An underwater explosion, also known as an UNDEX, is an explosion beneath the surface of water. The type of explosion may be chemical or nuclear. They are categorised in accordance with their depth beneath the water's surface, because this has a strong influence on their effects. Preparing C-4 explosive This article is concerned solely with chemical explosives. ... A nuclear explosive is an explosive device that derives its energy from nuclear reactions. ...

Effects

The effects that an underwater explosion will have at a particular place depends on a number of parameters; the energy of the explosion, the depth of the explosion, the depth of the water from the surface to the sea bottom, and the distance from the place to the explosion.^[3]

Underwater explosions are categorised by the depth of the explosion. Shallow underwater explosions are those where the crater formed at the water's surface is large in comparison with the depth of the explosion. Deep underwater explosions are those where the crater is small in comparison with the depth of the explosion.^[3]

Shallow underwater explosion

The BAKER test, just after the chimney had broken through the Wilson cloud, and the crack had formed on the water's surface

An example of a shallow underwater explosion is the BAKER nuclear test at Bikini Atoll in July 1946, which was part of Operation Crossroads. A 20 kiloton warhead was detonated in a lagoon which was approximately 200 feet deep. The first effect was illumination of the water because of the underwater fireball. A rapidly expanding gas bubble created a shock wave that caused an expanding ring of apparently dark water at the surface, called the slick, followed by an expanding ring of apparently white water, called the crack. A mound of water and spray, called the spray dome, formed at the water's surface which became more columnar as it rose. When the rising gas bubble broke the surface, it ejected gas into the air, which condensed to form a Wilson cloud because of the shock wave. Water filling the cavity formed by the bubble caused a hollow column of water, called the chimney or plume, to rise 6000 feet in the air and break through the top of the Wilson cloud. A series of surface waves moved outwards from the center. The first wave was about 94 feet high at 1000 feet from the center. Other waves followed, and at further distances some of these were higher than the first wave. For example, at 22,000 feet from the center, the ninth wave was the highest at 6 feet. Gravity caused the column to fall to the surface and caused a cloud of mist to move outwards rapidly from the base of the column, called the base surge. The ultimate size of the base surge was 3½ miles in diameter and 1800 feet high. The base surge rose from the surface and merged with other products of the explosion, to form clouds which produced moderate to heavy rainfall for nearly one hour.^[1] Download high resolution version (800x629, 70 KB)A 21 kiloton underwater nuclear weapons effects test, known as Operation CROSSROADS (Event Baker), conducted at Bikini Atoll (1946). ... Download high resolution version (800x629, 70 KB)A 21 kiloton underwater nuclear weapons effects test, known as Operation CROSSROADS (Event Baker), conducted at Bikini Atoll (1946). ... Bikini Atoll - NASA NLT Landsat 7 (Visible Color) Satellite Image Bikini Atoll (also known as Pikinni Atoll) is an uninhabited 6. ... A 21 kiloton underwater nuclear weapons effects test, known as Operation Crossroads (Event Baker), conducted at Bikini Atoll (1946). ... A megaton or megatonne is a unit of mass equal to 1,000,000 metric tons, i. ... This mid bay barrier in Narrabeen, a suburb of Sydney (Australia), has blocked what used to be a bay to form a lagoon. ... Introduction The shock wave is one of several different ways in which a gas in a supersonic flow can be compressed. ... Discovery of the positron in 1932 by Carl D. Anderson in a cloud chamber The cloud chamber, also known as the Wilson chamber, is used for detecting particles of ionizing radiation. ... Ocean waves Ocean surface waves are surface waves which occur at the surface of an ocean. ...

Deep underwater explosion

The WIGWAM test, at the time of the formation of the spray dome

An example of a deep underwater explosion is the WAHOO test, which was carried out in 1958 as part of Operation Hardtack. The nuclear device was detonated at a depth of 500 feet in deep water. There was little evidence of a fireball. The spray dome rose to a height of 900 feet. Gas from the bubble broke through the spray dome to form jets which shot out in all directions and reached heights of up to 1700 feet. The base surge at its maximum size was 2½ miles in diameter and 1000 feet high.^[1] Wigwam detonation File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Wigwam detonation File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Hardtack Oak mushroom cloud Hardtack Sorocco mushroom cloud An RB-57 Canberra observes Juniper. ...

The heights of surface waves generated by deep underwater explosions are greater because more energy is delivered to the water. Deep underwater explosions are thus particularly able to damage coastal areas, because surface waves increase in height as they move over shallow water, and can flood the land beyond the shoreline.^[2] Many of the theories and concepts about these waves are similar to those that are applicable to other types of surface waves, in particular, tsunamis, and waves generated by the fall of a meteorite.^[3] The tsunami that struck Malé in the Maldives on December 26, 2004. ... A meteorite is an extraterrestrial body that survives its impact with the Earths surface without being destroyed. ...

If a deep underwater explosion occurs at a sufficient depth, the rising gas bubble can overexpand because the gas pressure falls below the pressure of the surrounding water. This causes the bubble to collapse, which causes a second shock wave and bubble expansion. This may be repeated, though there are unlikely to be more than three expansions. An example is the WIGWAM test, which was carried out under Operation Wigwam in 1955. The nuclear device was detonated at a depth of 2000 feet.^[1] Wigwam underwater burst Operation Wigwam involved a single test of the Mk-90 Betty nuclear depth bomb. ...

See also

• Ocean engineering
• Shock factor
• Nuclear testing

Ocean engineering is the branch of engineering concerned with the design, analysis and operation of systems that operate in an oceanic environment. ... Shock Factor is a commonly used figure of merit for estimating the amount of shock experienced by a naval target from an underwater explosion as a function of explosive charge weight, slant range, and depression angle (between vessel and charge). ... Preparation for an underground nuclear test at the Nevada Test Site in the 1980s. ...

Sources

1. ^ ^{a b c d e}
2. ^ ^a b Glasstone, Samuel; Dolan, Philip (1977). “Shock effects of surface and subsurface bursts”, The effects of nuclear weapons, Third Edition, Washington: U.S. Department of Defense; Energy Research and Development Administration.
3. ^ ^a b c d

Further reading

• Glasstone, Samuel; Dolan, Philip (1977). The effects of nuclear weapons, Third Edition, Washington: U.S. Department of Defense; Energy Research and Development Administration.
• Le Méhauté, Bernard; Wang, Shen (1995). Water waves generated by underwater explosion. World Scientific Publishing. ISBN 9810220839.—Volume 10 of the Advanced Series on Ocean Engineering