The word typology literally means the study of types. Beyond this simple definition, the term has at least six distinct uses in the fields listed below: Type has historically had the following uses: In biology, a type is the specimen or specimens upon which an original species description is based. ...

Archaeology

In archaeology a typology is the result of the classification of things according to their characteristics. It is based on a view of the world familiar from Plato's metaphysics called essentialism. Essentialism is the idea that world is divided into real, discontinuous and immutable ‘kinds’. This idea is the basis for most typological constructions, particularly of stone artefacts where essential forms are often thought of as ‘mental templates’, or combinations of traits that are favoured by the maker. Variation in artefact form and attributes is seen as a consequence of the imperfect realization of the template, and is usually attributed to differences in raw material properties or individuals' technical competences. Importance and applicability Most of human history is not described by any written records. ... Classification may refer to: Taxonomic classification See also class (philosophy) Statistical classification Hint: Language use may refer to a taxonomic classification that is used for statistical purposes also as a statistical classification (like International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems). ... Statue of a philosopher, presumably Plato, in Delphi. ... Metaphysics (Greek words meta = after/beyond and physics = nature) is a branch of philosophy concerned with the study of first principles and being (ontology). ... Essentialism is the belief and practice centered around a philosophical claim that for any specific kind of entity it is at least theoretically possible to specify a finite list of characteristics, all of which any entity must have to belong to the group defined. ...

In the 19th and early 20th Centuries archaeological typologies were usually constructed using a combination of empirical observation and intuition. With the development of statistical techniques and numerical taxonomy in the 1960s, mathematical methods (including Cluster analysis, Principal components analysis, correspondence analysis and Factor analysis) have been used to build typologies. During the 1990s archaeologists began to use phylogenetic methods borrowed from Cladistics. Data clustering is a common technique for data analysis, which is used in many fields, including machine learning, data mining, pattern recognition, image analysis and bioinformatics. ... In statistics, principal components analysis (PCA) is a technique that can be used to simplify a dataset; more formally it is a linear transformation that chooses a new coordinate system for the data set such that the greatest variance by any projection of the data set comes to lie on... Factor analysis is a statistical technique that originated in mathematical psychology. ... This cladogram shows the relationship among various insect groups. ...

See also Taxonomy, seriation Taxonomy (from Greek ταξινομία (taxinomia) from the words taxis = order and nomos = law) may refer to either the classification of things, or the principles underlying the classification. ... // Seriaton in Archaeology Seriation is a method in relative dating in which artifacts of numerous sites, in the same culture, are placed in chronological order. ...

References

Dunnell, R.C. (1986) Methodological issues in Americanist artifact classification. In M.B. Schiffer (ed.) Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory. Pp.35-99. New York: Academic Press.

Hill, J.N. and R.K. Evans (1972) A model for classification and typology. In D.L. Clarke (ed.) Models in Archaeology. Pp.231-274. London: Methuen.

Whallon, R. and J.A.Brown (eds) (1982) Essays on Archaeological Typology. Evanston: Center for American Archaeology Press.

Anthropology

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, anthropologists used a typological model to divide people from different cultures into "races," (e.g. negroid, caucasoid, mongoloid). This approach focused on a small number of traits that are readily observable from a distance such as skin color, hair form, body build, and stature. Skull of the classic Negroid phenotype Negroid is one of the major races of humans that are found in Sub-Saharan Africa and it includes the Nilotes of East Africa, and the true Negros of West Africa who are the ancestors of most of the Negroids in the Americas and... Typical Caucasoid Skull Caucasoid describes the racial classification (or typology) of humans from Western Eurasia and North Africa and from South Asia. ... A portrait of the Mongol ruler Genghis Khan Taiwanese aborigine dancer. ...

The typological model was built on the assumption that humans can be assigned to a race based on some small number of traits. This assumption has proven false over time, and the typological model in anthropology is now thoroughly discredited. Current mainstream thinking is that the morphological traits that those who cling to the typological model use are due to simple variations in specific regions, and are the effect of climactic selective pressures.^[1] There are a minority of commentators who claim that the typological model of race is still valid,^[2] but their work has been criticized as anecdotal and unsupported by credible scientific evidence.[3] This debate is covered in more detail in the article on race. A race is a population of humans distinguished from other populations. ...

References

Cavalli-Sforza, Menozzi and Piazza, "The History and Geography of Human Genes"

^ Modern Human Variation: Models of Classification [4]

^ Miele, Sarch, "Race: The Reality of Human Differences"

Brown, Ryan A and Armelagos, George, "Apportionment of Racial Diversity: A Review" Evolutionary Anthropology 10:34 – 40 (2001) [5]

Linguistics

Typology is a branch of linguistics which concerns itself with comparing the properties that languages have, disregarding their genetic relationships. Broadly conceived, linguistics is the scientific study of human language, and a linguist is someone who engages in this study. ...

See linguistic typology and morphological typology. The linguistic typology is the typology that classifies languages by their features. ... Morphological typology was developed by brothers Friedrich and August von Schlegel. ...

Psychology

Carl Gustav Jung proposed a psychological typology based on archetypes. Carl Gustav Jung Carl Gustav Jung (July 26, 1875 – June 6, 1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist and founder of the neopsychoanalytic school of psychology. ... Psychology (ancient Greek: psyche = soul and logos = word) is the study of mind, thought, and behaviour. ...

See Jungian Archetypes. Archetype is defined as the original model of which all other similar persons, objects, or concepts are merely derivative, copied, patterned, or emulated. ...

Also, Katherine Briggs and Isabel Myers developed a typology that categorizes a person by personality types. Katharine Briggs, along with her daughter Isabel Myers, is the co-creator of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. ... Isabel Myers, along with her mother Katherine Briggs, is the co-creator of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. ...

See Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. The Center for Applications of Psychological Type is a non-profit organization co-founded by Isabel Myers in 1975 for MBTI development, research and training. ...

Sociology

Typological terms in sociology have been developed by Ferdinand Tönnies (see normal type) and Max Weber (see ideal type). Social interactions of people and their consequences are the subject of sociology studies. ... Ferdinand Tönnies (July 26, 1855, near Oldenswort (Eiderstedt) - April 9, 1936, Kiel, Germany) was a German sociologist. ... The typological term normal type (in German: Normaltyp) has been coined by Ferdinand Tönnies (1855-1936, German sociologist). ... Maximilian Weber (April 21, 1864 – June 14, 1920) was a German political economist and sociologist who is considered one of the founders of the modern, antipositivistic study of sociology and public administration. ... Ideal type, also know as pure type, or idealtyp (in the original German), is an typological term invented by sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920). ...

Theology

Main article: Allegory in the Middle Ages Noah and the baptismal flood of the Old Testament (top panel) is typographically linked (prefigured) by the baptism of Jesus in the New Testament (bottom panel). ...

Typology is a theological doctrine or theory of types and their antitypes found in scripture. Medieval allegory began as an early Christian method for synthesizing the discrepancies between the Old Testament and the New Testament. While both testaments were studied and seen as equally divinely inspired by God, the Old Testament contained discontinuities for Christians -- for example the Jewish kosher laws. The Old Testament was therefore seen in relation to how it would predict the events of the New Testament, in particular how the events of the Old Testament related to the events of Christs life. The events of the Old Testament were seen as part of the story, a precursor, with the events of Christs life bringing these stories to a full conclusion. The technical name for seeing the New Testament in the Old Testament is called typology. Theology is reasoned discourse concerning God (Greek θεος, theos, God, + λογος, logos, word or reason). It also refers to the study of other religious topics. ... A type in biblical theology is a figure, representation, event, or symbol in the bible which is believed to be a prefigurement designed by God to foreshadow things to come. ... Many religions and spiritual movements hold certain written texts (or series of spoken legends not traditionally written down) to be sacred. ... The Old Testament or the Hebrew Scriptures (also called the Hebrew Bible) constitutes the first major part of the Bible according to Christianity. ... The New Testament, sometimes called the Greek Testament or Greek Scriptures is the name given to the part of the Christian Bible that was written after the birth of Jesus. ... The term God is capitalized in the English language as a proper noun when used to refer to a specific monotheistic concept of a Supreme Being in accordance with Christian, Jewish (as G-d - cf. ... The circled U indicates that this can of tuna is certified kosher by the Union of Orthodox Congregations. ...

One example of typology is the story of Jonah and the whale from the Old Testament. Medieval allegorical interpretation of this story is that it prefigures Christ's burial, the stomach of the whale as Christ's tomb. Jonah was eventually freed from the whale after three days, so did Christ rise from his tomb after three days. Thus, whenever one finds an allusion to Jonah in Medieval art or literature, it is usually an allegory for the burial and resurrection of Christ. Another common typological allegory is with the four major Old testament prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel. These four prophets prefigure the four Apostles Matthew, Mark, Luke, John. There was no end to the number of analogies that commentators could find between stories of the Old Testament and the New. The Prophet Jonah, as depicted by Michelangelo in the Sistine Chapel Jonah (יוֹנָה Dove, Standard Hebrew Yona, Tiberian Hebrew Yônāh) was a person in the Bible Old Testament and Jewish Tanakh, the son of Amittai, from the Galilean village of Gath-hepher, near Nazareth. ... Isaiah the Prophet in Hebrew Scriptures was depicted on the Sistine Chapel ceiling by Michelangelo. ... Jeremiah Lamenting the Destruction of Jerusalem by Rembrandt van Rijn Jeremiah or Yirmiyáhu (יִרְמְיָהוּ Raised-up/Appointed of the LORD, Standard Hebrew Yirməyáhu, Tiberian Hebrew Yirməyāhû) was one of the greater prophets of the Old Testament, and the son of Hilkiah, a priest of Anathoth. ... Ezekiel the Prophet of the Hebrew Scriptures is depicted on a 1510 Sistine Chapel fresco by Michelangelo. ... alien+alien = daniel ... The name Matthew comes from Hebrew מתי Mattay, (Matthias in Greek) a short form of Hebrew מת(נ)יהו Mattanyāhû/Mattayyāhû, which is itself a variation of Hebrew נתניהו Nəṯanyāhû, which means gift of the lord. Matthew (name) — as a given name, surname, and place name. ... Mark (brighton) - Idiot From Oxford and cherwell College, quite feminine // Name Originates from latin meaning martial. ... Luke may refer to: A personal name, sometimes short for Lucas. ... John is a common name for males. ...