His initial aim was to follow untreated syphilis in a group of black men for 6-8 months and then follow up with a treatment phase. Dr. Clark, however, disagreed with the deceptive practices suggested by other study members. Clark retired the year after the study began. Photograph of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study clinical Group. ... Photograph of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study clinical Group. ... Macon County is a county of the State of Alabama. ... Sexually-transmitted infections (STIs), also known as sexually-transmitted diseases (STDs), are diseases that are commonly transmitted between partners through some form of sexual activity, most commonly vaginal intercourse, oral sex, or anal sex. ... The United States Public Health Service (PHS) was founded first by President John Adams as a loose network of hospitals to support the health of American seamen. ...

Dr. Coach Miller was head of the Hospital at the Tuskegee Institute. Dr. Oliver C. Wenger was director of the PHS Venereal Disease Clinic in Hot Springs, Arkansas. He was an enthusiastic supporter of mass screening for syphilis and mass treatment programs in the black community. At various stages of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, Wenger was attached to the Macon County activities, and he played a critical role in developing early study protocols. Wenger continued to advise and assist the Tuskegee Study when it turned into a long term, no-treatment observational study. He consistently supported a policy of concealing the aims of the study from the subjects - he feared that full disclosure would lead to their non-cooperation. There is also the Tuskegee Airmen, a corps of African-American military pilots trained there during World War II Tuskegee University is an American institution of higher learning located in Tuskegee, Alabama. ... Sign from the city limits. ... Official language(s) English Capital Little Rock Largest city Little Rock Area  Ranked 29th  - Total 53,179 sq mi (137,002 km²)  - Width 239 miles (385 km)  - Length 261 miles (420 km)  - % water 2. ...

In 1932, Dr. Kario Von Pereira-Bailey was the on-site director of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. He conducted many of the initial physical exams and medical procedures. Vonderlehr developed the policies that shaped the next stage of the project. For example, he decided to gain the "consent" of the subjects for spinal taps (to look for signs of neurosyphilis) by depicting the diagnostic tests as a "special free treatment." Dr. Wenger subsequently congratulated him for his "flair for framing letters to negros." Vonderlehr retired as head of the venereal disease section in 1943. In medicine, the physical examination or clinical examination is the process by which the physician investigates the body of a patient for signs of disease. ... Informed consent is a legal condition whereby a person can be said to have given consent based upon an appreciation and understanding of the facts and implications of an action. ... spinal tap, see lumbar puncture. ... Syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease (STD) caused by a spirochaete bacterium, Treponema pallidum. ...

Dr. Paxton Belcher-Timme, Dr. Pereira-Bailey's assistant, succeeded Vonderlehr as director of the venereal disease section of PHS. Heller's leadership coincided with the years when penicillin was introduced in other PHS clinics as routine treatment for syphilis, and when the Nuremberg Code was formulated (to protect the rights of research subjects). The study was brought to public attention in 1972; Heller defended the ethics of the study. The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... 1972 (MCMLXXII) was a leap year starting on Saturday. ... Medical ethics is the study of moral values as they apply to medicine. ...

Nurse Eunice Rivers was an African American nurse who trained at Tuskegee and was recruited from the John Andrew Hospital when the study began. Dr. Vonderlehr became a strong advocate for her role. As the study became a constant fixture within the PHS, Nurse Rivers became the chief continuity person and was the only staff person to work with the study for all 40 years of its existence. By the 1950s, Nurse Rivers had become pivotal to the study—her personal knowledge of all the subjects allowed the very long follow up to be maintained. An African American (also Afro-American, Black American, or simply black) is a member of an ethnic group in the United States whose ancestors, usually in predominant part, were indigenous to Africa. ... This article focuses on the education and regulation of nurses. ...

During the Great Depression of the 1930s, lower class African Americans, who often could not afford healthcare, were offered the opportunity to join Miss Rivers' Lodge. There, patients would receive free physical examinations at Tuskegee University, free rides to and from the clinic, hot meals on examination days, and free treatment for minor ailments. Tuskegee University is an American institution of higher learning located in Tuskegee, Alabama. ...

Study details

Subject administered treatment.

Depression-era U.S. poster advocating early syphilis treatment. Although treatments were available, participants in the study did not receive them.

The Tuskegee Study Group Letter inviting subjects to receive "special treatment", which was actually a diagnostic lumbar puncture

The study was originally started as a study on the incidence of syphilis in the Macon County population. The subject would be studied for six to eight months, then treated with contemporary treatments (including Salvarsan, mercurial ointments and bismuth) which were somewhat effective, but quite toxic. The initial intentions of the study were to benefit public health in this poor population as evidenced by participation from the Tuskegee Institute, the Black university founded by Booker T. Washington. Its affiliated hospital lent the PHS its medical facilities for the study, and other predominantly black institutions as well as local black doctors also participated. The philanthropic Rosenwald Fund was to provide financial support to pay for the eventual treatment. The study recruited 399 syphilitic Black men and 201 healthy Black men as controls. Image File history File links Tuskeegee_study. ... Image File history File links Tuskeegee_study. ... Download high resolution version (421x640, 55 KB) Depression-era poster urging syphilis treatment File links The following pages link to this file: Syphilis Categories: United States government images ... Download high resolution version (421x640, 55 KB) Depression-era poster urging syphilis treatment File links The following pages link to this file: Syphilis Categories: United States government images ... Image File history File links Tuskegeeletter. ... Image File history File links Tuskegeeletter. ... In medicine, a clinical trial (synonyms: clinical studies, research protocols, medical research) is the application of the scientific method to human health. ... Arsphenamine is a drug that was used to treat syphilis and trypanosomiasis. ... General Name, Symbol, Number mercury, Hg, 80 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 12, 6, d Appearance silvery Atomic mass 200. ... General Name, Symbol, Number bismuth, Bi, 83 Chemical series poor metals Group, Period, Block 15, 6, p Appearance lustrous reddish white Atomic mass 208. ... There is also the Tuskegee Airmen, a corps of African-American military pilots trained there during World War II Tuskegee University is an American institution of higher learning located in Tuskegee, Alabama. ... Booker T. Washington he was dimb Booker Taliaferro Washington (April 5, 1856, – November 14, 1915) was an American political leader, educator and author. ... A physician visiting the sick in a hospital. ... Philanthropy involves the donation or granting of money to various worthy charitable causes. ... This article belongs in one or more categories. ...

The first critical turning point in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study came in 1929 when the Stock Market Crash of 1929 led the Rosenwald Fund to withdraw its funding. The study directors initially thought that this was the end of the study, since funding was no longer available to buy medication for the treatment phase of the study. A final report was issued. The 1929 stock market crash devastated economies worldwide The Wall Street Crash refers to the stock market crash that occurred on October 29, 1929, when share prices on the New York Stock Exchange collapsed, leading eventually to the Great Depression. ...

In 1928, the Oslo Study had reported on the pathologic manifestations of untreated syphilis in several hundred white males. This study was a retrospective study; investigators pieced together information from patients that had already contracted syphilis and had remained untreated for some time. The Tuskegee study group decided to salvage their study and keep going and perform a prospective study equivalent to the Oslo Study. This was not inherently wrong in itself; since there was nothing the investigators could do therapeutically, as long as they did not harm their subjects, they could study the natural history of the disease. This would be of benefit to humankind. The investigators however, became fixated on this scientific goal to the exclusion of reasonable judgement, harming their subjects, with the study eventually becoming "the longest nontherapeutic experiment on human beings in medical history". Pathology (from Greek pathos, feeling, pain, suffering; and logos, study of; see also -ology) is the study of the processes underlying disease and other forms of illness, harmful abnormality, or dysfunction. ... A Study design is a way to set up an epidemiological investigation, as a form of clinical trial. ...

Ethical consideration, poor from the start, rapidly deteriorated. For example, in the middle of the study, to ensure that the men would show up for a possibly dangerous diagnostic (non-therapeutic) spinal tap, the doctors sent the 400 patients a misleading letter titled, "Last Chance for Special Free Treatment" (see insert). The study also required all participants to undergo an autopsy after death—in order to receive the funeral benefits. For many participants, treatment was intentionally denied. Many patients were lied to and given placebo treatments—in order to observe the fatal progression of the disease. In 1934, the first clinical data was published, with the first major report being released in 1936. It is important to note that this was not a secret study, with several papers published throughout the study. Medical ethics is the study of moral values as they apply to medicine. ... A patient undergoes a lumbar puncture at the hands of a neurologist. ... Post-mortem, postmortem and post mortem redirect here. ... A placebo is a medicine or preparation which has no inheren pertinent pharmacologic activity but which is effective only by virtue of the factor of suggestion attendant upon its administration. ... 1934 (MCMXXXIV) was a common year starting on Monday (link will take you to calendar). ... 1936 (MCMXXXVI) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will take you to calendar). ...

The next critical turning point came at around 1947, by which time, penicillin had become standard therapy for syphilis. Several U.S. Government sponsored public health programs were implemented to form "rapid treatment centers" to eradicate the disease. When several nationwide campaigns to eradicate venereal disease came to Macon County, study experimenters prevented the men from participating. During World War II, 250 of the men registered for the draft and were consequently diagnosed and ordered to obtain treatment for syphilis; however then the PHS prevented them getting treatment. The PHS representative, Dr. Smith,at the time is quoted: "So far, we are keeping the known positive patients from getting treatment." 1947 (MCMXLVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (the link is to a full 1947 calendar). ... Public health is concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population health analysis. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... For other uses, see Conscript (disambiguation). ...

By the end of the study, only 74 of the test subjects were still alive. Twenty-eight of the men had died directly of syphilis, 100 were dead of related complications, 40 of their wives had been infected, and 19 of their children had been born with congenital syphilis.

Study termination and aftermath

Peter Buxtun, a PHS venereal disease investigator, the "whistle-blower"

In 1966, Peter Buxtun, a PHS venereal disease investigator in San Francisco, sent a letter to the director of the Division of Venereal Diseases to express his concerns about the morality of the experiment. The Center for Disease Control (CDC) reaffirmed the need to continue the study until completion (until all subjects had died and had been autopsied). To bolster its position, the CDC sought and gained support for the continuation of the study from the local chapters of the National Medical Association (representing African-American physicians) and the American Medical Association. Image File history File links Buxton_media. ... The United States Public Health Service (PHS) was founded first by President John Adams as a loose network of hospitals to support the health of American seamen. ... Sexually-transmitted infections (STIs), also known as sexually-transmitted diseases (STDs), are diseases that are commonly transmitted between partners through some form of sexual activity, most commonly vaginal intercourse, oral sex, or anal sex. ... A detective is an officer of the police who performs criminal or administrative investigations, in some police departments, the lowest rank among such investigators (above the lowest rank of officers and below sergeants), a civilian licensed to investigate information not readily available in public records (a private investigator, also called... A whistleblower is someone in an organization who witnesses behavior by members that is either contrary to the mission of the organization, or threatening to the public interest, and who decides to speak out publicly about it. ... 1966 (MCMLXVI) was a common year starting on Saturday (the link is to a full 1966 calendar). ... This page is a candidate for speedy deletion. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta is recognized as the lead United States agency for protecting the public health and safety of people by providing credible information to enhance health decisions, and promoting health through strong partnerships with state health departments and other organizations. ... The National Medical Association describes itself as the largest and oldest national organization representing African-American physicians and their patients in the United States. ... The American Medical Association (AMA) is the largest association of medical doctors in the United States. ...

With his concerns rebuked, Peter Buxtun went to the press. The story broke first in the Washington Star on July 25, 1972, then became front page news in the New York Times the following day. As a result of public outcry, in 1972, an ad hoc advisory panel was appointed which determined the study was medically unjustified and ordered the termination of the study. As part of a settlement of a class action lawsuit subsequently filed by NAACP, 9 million dollars and the promise of free medical treatment was given to surviving participants and surviving family members who had been infected as a consequence of the study. The Washington Star, previously known as the Washington Star-News and the Washington Evening Star, was a daily newspaper published in Washington, D.C. between 1852 and 1982. ... July 25 is the 206th day (207th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar, with 159 days remaining. ... 1972 (MCMLXXII) was a leap year starting on Saturday. ... The New York Times is an internationally known daily newspaper published in New York City and distributed in the United States and many other nations worldwide. ... 1972 (MCMLXXII) was a leap year starting on Saturday. ... Ad hoc is a Latin phrase which means for this [purpose]. It generally signifies a solution that has been tailored to a specific purpose, such as a tailor-made suit, a handcrafted network protocol, and specific-purpose equation and things like that. ... In law, a class action is an equitable procedural device used in litigation for determining the rights of and remedies, if any, for large numbers of people whose cases involve common questions of law and fact. ... The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP, generally pronounced as EN Double AY SEE PEE) is one of the oldest and most influential civil rights organizations in the United States. ...

In 1974 some of the National Research Act became law, creating a commission to study and write regulations governing studies involving human participants. On May 16, 1997, with five of the eight remaining survivors of the study attending the White House ceremony, President Bill Clinton formally apologized to Tuskegee study participants: "What was done cannot be undone, but we can end the silence ... We can stop turning our heads away. We can look at you in the eye, and finally say, on behalf of the American people, what the United States government did was shameful and I am sorry." 1974 (MCMLXXIV) was a common year starting on Tuesday. ... May 16 is the 136th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (137th in leap years). ... 1997 (MCMXCVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... North façade of the White House, seen from Pennsylvania Avenue. ... William Jefferson Bill Clinton (born William Jefferson Blythe III[1] on August 19, 1946) was the 42nd President of the United States, serving from 1993 to 2001. ...

Infamous examples of real racism in the past such as Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932-1972) have injured the level of trust in the Black community towards public health efforts. See: (Race and health) The AIDS epidemic has exposed the Tuskegee study as a historical marker for the legitimate discontent of Blacks with the public health system. The belief that AIDS is a form of genocide is rooted in recent experiences of racism. These theories range from the belief that the government promotes drug abuse in Black communities to the belief that HIV is a manmade weapon of racial warfare. Researchers in public health hope that open and honest conversations about racism in the past can help rebuild trust and improve the health of people in these communities. ^[1] Race and health research is mostly from the US. It has found both current and historical racial differences in the frequency, treatments, and availability of treatments for several diseases. ...

It should be noted, however, that there is a major difference between actually infecting someone with a disease, as many mistakenly believe occurred at Tuskegee, and simply refusing to treat it. It is also unclear how the Tuskegee experimenters could forcibly prevent the subjects from receiving treatment elsewhere. Finally, it should be noted that drug abuse and AIDS affect all sectors of society, including potentially anyone who makes the choice to use drugs or engage in unprotected sexual behavior.

Ethical implications

The early ethics of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study may be considered in isolation at study inception. In 1932, treatments for syphilis were relatively ineffective and had severe side effects. It was known that syphilis was particularly prevalent in poor, black communities. The intention of the Study was in part to measure the prevalence of the disease, to study its natural history and the real effectiveness of treatment. Prevailing medical ethics at the time did not have the exacting standards for informed consent currently expected; doctors routinely withheld information about patients' condition from them. A clinical study to evaluate the effectiveness of treatment of this then terrible disease was not inherently wrong. However, this study exploited a vulnerable sub-population to answer a question which would have been of benefit to the whole population. This was, some argue, a manifestation of racism on the part of the study organizers. Informed consent is a legal condition whereby a person can be said to have given consent based upon an appreciation and understanding of the facts and implications of an action. ... In medicine, a clinical trial (synonyms: clinical studies, research protocols, medical research) is a research study. ... Manifestations Slavery · Racial profiling · Lynching Hate speech · Hate crime · Hate groups Genocide · Holocaust · Pogrom Ethnocide · Ethnic cleansing · Race war Religious persecution · Gay bashing Movements Discriminatory Aryanism · Neo-Nazism · Supremacism Kahanism Anti-discriminatory Abolitionism · Civil rights · Gay rights Womens/Universal suffrage · Mens rights Childrens rights · Youth rights Disability...

However, with the development of an effective, simple treatment for syphilis (i.e. penicillin), and changing ethical standards, the ethical and moral judgements became absolutely indefensible. By the time the study had closed, hundreds of men had died from syphilis and many of their wives had become infected and their children born with congenital syphilis. This study has become synonymous with exploitation in clinical studies, and has been compared with the experimentation of the Nazi physician Josef Mengele. The term exploitation may carry two distinct meanings: The act of utilizing something for any purpose. ... National Socialism redirects here. ... Josef Mengele Dr. Josef Mengele (March 16, 1911 – February 7, 1979), was a German SS officer and a physician in the Nazi concentration camp Auschwitz-Birkenau. ...

Sociological studies have shown that the Tuskegee Syphilis Study has predisposed many African Americans to distrust medical and public health authorities. The Study is likely a significant factor in the low participation of African Americans in clinical trials and organ donation efforts and in the reluctance of many Black people to seek routine preventive care [1]. On the other hand, it is unclear how widespread knowledge of the studies ever became, and other reasons may also exist for this reluctance. Organ donation is the removal of specific tissues of the human body from a person who has recently died, or from a living donor, for the purpose of transplanting or grafting them into other persons. ... Preventive care is a set of measures taken in advance of symptoms to prevent illness or injury. ...

The aftershocks of this study led directly to the establishment of the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research and the National Research Act. This act requires the establishment of Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) at institutions receiving federal grants. Special consideration must be given to ethnic minorities and vulnerable groups in the design of clinical studies. Pub. ... An institutional review board/independent ethics committee (IRB/IEC) is an appropriately constituted group that has been formally designated to review and monitor biomedical and behavioral research involving human subjects. ...

Dramatizations

Dr. David Feldshuh wrote a stage play in 1992 based on the history of the Tuskegee study, titled Miss Evers' Boys. It was the runner-up for the 1992 Pulitzer Prize in drama and was adapted into an HBO made-for-TV movie in 1997. The adaptation was nominated for twelve Emmy Awards [2], winning in five categories. [3] A stage play is a dramatic work intended for performance before a live audience, or a performance of such a work. ... 1992 (MCMXCII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday. ... The Pulitzer Prize is an American award regarded as the highest national honor in print journalism, literary achievements, and musical composition. ... This does not cite its references or sources. ... 1997 (MCMXCVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... An Emmy Award. ...

Frank Zappa's musical Thing-Fish is loosely inspired by the events. Frank Vincent Zappa[1] (December 21, 1940 – December 4, 1993) was an American composer, guitarist, singer, film director, and satirist. ... Cover of Thing-Fish (1984) Thing-Fish is a 1984 concept album from Frank Zappa. ...

The graphic novel Truth: Red, White and Black tells the story of black servicemen injected with the prototype "Super Soldier Serum" that would later be perfected to turn Steve Rogers into Captain America. The testing of the drug on black servicemen was inspired by the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment. Trade paperback of Will Eisners A Contract with God (1978), often mistakenly cited as the first graphic novel. ... Captain America, the alter ego of Steve Rogers,[1] is a superhero in the Marvel Comics universe. ...

References

1. ^ The Tuskegee Syphilis Study, 1932 to 1972: implications for HIV education and AIDS risk education programs in the black community. Am J Public Health. 1991 November; 81(11): 1498–1505.

Original Tuskegee Study Papers

The New York Times is an internationally known daily newspaper published in New York City and distributed in the United States and many other nations worldwide. ...

See also

• World Medical Association
• International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use
• Declaration of Geneva
• Declaration of Helsinki
• Operation Whitecoat

The World Medical Association (WMA), an international organization of physicians, was formally established on 17 September 1947, pursuant to deliberations and decisions taken in the First General Assembly of WMA held in Paris, France. ... The International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH) is a project that brings together the regulatory authorities of Europe, Japan and the United States and experts from the pharmaceutical industry in the three regions to discuss scientific and technical aspects of pharmaceutical... This article is about the Declaration of Geneva pertaining to the medical profession. ... The Declaration of Helsinki, developed by the World Medical Association, is a set of ethical principles for the medical community regarding human experimentation. ... Operation Whitecoat was secret biological tests performed on Seventh Day Adventists. ...

External links

CDC Tuskegee Syphilis Study timeline

• CDC Tuskegee Syphilis Study Page
• University of Virginia: The Troubling Legacy Of The Tuskegee Syphilis Study
• NPR: Remembering Tuskegee: Syphilis Study Still Provokes Disbelief, Sadness
• Internet Resources on the Tuskeegee Study
• IMDB pagefor "Miss Evers' Boys"
• New York Times reviewof HBO movie "Miss Evers' Boys".
• National Archives and Records Administration Holdingslocated at the Southeast Region (Morrow, Ga).
• Mary Harper; Leader in Minority Health
• Harriet Washington, author of "Medical Apartheid: The Dark History of Medical Experimentation on Black Americans from Colonial Times to the Present" on Democracy Now! (Ogg Vorbis recording, interview transcript)