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Economists distinguish between five major kinds of unemployment, i.e., cyclical, frictional, structural, classical, and Marxian. (Another distinction, not discussed here, is between voluntary and involuntary unemployment.) Real-world unemployment may combine different types, while all five might exist at one time. The magnitude of each of these is difficult to measure, partly because they overlap and are thus hard to separate from each other. All but cyclical unemployment can be seen as existing at full employment, the level of employment and unemployment that represents the inflation barrier to demand-side growth. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (6205x8066, 5528 KB) Image:Lange-MigrantMother. ...
Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (6205x8066, 5528 KB) Image:Lange-MigrantMother. ...
The Great Depression was a time of economic down turn, which started after the Stock Market Crash on October 29, 1929, also known as Black Tuesday. ...
Dorothea Lange in 1936; photographer: Paul S. Taylor Langes Migrant Mother, Florence Owens Thompson Langes photo of the Japanese Relocation Dorothea Lange (May 26, 1895 – October 11, 1965) was an influential American documentary photographer and photojournalist, best known for her Depression-era work for the Farm Security Administration...
Face-to-face trading interactions on the New York Stock Exchange trading floor. ...
An 1837 political cartoon about unemployment in the United States. ...
An 1837 political cartoon about unemployment in the United States. ...
Cyclical unemployment This type of unemployment exists due to inadequate effective aggregate demand. It gets its name because it varies with the business cycle, though it can also be persistent, as during the Great Depression of the 1930s. Gross domestic product is not as high as potential output because of demand failure, due to (say) pessimistic business expectations which discourages private fixed investment spending. Low government spending or high taxes, underconsumption, or low exports net of imports may also have this result. In economics, aggregate demand is the total demand for goods and services in the economy (Y) during a specific time period. ...
// [edit] Introduction [edit] Definition If we were to take snapshots of an economy at different points in time, no two photos would look alike. ...
The Great Depression was a time of economic down turn, which started after the Stock Market Crash on October 29, 1929, also known as Black Tuesday. ...
IMF 2005 figures of total GDP of nominal compared to PPP. Absolute, not adjusted for population. ...
In economics, potential output (also referred to as natural real gross domestic product) refers to the highest level of real Gross Domestic Product output that can be sustained over the long term. ...
In underconsumption theory, recessions and stagnation arise due to inadequate consumer demand relative to the amount produced. ...
In this case, the number of unemployed workers exceeds the number of job vacancies, so that if even all open jobs were filled, some workers would remain unemployed. This kind of unemployment coincides with unused industrial capacity (unemployed capital goods). Keynesian economists see it as possibly being solved by government deficit spending or by expansionary monetary policy, which aims to increase non-governmental spending by lowering interest rates. Keynesian economics, or Keynesianism, is an economic theory based on the ideas of John Maynard Keynes, as put forward in his book The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, published in 1936 in response to the Great Depression of the 1930s. ...
This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...
Monetary policy is the process by which the government, central bank, or monetary authority manages the money supply to achieve specific goals—such as constraining inflation or deflation, maintaining an exchange rate, achieving full employment or economic growth. ...
An interest rate is the rental price of money. ...
Frictional unemployment This unemployment involves people being temporarily between jobs, searching for new ones; it is compatible with full employment. (It is sometimes called search unemployment and is seen as largely voluntary.) It arises because either employers fire workers or workers quit, usually because the individual characteristics of the workers do not fit the individual characteristics of the job (including matters of the employer's personal taste or the employee's inadequate work effort). Some employers — such as fast-food restaurants and other providers of McJobs in secondary labor markets — use management strategies that rely on rapid turnover of employees, so that frictional unemployment is normal in these sectors. In economics, full employment has more than one meaning. ...
McJob is slang for a low-paying, low-prestige job that requires few skills and offers very little chance of intracompany advancement. ...
The secondary labor market is the labor market consisting of high-turnover, low-pay, and usually part time and/or temporary jobs. ...
This type of unemployment coincides with an equal number of vacancies and cannot be solved using aggregate demand stimulation. The best way to lower this kind of unemployment is to provide more and better information to job-seekers and employers, perhaps through job-banks in centralized computers (as in some countries in Europe). In theory, an economy could also be shifted away from emphasizing jobs that have high turnover, perhaps by using tax incentives or worker-training programs. In economics, aggregate demand is the total demand for goods and services in the economy (Y) during a specific time period. ...
But some frictional unemployment is beneficial, since it allows workers to get the jobs that fit their wants and skills best and the employers to find employees who promote profit goals the most. It is a small percentage of the unemployment, however, since workers can often search for new jobs while employed — and employers can seek new employees before firing current ones.
One kind of frictional unemployment is called wait unemployment: it refers to the effects of the existence of some sectors where employed workers are paid more than the market-clearing equilibrium wage. Not only does this restrict the amount of employment in the high-wage sector, but it attracts workers from other sectors who wait to try to get jobs there. The main problem with this theory is that such workers will likely "wait" while having jobs, so that they are not counted as unemployed. In Hollywood, for example, those who are waiting for acting jobs also wait on tables in restaurants for pay (while acting in "Equity Waiver" plays at night for no pay). However, these workers might be seen as underemployed (definition 1). In economics, market clearing refers to either a simplifying assumption made by the new classical school that markets always go to where the quantity supplied equals the quantity demanded; or the process of getting there via price adjustment. ...
Price of market balance In economics, economic equilibrium is simply a state of the world where economic forces are balanced and in the abscence of external shocks the (equilibrium) values of economic variables will not change. ...
In economics, the term underemployment has at least three different distinct meanings and applications. ...
Another type of frictional unemployment is seasonal unemployment, where specific industries or occupations are characterised by seasonal work which may lead to unemployment. Examples include workers employed during farm harvest times or those working Winter jobs in the snowfields or Summer jobs such as in retailing. Because the jobs that are lost are those that rely on the season, it is difficult to employ these workers.
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Structural unemployment -
This involves a mismatch between the workers looking for jobs and the vacancies available. Even though the number of vacancies may be equal to the number of the unemployed, the unemployed workers lack the skills needed for the jobs — or are in the wrong part of the country or world to take the jobs offered. It is a mismatch of skills and opportunities due to the structure of the economy changing. That is, it is very expensive to unite the workers with jobs. One possible example in the rich countries is the present combination of the shortage of nurses with an excess labor supply in Information Technology. Unemployed programmers cannot easily become nurses, because of the need for new specialized training, the willingness to switch into the available jobs, and the legal requirements of such professions. Economists distinguish between five major kinds of unemployment, i. ...
Structural unemployment is a result of the dynamic changes of a capitalist economy (such as technological change and capital flight) — and the fact that labor markets can never be as fluid as (say) financial markets. Workers are "left behind" due to costs of training and moving (e.g., the cost of selling one's house in a depressed local economy), plus inefficiencies in the labor markets, such as discrimination. By the mid 20th century humans had achieved a mastery of technology sufficient to leave the surface of the Earth for the first time and explore space. ...
Seen in Asian markets in the 1990s capital flight is when assets and/or money rapidly flow out of a country. ...
Manifestations Slavery · Racial profiling · Lynching Hate speech · Hate crime · Hate groups Genocide · Holocaust · Pogrom Ethnocide · Ethnic cleansing · Race war Religious persecution · Gay bashing Pedophobia · Ephebiphobia Movements Discriminatory Aryanism · Neo-Nazism · Supremacism Kahanism Anti-discriminatory Abolitionism · Civil rights · Gay rights Womens/Universal suffrage · Mens rights Childrens rights · Youth...
Structural unemployment is hard to separate empirically from frictional unemployment, except to say that it lasts longer. It is also more painful. As with frictional unemployment, simple demand-side stimulus will not work to easily abolish this type of unemployment. Some sort of direct attack on the problems of the labor market — such as training programs, mobility subsidies, anti-discrimination policies, a Basic Income Guarantee, and/or a Citizen's Dividend — seems required. These policies may be reinforced by the maintenance of high aggregate demand, so that the two types of policy are complementary. A guaranteed minimum income is a proposed system of income redistribution that would give each citizen a certain sum of money independent of whether they work or not. ...
Citizens dividend is a proposed state policy based upon the principle that the natural world is the common property of all persons (see Georgism). ...
Structural unemployment may also be encouraged to rise by persistent cyclical unemployment: if an economy suffers from long-lasting low aggregate demand, it means that many of the unemployed become disheartened, while finding their skills (including job-searching skills) become "rusty" and obsolete. Problems with debt may lead to homelessness and a fall into the vicious circle of poverty. This means that they may not fit the job vacancies that are created when the economy recovers. Some economists see this scenario as occurring under British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher during the 1970s and 1980s. The implication is that sustained high demand may lower structural unemployment. However, it also may encourage inflation, so some kind of incomes policies (wage and price controls) may be needed, along with the kind of labor-market policies mentioned in the previous paragraph. (This theory of rising structural unemployment has been referred to as an example of path dependence or "hysteresis.") Job hunting is the act of looking for employment, possibly due to unemployment. ...
A homeless person in Paris. ...
A boy from an East Cipinang trash dump slum in Jakarta, Indonesia shows what he found. ...
Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, LG, OM, PC (born October 13, 1925), is a former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, in office from 1979 to 1990. ...
In economics, incomes policies are wage and price controls used to fight inflation. ...
Path-dependence exists when the outcome of a process depends on its past history, on the entire sequence of decisions made by agents and resulting outcomes, and not just on contemporary conditions. ...
Much technological unemployment (e.g. due to the replacement of workers by robots) might be counted as structural unemployment. Alternatively, technological unemployment might refer to the way in which steady increases in labor productivity mean that fewer workers are needed to produce the same level of output every year. The fact that aggregate demand can be raised to deal with this problem suggests that this problem is one of cyclical unemployment. As indicated by Okun's Law, the demand side must grow sufficiently quickly to absorb not only the growing labor force but also the workers made redundant by increased labor productivity. Otherwise, we see a jobless recovery such as those seen in the United States in both the early 1990s and the early 2000s. In economics, Okuns Law, named after economist Arthur Okun, describes a relationship between the change in the rate of unemployment and the difference between actual and potential real GDP. In the United States during the period since 1965 or so, Okuns Law can be stated as saying that...
A jobless recovery is a phrase used by economists to describe the recovery from a recession which does not produce strong growth in employment. ...
Seasonal unemployment might be seen as a kind of structural unemployment, since it is a type of unemployment that is linked to certain kinds of jobs (construction work, migratory farm work). The most-cited official unemployment measures erase this kind of unemployment from the statistics using "seasonal adjustment" techniques.
Hidden unemployment Hidden, or covered, unemployment is the unemployment of potential workers that is not reflected in official unemployment statistics, due to the way the statistics are collected. In many countries only those who have no work but are actively looking for work (and/or qualifying for social security benefits) are counted as unemployed. Those who have given up looking for work (and sometimes those who are on Government retraining programmes) are not officially counted among the unemployed, even though they are not employed. The same applies to those who have taken early retirement to avoid being laid off, but would prefer to be working. Because of hidden unemployment, official statistics often underestimate unemployment rates.
For a different meaning of hidden unemployment see Underemployment. In economics, the term underemployment has at least three different distinct meanings and applications. ...
Classical unemployment In this case, like that of cyclical unemployment, the number of job-seekers exceeds the number of vacancies. However, the problem here is not aggregate demand failure. In this situation, real wages are higher than the market-equilibrium wage. In simple terms, institutions such as "the minimum wage" deter employers from hiring all of the available workers, because the cost would exceed the technologically-determined benefit of hiring them (the marginal product of labor). Some economists theorize that this type of unemployment can be reduced by increasing the flexibility of wages (e.g., abolishing minimum wages or employee protection), to make the labor market more like a financial market. In economics, the distinction between nominal and real numbers is often made. ...
In economics, the marginal product or marginal physical product of an input to production during a specific time period is as follows, assuming that no other inputs to production change: marginal product of X used in producing Y = ΔY/ΔX = (the change of Y)/(the change of X). ...
Conversely, making wages more flexible allows employers who are adequately staffed to pay less with no corresponding benefit to job-seekers. If one accepts that people with low incomes spend their money rapidly (out of necessity), more flexible wages may increase unemployment in the short term.
Marxian unemployment As Karl Marx claimed (and Michal Kalecki [1] emphasized), some unemployment — the reserve army of the unemployed — is normally needed in order to maintain work discipline in jobs, keep wages down, and protect business profitability. If profitability suffers a sustained depression, capitalists can and will punish people by imposing a recession via their control over investment decisions (a capital strike). Incidentally, in this section the term "capitalism" is used to refer to a person who owns economic capital, whether or not s/he holds "capitalist" political views. To the Marxian school, these strikes are rare, since in normal times the government, responding to pressure from their most important constituencies, will encourage recessions before profits are hurt. Karl Heinrich Marx (May 5, 1818, Trier, Germany – March 14, 1883, London) was a German philosopher, political economist, and revolutionary. ...
Michał Kalecki (22nd June 1899-18 April 1970) was one of the greatest Polish economist. ...
In economics, the profit rate refers to the relative profitability of an investment project or of a capitalist enterprise or for the capitalist economy as a whole. ...
A recession is traditionally defined in macroeconomics as a decline in a countrys real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for two or more successive quarters of a year (equivalently, two consecutive quarters of negative real economic growth). ...
Capital strike refers to the withholding of new investment in an economy. ...
Capital has a number of related meanings in economics, finance and accounting. ...
Marxian economics refers to a body of economic thought stemming from the work of Karl Marx. ...
To Marxists, this kind of unemployment cannot be abolished without overthrowing capitalism as an economic system and replacing it with democratic socialism. This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...
As with cyclical and classical unemployment, with Marxian unemployment, the number of jobless exceeds the availability of vacancies. (It's the scarcity of jobs that gives unemployment such a motivational effect.) However, simple demand stimulus in the face of the capitalists' refusal to hire or invest simply encourages inflation: if profits are being squeezed, the only way to maintain high production is via rising prices.
Full employment In theory, it is possible to abolish cyclical unemployment by increasing the aggregate demand for products and workers. However, eventually the economy hits an "inflation barrier" imposed by the four other (supply-side) kinds of unemployment to the extent that they exist.
Some economists posit the existence of a natural rate of unemployment or a NAIRU Non-Accelerating Inflation Rate of Unemployment at full employment, which means that if the unemployment rate gets "too low," inflation will get worse and worse (accelerate) in the absence of wage and price controls (incomes policies). Others simply see the possibility of inflation rising as the unemployment rate falls. This is the famous Phillips curve.-1...
The term NAIRU is an acronym for Non-Accelerating Inflation Rate of Unemployment. ...
Phillips curve The Phillips curve is a historical inverse relation and tradeoff between the rate of unemployment and the rate of inflation in an economy. ...
One of the major problems with the NAIRU theory is that no-one knows exactly what the NAIRU is (while it clearly changes over time). The margin of error can be quite high relative to the actual unemployment rate, making it hard to use the NAIRU in policy. The term NAIRU is an acronym for Non-Accelerating Inflation Rate of Unemployment. ...
Another, normative, definition of full employment might be called the ideal unemployment rate. It would exclude all types of unemployment that represent forms of inefficiency. This type of "full employment" unemployment would correspond to only frictional unemployment (excluding that part encouraging the McJobs management strategy) and would thus be very low. However, it would be impossible to attain this full-employment target using only demand-side Keynesian stimulus without getting below the NAIRU and suffering from accelerating inflation (absent incomes policies). Training programs aimed at fighting structural unemployment would help here. McJob is slang for a low-pay, low-prestige job that requires few skills. ...
Keynesian economics, or Keynesianism, is an economic theory based on the ideas of John Maynard Keynes, as put forward in his book The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, published in 1936 in response to the Great Depression of the 1930s. ...
The term NAIRU is an acronym for Non-Accelerating Inflation Rate of Unemployment. ...
To the extent that hidden unemployment exists, it implies that official unemployment statistics provide a poor guide to what unemployment rate coincides with "full employment".
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