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Encyclopedia > Vaccine controversy

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A vaccine controversy is a dispute over the morality, ethics, effectiveness, or safety of vaccination. The mainstream medical opinion is that the benefits of preventing suffering and death from serious infectious diseases greatly outweigh the risks of rare adverse effects following immunization.[1][2] Vaccination critics say that vaccines are ineffective against disease[3] and that vaccine safety studies are inadequate.[2][3] Some religious groups oppose vaccination as a matter of doctrine,[4] and some political groups oppose mandatory vaccination on the grounds of individual liberty.[5] A vial of the vaccine against influenza. ... This false-colored electron micrograph shows a malaria sporozoite migrating through the midgut epithelia. ... In medicine, an Adverse effect is an abnormal, harmful, undesired and/or unintended side-effect, although not necessarily unexpected, which is obtained as a result of a therapy or other medical intervention, such as drug/chemotherapy, physical therapy, surgery, medical procedure, use of a medical device, etc. ... A child being immunized against polio. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... For other uses, see Liberty (disambiguation). ...

Contents

Arguments for widespread vaccination

Rubella fell sharply when immunization was introduced. CDC

A number of arguments regarding the benefits of mass vaccination have been advanced: Image File history File links Rubella-us-1966-93-cdc. ... Image File history File links Rubella-us-1966-93-cdc. ...


Life-saving

Mass vaccination campaigns were essential components of strategies that led to the eradication of smallpox, which once killed as many as every seventh child in Europe,[6] and the near-eradication of polio.[7] As a more modest example, incidence of invasive disease with Haemophilus influenzae, a major cause of bacterial meningitis and other serious disease in children, has decreased by over 99% in the U.S. since the introduction of a vaccine in 1988.[8] Smallpox (also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera) is a contagious disease unique to humans. ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ... A child receives oral polio vaccine during a 2002 campaign to immunize children in India. ... Binomial name Haemophilus influenzae (Lehmann & Neumann 1896) Winslow 1917 Haemophilus influenzae, formerly called Pfeiffers bacillus or Bacillus influenzae, is a non-motile Gram-negative coccobacillus first described in 1892 by Dr. Richard Pfeiffer during an influenza pandemic. ... Bacterial meningitis is a condition that hurts really bad and you dont want it, no seriously, it hurts really bad. ...


Cost

Vaccines are a cost-effective and preventive way of promoting health, compared to treatment of manifest disease. In the U.S. during the year 2001, routine childhood immunizations against seven diseases were estimated to save over $40 billion per birth-year cohort in overall health care and social costs, and the societal benefit-cost ratio for these vaccinations was estimated to be 16.5.[9] A physician visiting the sick in a hospital. ...


Population health

Incomplete vaccine coverage increases the risk of disease for the entire population, including those who have been vaccinated. One study found that doubling the number of unvaccinated individuals would increase the risk of measles in vaccinated children anywhere from 5–30%.[10] A second study provided evidence that the risk of measles and pertussis increased in vaccinated children proportionally to the number of unvaccinated individuals among them, again highlighting the evident efficacy of widespread vaccine coverage for public health.[11] Pertussis, also known as whooping cough, is a highly contagious disease caused by the bacterium Bordetella pertussis; a similar, milder disease is caused by B. parapertussis. ...


Events following reductions in vaccination

In several countries since 1960, reductions in the use of some vaccines were followed by increases in the diseases' morbidity and mortality.


Stockholm, smallpox (1873–74)

An anti-vaccination campaign motivated by religious objections, by concerns about effectiveness, and by concerns about individual rights, led to the vaccination rate in Stockholm dropping to just over 40%, compared to about 90% elsewhere in Sweden. A major smallpox epidemic then started in 1873. It led to a rise in vaccine uptake and an end of the epidemic.[12]


UK, DPT (1970s–80s)

A 1974 report ascribed 36 reactions to pertussis vaccine, a prominent public-health academic claimed that the vaccine was only marginally effective and questioned whether its benefits outweigh its risks, and extended television and press coverage caused a scare. Vaccine uptake in the UK decreased from 81% to 31% and pertussis epidemics followed, leading to deaths of some children. Mainstream medical opinion continued to support the effectiveness and safety of the vaccine; public confidence was restored after the publication of a national reassessment of vaccine efficacy. Vaccine uptake then increased to levels above 90% and disease incidence declined dramatically.[13]


Sweden, pertussis (1979–1996)

In the vaccination moratorium period that occurred when Sweden suspended vaccination against whooping cough (pertussis) from 1979 to 1996, 60% of the country's children contracted the potentially fatal disease before the age of ten years; close medical monitoring kept the death rate from whooping cough at about one per year.[14] Pertussis continues to be a major health problem in developing countries, where mass vaccination is not practiced; the World Health Organization estimates it caused 294,000 deaths in 2002.[15]


Netherlands, measles (1999–2000)

An outbreak at a religious community and school in The Netherlands illustrates the effect of measles in an unvaccinated population.[16] The population in the several provinces affected had a high level of immunization with the exception of one of the religious denominations who traditionally do not accept vaccination. The three measles-related deaths and 68 hospitalizations that occurred among 2961 cases in the Netherlands demonstrate that measles can be severe and may result in death even in industrialized countries. Motto: Je Maintiendrai (Dutch: Ik zal handhaven, English: I Shall Uphold) Anthem: Wilhelmus van Nassouwe Capital Amsterdam1 Largest city Amsterdam Official language(s) Dutch2 Government Parliamentary democracy Constitutional monarchy  - Queen Beatrix  - Prime minister Jan Peter Balkenende Independence Eighty Years War   - Declared July 26, 1581   - Recognised January 30, 1648 (by Spain... See vaccination, antivaccinationist With the exception of the Christian Scientists and the Dutch Orthodox Reformed church (about 2% of the population of the Netherlands) all religions normally encountered support vaccination and other immunisations in 2006. ...


Ireland, measles (2000)

From late 1999 until the summer of 2000, there was a measles outbreak in North Dublin, Ireland. At the time, the national immunization level had fallen below 80%, and in part of North Dublin the level was around 60%. There were more than 100 hospital admissions from over 300 cases. Three children died and several more were gravely ill, some requiring mechanical ventilation to recover.[17][18] North Dublin was a former UK Parliament constituency in Ireland, returning one Member of Parliament 1885-1922. ...


Nigeria, polio, measles, diphtheria (2001–)

In the early 2000s, conservative religious leaders in northern Nigeria, suspicious of Western medicine, advised their followers to not have their children vaccinated with oral polio vaccine. The boycott was endorsed by the governor of Kano State, and immunization was suspended for several months. Subsequently, polio reappeared in a dozen formerly polio-free neighbors of Nigeria, and genetic tests showed the virus was the same one that originated in northern Nigeria: Nigeria had become a net exporter of polio virus to its African neighbors. People in the northern states were also reported to be wary of other vaccinations, and Nigeria reported over 20,000 measles cases and nearly 600 deaths from measles from January through March 2005.[19] Outbreaks continued thereafter; for example, in June, 2007, more than fifty children died and another 400 were hospitalized in Borno State after a measles outbreak, and low immunization rates also contributed to outbreaks of diphtheria.[20] In 2006 Nigeria accounted for over half of all new polio cases worldwide.[21] See drugs, medication, and pharmacology for substances that are used to treat patients. ... Kano State is a state located in North-Western Nigeria. ... Borno State is a state in north-eastern Nigeria. ...


Indiana, measles (2005)

A 2005 measles outbreak in Indiana was due to children whose parents had refused to have them vaccinated.[22] Most cases of pediatric tetanus in the U.S. occur in children whose parents objected to their vaccination.[23] For other uses, see Indiana (disambiguation). ... Tetanus is a medical condition that is characterized by a prolonged contraction of skeletal muscle fibers. ...


Arguments against widespread vaccination

Since the inception of vaccination in the late 18th century, opponents have argued that vaccines do not work, that they are dangerous, that individuals should rely on personal hygiene instead, or that mandatory vaccinations violate individual rights or religious principles.[5]


Effectiveness

Some vaccine critics claim that there have never been any benefits to public health from vaccination.[24][25] They argue that all the reduction of communicable diseases which were rampant in conditions where overcrowding, poor sanitation, almost non-existent hygiene and a yearly period of very restricted diet existed, are reduced because of changes in conditions excepting vaccination.[25] Some similarly claim that 90% of the decline in infectious disease incidence occurred before the application of specific vaccines.[citation needed] Public health is concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population health analysis. ... This false-colored electron micrograph shows a malaria sporozoite migrating through the midgut epithelia. ... E. Coli bacteria under magnification Sanitation is the hygienic disposal or recycling of waste, as well as the policy and practice of protecting health through hygienic measures. ... Hygiene refers to practices associated with ensuring good health and cleanliness. ...


Vaccine critics argue that large smallpox epidemics have occurred in highly vaccinated populations, presenting figures from 1905 in the Philippines. Historians note that the Philippine-American War, between 1899 and 1913, caused major disruptions to medical facilities, which were noted to damage the effectiveness of vaccines. Combatants United States Philippines several groups post-1902 Commanders William McKinley Theodore Roosevelt Wesley Merritt Elwell Stephen Otis J. Franklin Bell Henry Ware Lawton† John J. Pershing Joseph Wheeler Emilio Aguinaldo Miguel Malvar Pio del Pilar Manuel Tinio Gregorio del Pilar† Licerio Geronimo Vicente Lukban Juan Cailles Maximino Hizon Antonio...


Children who survive diseases like diphtheria develop a natural immunity that lasts longer than immunity developed via vaccination. Even though the overall mortality rate is much lower with vaccination, the percentage of adults protected against the disease may also be lower.[26] Vaccination critics argue that for diseases like diphtheria the extra risk to older or weaker adults may outweigh the benefit of lowering the mortality rate among the general population.[3]


Assertions that immunization cannot work, simply because the theory on which it is presumed to work is incorrect, have been made, sometimes citing Bechamp's older theory.[citation needed] To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...


Safety

Few deny the vast improvements vaccination has made to public health; a more common concern is their safety.[27] All vaccines may cause side effects, and immunization safety is a real concern. Controversies in this area revolve around the question of whether the risks of adverse events following immunization outweigh the benefits of saving children from tragic outcomes of common diseases.[1] Critics point out that lack of evidence of harm is not the same as evidence of safety.[3]


The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services set up a trust fund in 1988 to compensate people damaged by vaccination. By 2007, the fund had paid out $1.8 billion to 1,500 claimants. The vaccines covered by the compensation service are those aimed at protecting against diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis (whooping cough), measles, mumps, rubella (German measles), polio, hepatitis B, varicella (chicken pox), Hemophilus influenzae type b, and rotavirus. Pneumococcal vaccine is expected to be covered soon.[28] The United States Department of Health and Human Services, often abbreviated HHS, is a Cabinet department of the United States government with the goal of protecting the health of all Americans and providing essential human services. ... In common law legal systems, a trust is a relationship in which a person or entity (the trustee) has legal control over certain property (the trust property or trust corpus), but is bound by a fiduciary duty to exercise that legal control for the benefit of someone else (the beneficiary...


Auto-immune disorders

Secondary and long-term effects on the immune system from introducing immunogens and immunologic adjuvants directly into the body are not fully understood. Some autoimmune diseases, like acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, Guillain-Barré syndrome, transverse myelitis and multiple sclerosis, are known, suspected, hypothesized, or claimed to be connected to vaccines.[citation needed] A scanning electron microscope image of a single neutrophil (yellow), engulfing anthrax bacteria (orange). ... An antigen is any molecule that is recognized by antibodies. ... In immunology an adjuvant is an agent which, while not having any specific antigenic effect in itself, may stimulate the immune system, increasing the response to a vaccine. ... Autoimmune diseases arise from an overactive immune response of the body against substances and tissues normally present in the body. ... Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) is an immune mediated disease of brain. ... Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) (IPA pronunciation: is an acute, autoimmune, polyradiculoneuropathy affecting the peripheral nervous system, usually triggered by an acute infectious process. ... Transverse myelitis is a neurological disorder caused by a loss of the myelin encasing the spinal cord, also known as demyelination. ...


If individual or multiple vaccinations were to "weaken the immune system", as some vaccine critics contend, then one would expect an increase in hospitalizations for other infections following immunization. A large epidemiological study, involving all 805,206 children born in Denmark between 1990 and 2001, found no evidence that multiple-antigen vaccines, nor the increasing number of vaccinations given to children, led to a higher rate of infections.[29] Epidemiology is the study of factors affecting the health and illness of populations, and serves as the foundation and logic of interventions made in the interest of public health and preventive medicine. ...


A 2006 study of health data from the Canadian province of Ontario (where influenza vaccines have been free since 2000), found a correlation between receiving a vaccination and developing Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) in individuals, but no increase of GBS in the general population corresponding to vaccination popularity. The authors concluded, "individuals who receive the influenza vaccine should be advised of the potential risk for GBS".[30] Motto: Ut Incepit Fidelis Sic Permanet (Latin: Loyal she began, loyal she remains) Capital Toronto Largest city Toronto Official languages English (de facto) Government Lieutenant-Governor David C. Onley Premier Dalton McGuinty (Liberal) Federal representation in Canadian Parliament House seats 107 Senate seats 24 Confederation July 1, 1867 (1st) Area... Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) (IPA pronunciation: is an acute, autoimmune, polyradiculoneuropathy affecting the peripheral nervous system, usually triggered by an acute infectious process. ...


Aluminium

The use of aluminium compounds in many vaccines as immunologic adjuvants, to stimulate the immune system and increase the response of the vaccine. Aluminum is neurotoxic[31] and can elicit redness, itching, and low-grade fever.[32] In some cases aluminum-containing vaccines are associated with macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF), localized microscopic lesions containing aluminum salts that persist up to 8 years. In France, although there is controversy over whether MMF is associated with general complaints such as myalgia or muscle weakness, recent case-controlled studies have found no specific clinical symptoms in individuals with biopsies showing MMF. In summary, the use of aluminum in vaccines has not been associated with serious adverse events.[31] Aluminum redirects here. ... In immunology an adjuvant is an agent which, while not having any specific antigenic effect in itself, may stimulate the immune system, increasing the response to a vaccine. ... The term neurotoxic is used to describe a substance, condition or state that damages the nervous system and / or brain, usually by killing neurons. ... A lesion is a non-specific term referring to abnormal tissue in the body. ... Myalgia means muscle pain and is a symptom of many diseases and disorders. ...


Autism

Two recent major vaccine controversies occurred in the U.S. and the UK, concerning hypotheses linking vaccines to autism spectrum disorders: the vaccine preservative thiomersal, and the MMR vaccine. These controversies are independent, as the MMR vaccine has never contained thiomersal. A boy with autism and his mother Autism refers to a spectrum of disorders, and lies somewhere under the umbrella of a greater encompassing spectrum, that of pervasive developmental disorders that involve the functioning of the brain. ...


Thiomersal
Main article: Thiomersal controversy

It has been suggested that the organic mercury content of thiomersal in child vaccines might contribute to autism, and thousands of parents in the U.S. have lodged claims for compensation from a federal fund, alleging a vaccine-autism link.[33] Following US government action to evaluate levels of environmental toxins, including mercury, it has been claimed, particularly in the context of lawsuits, that thimerosal in childhood vaccines could contribute to, or cause, a range of neurodevelopmental disorders in children, most notably autism and related Pervasive Developmental Disorders (PDDs), or other... Ethylmercury (sometimes ethyl mercury) is a cation that forms organomercury compounds such as ethylmercury chloride and ethylmercury urea. ... Thiomersal (INN) (C9H9HgNaO2S), formerly and still commonly known in the United States as thimerosal, is an organomercury compound (approximately 49% mercury by weight) used as an antiseptic and antifungal agent. ... Autism is a brain development disorder characterized by impairments in social interaction and communication, and restricted and repetitive behavior, all exhibited before a child is three years old. ...


In July 1999 the CDC and the AAP asked vaccine makers to remove thiomersal from vaccines as quickly as possible, and thiomersal has been phased out of most U.S. and European vaccines.[34] However, the 2004 Institute of Medicine panel favoured rejecting any causal relationship between thiomersal-containing vaccines and autism.[35] The CDC and the AAP followed the precautionary principle, which assumes that there is no harm in exercising caution even if it later turns out to be unwarranted, but their 1999 action sparked confusion and controversy that has diverted attention and resources away from efforts to determine the causes of autism.[34] The Institute of Medicine, a part of the National Academy of Sciences, is an American organization whose purpose is to provide national advice on issues relating to biomedical science, medicine, and health (National Academy of Sciences, n. ...


MMR vaccine
Main article: MMR vaccine controversy

In the UK, the MMR vaccine was the subject of controversy after publication of a 1998 paper by Andrew Wakefield, et al., reporting a study of twelve children mostly with autism spectrum disorders with onset soon after administration of the vaccine.[36] During a 1998 press conference, Wakefield suggested that giving children the vaccines in three separate doses would be safer than a single jab. This suggestion was not supported by the paper, and several subsequent peer-reviewed studies have failed to show any association between the vaccine and autism.[37] Wakefield has been heavily criticized on scientific grounds and for triggering a decline in vaccination rates,[38] as well as on ethical grounds for the way the research was conducted.[39] The MMR vaccine controversy is over the safety of the MMR vaccine. ... Andrew Wakefield (born 1956 in the United Kingdom) is a Canadian trained surgeon, best known as the lead author of a controversial 1998 research study, published in The Lancet, which reported bowel symptoms in a selected sample of twelve children with autistic spectrum disorders and other disabilities, and alleged a... A boy with autism and his mother Autism refers to a spectrum of disorders, and lies somewhere under the umbrella of a greater encompassing spectrum, that of pervasive developmental disorders that involve the functioning of the brain. ...


In 2004 the MMR-and-autism interpretation of the paper was formally retracted by ten of Wakefield's twelve co-authors.[40] The Centers for Disease Control,[41] the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences,[42] and the UK National Health Service[43] have all concluded that there is no evidence of a link between the MMR vaccine and autism. A systematic review by the Cochrane Library concluded that there is no credible link between the MMR vaccine and autism, that MMR has prevented diseases that still carry a heavy burden of death and complications, that the lack of confidence in MMR has damaged public health, and that design and reporting of safety outcomes in MMR vaccine studies are largely inadequate.[2] Year 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta is recognized as the lead United States agency for protecting the public health and safety of people by providing credible information to enhance health decisions, and promoting health through strong partnerships with state health departments and other organizations. ... The Institute of Medicine, a part of the National Academy of Sciences, is an American organization whose purpose is to provide national advice on issues relating to biomedical science, medicine, and health (National Academy of Sciences, n. ... President Harding and the National Academy of Sciences at the White House, Washington, DC, April 1921 The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) is a corporation in the United States whose members serve pro bono as advisers to the nation on science, engineering, and medicine. ... NHS redirects here. ... The Cochrane Library is a collection of databases in medicine and other healthcare specialties provided by the Cochrane Collaboration. ...


Compulsory vaccinations and individual liberty

This section does not cite any references or sources.
Please improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed. (tagged since October 2007)
Further information: Vaccination policy

Compulsory vaccination policies have provoked opposition at various times from people who say that governments should not infringe on the freedom of an individual to choose medications, even if the choice increases the risk of disease to others. Vaccination policy refers to the policy a government practices in relation to vaccination. ...


Since the reversion from compulsory immunization in the UK, opposition has continued at a lower level. After 1993, several national organizations critical of mass vaccination programs have appeared on the Web. Year 1993 (MCMXCIII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1993 Gregorian calendar). ...


Opposition no longer focuses primarily on the right to determine what is done to one's children. With the rapid expansion in the number of new vaccines given to children, and the addition of a wide variety of preservatives, adjuvants, and components in vaccines, vaccine opponents now argue that vaccine programs have negative, rather than beneficial effects, or that although each particular immunization might have a beneficial effect in the short term, any benefit may be negated by cumulative, long-term, negative consequences, or that epidemiological studies are often considered a poor means of determining vaccine injury risks. These changes have resulted in arguments based upon hypotheses that are susceptible to disproof, according to vaccine proponents, rather than philosophical questions of the relationship of individuals to state or deity.


Religion

Main article: Vaccination and religion

Vaccination has been opposed on religious grounds ever since it was introduced, even when vaccination is not compulsory. Early Christian opponents argued that if God had decreed that someone should die of smallpox, it would be a sin to thwart God's will via vaccination.[4] Opposition continues to the present day, on various grounds. For example, the Family Research Council, a conservative U.S. Christian group, opposes mandatory vaccination for diseases typically spread via sexual contact, arguing that the possibility of disease deters sexual promiscuity.[44] Many governments allow parents to opt out of their children's otherwise-mandatory vaccinations for religious reasons; some parents falsely claim religious beliefs to get vaccination exemptions.[45] See vaccination, antivaccinationist With the exception of the Christian Scientists and the Dutch Orthodox Reformed church (about 2% of the population of the Netherlands) all religions normally encountered support vaccination and other immunisations in 2006. ... The Family Research Council (FRC) is a Christian conservative non-profit lobbying organization, formed in the United States by James Dobson in 1981 and incorporated 1983. ...


History of anti-vaccinationism

After the introduction of vaccination in 1796, the first anti-vaccination society was formed in 1798.[citation needed] In the 19th and early 20th centuries, various organizations declared their opposition to vaccination. Until Pasteur and Lister demonstrated the basis of infection and how to prevent it, vaccinations were as dangerous as other surgical treatments of the time. The view of the British government throughout was that vaccination was safer than variolation, and this is not generally disputed; variolation was safer than random infection with smallpox, but potentially spread smallpox infection itself. Louis Pasteur (December 27, 1822 – September 28, 1895) was a French microbiologist and chemist who demonstrated the germ theory of disease and developed techniques of inoculation, most notably the first vaccine against rabies. ... Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister, OM , FRS (5 April 1827 – 10 February 1912) was an English surgeon who promoted the idea of sterile surgery while working at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary. ... An infection is the detrimental colonization of a host organism by a foreign species. ... Obsolete: inoculation against smallpox using material from a vesicle or lesion of a person with smallpox. ... Smallpox (also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera) is a contagious disease unique to humans. ...

Portrait of Jenner
Portrait of Jenner

After the work of Edward Jenner, vaccination became widespread in the United Kingdom in the early 1800s.[46] Variolation, which had preceded vaccination, was banned in 1840 because of its greater risks. Public policy and successive Vaccination Acts first encouraged vaccination and then made it mandatory, with the highest penalty for refusal being a prison sentence. This was a significant change in the relationship between the British state and its citizens, and there was a public backlash. Initially this was focused against compulsory vaccination, and later included arguments that vaccination was dangerous and ineffective. Image File history File links Edward_Jenner2. ... Image File history File links Edward_Jenner2. ... Born May 17, 1749 Berkeley, Gloucestershire Died January 26, 1823 Berkeley, Gloucestershire Alma mater St Georges, University of London Academic advisor John Hunter Known for smallpox vaccine Edward Jenner, FRS, (May 17, 1749 – January 26, 1823) was an English country doctor who studied nature and his natural surroundings from... The UK Vaccination Acts of 1840, 1853 and 1898 reflect the continuing argument over vacination policy in the UK. They were followed by legislation in the USA and other countries. ...


In the 19th century, the city of Leicester in the UK achieved a high level of isolation of smallpox cases and great reduction in spread compared to other areas. The mainstay of Leicester's approach to conquering smallpox was to decline vaccination and put their public funds into sanitary improvements.[47][48] Bigg's account of the public health procedures in Leicester, presented as evidence to the Royal Commission, refers to erysipelas, an infection of the superficial tissues which was a complication of any surgical procedure. Leicester city centre, looking towards the Clock Tower Leicester (pronounced ) is the largest city and unitary authority in the English East Midlands. ...


In the U.S., President Thomas Jefferson took a close interest in vaccination, alongside Dr. Waterhouse, chief physician at Boston. Jefferson encouraged the development of ways to transport vaccine material through the Southern states, which included measures to avoid damage by heat, a leading cause of ineffective batches. Smallpox outbreaks were contained by the latter half of the 19th century, a development widely attributed to vaccination of a large portion of the population.[49] Vaccination rates fell after this decline in smallpox cases, and the disease again became epidemic in the 1870s (see smallpox). Thomas Jefferson (13 April 1743 N.S.–4 July 1826) was the third President of the United States (1801–09), the principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776), and one of the most influential Founding Fathers for his promotion of the ideals of Republicanism in the United States. ... Smallpox (also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera) is a contagious disease unique to humans. ... Smallpox (also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera) is a contagious disease unique to humans. ...


Anti-vaccination activity increased again in the U.S. in the late 19th century. After a visit to New York in 1879 by William Tebb, a prominent British anti-vaccinationist, the Anti-Vaccination Society of America was founded. The New England Anti-Compulsory Vaccination League was formed in 1882, and the Anti-Vaccination League of New York City in 1885. William Tebb (1839-1914) was a British merchant, vaccination critic and author of anti-vaccination books. ... The Anti-Vaccination Society of America was founded by William Tebbs in 1879. ...


Historical arguments against vaccination

The first arguments against vaccination were theological.[50] Some anti-vaccinationists still base their stance against vaccination with reference to the Bible.[51] See vaccination, antivaccinationist With the exception of the Christian Scientists and the Dutch Orthodox Reformed church (about 2% of the population of the Netherlands) all religions normally encountered support vaccination and other immunisations in 2006. ...


Arguments made against the safety and effectiveness of vaccines in the 21st century are similar to those of the early anti-vaccinationists.[5]


Even before Pasteur's work on the nature of infection, there was evidence that contagions spread from person to person, even though microscopes were not yet available and the nature of the contagion (microorganisms) could not be elucidated. Subsequently, as demonstrated by Ignaz Semmelweis, Joseph Lister and others, the knowledge that there were specific modes of cross-infection and that these could be avoided diffused through the population. One argument presented by some modern vaccine critics (for example, Generation Rescue and SafeMinds) is that Pasteur's theory was incorrect and Antoine Bechamp's germ theory[52] better represented the transmission of disease. A microscope (Greek: micron = small and scopos = aim) is an instrument for viewing objects that are too small to be seen by the naked or unaided eye. ... A cluster of Escherichia coli bacteria magnified 10,000 times. ... Ignaz Semmelweis (1860 portrait): advised handwashing with a chlorinated-lime solution in 1847. ... Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister, OM , FRS (5 April 1827 – 10 February 1912) was an English surgeon who promoted the idea of sterile surgery while working at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary. ... Generation Rescue is a nonprofit organization which was founded by parents united by their belief that many childhood neurological disorders, such as autism, Aspergers syndrome, ADHD, speech delay, sensory integration disorder and other developmental delays, are the effects of a primary diagnosis of mercury poisoning and related complications. ... The Coalition for SafeMinds (Sensible Action For Ending Mercury-Induced Neurological Disorders) is a non-profit organization dedicated to investigating the risks of exposure to mercury from medical products. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...


Historical membership in anti-vaccinationist organizations

In the early 19th century, the anti-vaccination movement drew members from across a wide range of society. In recent years, it has been reduced to a predominantly middle-class phenomenon.[53]


References

  1. ^ a b Bonhoeffer J, Heininger U (2007). "Adverse events following immunization: perception and evidence". Curr Opin Infect Dis 20 (3): 237–46. doi:10.1097/QCO.0b013e32811ebfb0. PMID 17471032. 
  2. ^ a b c Demicheli V, Jefferson T, Rivetti A, Price D (2005). "Vaccines for measles, mumps and rubella in children". Cochrane Database Syst Rev 19 (4). doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004407.pub2. PMID 16235361. Lay summary – Press release (2005-10-19). 
  3. ^ a b c d Halvorsen R (2007). The Truth about Vaccines. Gibson Square. ISBN 9781903933923. 
  4. ^ a b Andrew Dickson White (1896). "Theological opposition to inoculation, vaccination, and the use of anæsthetics", A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom. Appleton. 
  5. ^ a b c Wolfe R, Sharp L (2002). "Anti-vaccinationists past and present". BMJ 325 (7361): 430–2. doi:10.1136/bmj.325.7361.430. PMID 12193361. 
  6. ^ Fenner F, Henderson DA, Arita I, Ježek Z, Ladnyi, ID (1988). Smallpox and its Eradication (PDF), Geneva: World Health Organization. ISBN 92-4-156110-6. Retrieved on 2007-09-04. 
  7. ^ Sutter RW, Maher C (2006). "Mass vaccination campaigns for polio eradication: an essential strategy for success". Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 304: 195–220. PMID 16989271. 
  8. ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2002). "Progress toward elimination of Haemophilus influenzae type b invasive disease among infants and children—United States, 1998–2000". MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 51 (11): 234–7. PMID 11925021. 
  9. ^ Zhou F, Santoli J, Messonnier ML et al. (2005). "Economic evaluation of the 7-vaccine routine childhood immunization schedule in the United States, 2001". Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 159 (12): 1136–44. PMID 16330737. 
  10. ^ Salmon DA, Haber M, Gangarosa EJ, Phillips L, Smith NJ, Chen RT (1999). "Health consequences of religious and philosophical exemptions from immunization laws: individual and societal risk of measles". JAMA 282 (1): 47-53. PMID 10404911. 
  11. ^ Feikin DR, Lezotte DC, Hamman RF, Salmon DA, Chen RT, Hoffman RE (2000). "Individual and community risks of measles and pertussis associated with personal exemptions to immunization". JAMA 284 (24): 3145-50. PMID 11135778. 
  12. ^ Nelson MC, Rogers J (1992). "The right to die? Anti-vaccination activity and the 1874 smallpox epidemic in Stockholm". Soc Hist Med 5 (3): 369–88. PMID 11645870. 
  13. ^ Gangarosa EJ, Galazka AM, Wolfe CR et al. (1998). "Impact of anti-vaccine movements on pertussis control: the untold story". Lancet 351 (9099): 356–61. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(97)04334-1. PMID 9652634. 
  14. ^ Allen A (2002). "Bucking the herd". The Atlantic 290 (2): 40–2. Retrieved on 2007-11-07. 
  15. ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2007). "Pertussis", in Atkinson W, Hamborsky J, McIntyre L, Wolfe S: Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases. Washington, DC: Public Health Foundation. 
  16. ^ (April 14, 2000) "Measles Outbreak ---- Netherlands, April 1999--January 2000". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 49 (14): 299-303. Retrieved on 2006-11-02. 
  17. ^ Measles outbreak feared (30 May, 2000) BBC Fulltext
  18. ^ McBrien J, Murphy J, Gill D, Cronin M, O'Donovan C, Cafferkey M (2003). "Measles outbreak in Dublin, 2000.". Pediatr Infect Dis J 22 (7): 580-4. PMID 12867830. 
  19. ^ Clements CJ, Greenough P, Schull D (2006). "How vaccine safety can become political – the example of polio in Nigeria". Curr Drug Saf 1 (1): 117–9. Retrieved on 2007-07-28. 
  20. ^ "Children dying needlessly from measles and other preventable diseases", IRIN, 2007-07-11. Retrieved on 2007-07-28. 
  21. ^ Wild poliovirus weekly update. Global Polio Eradication Initiative (2007-07-25). Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
  22. ^ Parker A, Staggs W, Dayan G et al. (2006). "Implications of a 2005 measles outbreak in Indiana for sustained elimination of measles in the United States". N Engl J Med 355 (5): 447–55. PMID 16885548. 
  23. ^ Fair E, Murphy TV, Golaz A, Wharton M (2002). "Philosophic objection to vaccination as a risk for tetanus among children younger than 15 years". Pediatrics 109 (1): e2. PMID 11773570. 
  24. ^ Dr. med. Gerhard Buchwald (Ref: The Vaccination Nonsense. ISBN 3-8334-2508-3 page 108. Asserts that vaccination has never provided any benefit.
  25. ^ a b Canadian Medical Association Journal. eLetters: Vaccination: the wider picture?. Retrieved on 2007-07-25.
  26. ^ Galazka AM, Robertson SE (1995). "Diphtheria: changing patterns in the developing world and the industrialized world". Eur J Epidemiol 11 (1): 107-17. PMID 7489768. 
  27. ^ The Lancet Infectious Diseases (2007). "Tackling negative perceptions towards vaccination". Lancet Infect Dis 7 (4): 235. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(07)70057-9. PMID 17376373. 
  28. ^ "About the National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program", United States Department of Health and Human Services.
  29. ^ Hviid A, Wohlfahrt J, Stellfeld M, Melbye M (2005). "Childhood vaccination and nontargeted infectious disease hospitalization". JAMA 294 (6): 699-705. PMID 16091572. 
  30. ^ Juurlink, David N.; Therese A. Stukel; Jeffrey Kwong; Alexander Kopp; Allison McGeer; Ross E. Upshur; Douglas G. Manuel; Rahim Moineddin; Kumanan Wilson (2006). "Guillain-Barré Syndrome After Influenza Vaccination in Adults". Archives of Internal Medicine (20). Retrieved on 2007-11-07. 
  31. ^ a b François G, Duclos P, Margolis H et al. (2005). "Vaccine safety controversies and the future of vaccination programs". Pediatr Infect Dis J 24 (11): 953–61. PMID 16282928. 
  32. ^ Baylor NW, Egan W, Richman P (2002). "Aluminum salts in vaccines—US perspective". Vaccine 20 (Suppl 3): S18–23. doi:10.1016/S0264-410X(02)00166-4.  Corrigendum (2002). Vaccine 20 (27–8): 3428. doi:10.1016/S0264-410X(02)00307-9 PMID 12184360.
  33. ^ Sugarman SD (2007). "Cases in vaccine court—legal battles over vaccines and autism". N Engl J Med 357 (13): 1275–7. PMID 17898095. 
  34. ^ a b Offit PA (2007). "Thimerosal and vaccines—a cautionary tale". N Engl J Med 357 (13): 1278–9. 
  35. ^ Immunization Safety Review Committee (2004). Immunization Safety Review: Vaccines and Autism. The National Academies Press. ISBN 0-309-09237-X. 
  36. ^ Wakefield A, Murch S, Anthony A et al. (1998). "Ileal-lymphoid-nodular hyperplasia, non-specific colitis, and pervasive developmental disorder in children". Lancet 351 (9103): 637–41. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(97)11096-0. PMID 9500320. Retrieved on 2007-09-05. 
  37. ^ National Health Service (2004). MMR: myths and truths. Retrieved on 2007-09-03.
  38. ^ BBC News, Doctors issue plea over MMR jab. Retrieved on 26 June 2006.
  39. ^ [1]BBC news article
  40. ^ Murch SH, Anthony A, Casson DH et al. (2004). "Retraction of an interpretation". Lancet 363 (9411): 750. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)15715-2. PMID 15016483. 
  41. ^ Autism and Vaccines Theory, from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control. Accessed June 13, 2007.
  42. ^ Immunization Safety Review: Vaccines and Autism. From the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences. Report dated May 17, 2004; accessed June 13, 2007.
  43. ^ MMR Fact Sheet, from the United Kingdom National Health Service. Accessed June 13, 2007.
  44. ^ Danny Fortson. "Moral majority take on GSK and Merck over cancer drugs", The Independent, 2006-06-11. Retrieved on 2006-11-02. 
  45. ^ LeBlanc S. "Parents use religion to avoid vaccines", Associated Press, 2007-10-17. Retrieved on 2007-10-17. 
  46. ^ Ellner P (1998). "Smallpox: gone but not forgotten.". Infection 26 (5): 263-9. PMID 9795781. 
  47. ^ Eddy TP (1992). "The Leicester anti-vaccination movement". Lancet 340 (8830): 1298. PMID 1359363. 
  48. ^ Fourth and other reports of the Royal Commission into smallpox and Leicester 1871 et seq
  49. ^ (U.S.) Center for Disease Control
  50. ^ White AD (1896). "Theological opposition to inoculation, vaccination, and the use of anaesthetics", A History Of The Warfare Of Science With Theology In Christendom. New York: Appleton & Co. 
  51. ^ Vaccination - A Crime Against Humanity. The Associated Jehovah's Witnesses for Reform on Blood.
  52. ^ Walene James. Germ Theories. NewTreatments.org. Retrieved on 2006-11-02.
  53. ^ Fitzpatrick M (2005). "The anti-vaccination movement in England, 1853–1907". J R Soc Med 98 (8): 384–5. 

A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 292nd day of the year (293rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 247th day of the year (248th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 311th day of the year (312th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 306th day of the year (307th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 209th day of the year (210th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 192nd day of the year (193rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 209th day of the year (210th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 209th day of the year (210th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 206th day of the year (207th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 311th day of the year (312th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Andrew Wakefield (born 1956 in the United Kingdom) is a Canadian trained surgeon, best known as the lead author of a controversial 1998 research study, published in The Lancet, which reported bowel symptoms in a selected sample of twelve children with autistic spectrum disorders and other disabilities, and alleged a... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 248th day of the year (249th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 246th day of the year (247th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta is recognized as the lead United States agency for protecting the public health and safety of people by providing credible information to enhance health decisions, and promoting health through strong partnerships with state health departments and other organizations. ... is the 164th day of the year (165th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... The Institute of Medicine, a part of the National Academy of Sciences, is an American organization whose purpose is to provide national advice on issues relating to biomedical science, medicine, and health (National Academy of Sciences, n. ... President Harding and the National Academy of Sciences at the White House, Washington, DC, April 1921 The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) is a corporation in the United States whose members serve pro bono as advisers to the nation on science, engineering, and medicine. ... is the 137th day of the year (138th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 164th day of the year (165th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... NHS redirects here. ... is the 164th day of the year (165th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 162nd day of the year (163rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 306th day of the year (307th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 290th day of the year (291st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 290th day of the year (291st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 306th day of the year (307th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Further reading

  • Bedford H, Elliman D (Jan 22 2000). "Concerns about immunisation.". BMJ 320 (7229): 240-3. PMID 10642238. 
  • Davies P, Chapman S, Leask J (2002). "Antivaccination activists on the world wide web.". Arch Dis Child 87 (1): 22-5. PMID 12089115. 
  • Elliman D, Bedford H (2004). "MMR: Science and Fiction. Exploring the Vaccine Crisis; MMR and Autism: What Parents Need to Know". BMJ 329 (7473): 1049. doi:10.1136/bmj.329.7473.1049. 
  • Friedlander E (2007). The anti-immunization activists: a pattern of deception. Retrieved on 2007-11-13.
  • Hanratty B, Holt T, Duffell E, Patterson W, Ramsay M, White J, Jin L, Litton P (Oct 2000). "UK measles outbreak in non-immune anthroposophic communities: the implications for the elimination of measles from Europe.". Epidemiol Infect 125 (2): 377-83. PMID 11117961. 
  • Miller, C.L. Deaths from Measles in England and Wales. 1970-83.], Epidemiological Research Laboratory, Public Health Laboratory Service, London; measles mortality statistics published in the British Medical Journal, Vol 290, February 9, 1985
  • Orenstein W, Hinman A (Oct 29 1999). "The immunization system in the United States - the role of school immunization laws.". Vaccine 17 Suppl 3: S19-24. PMID 10559531. 
  • Pichichero M, Cernichiari E, Lopreiato J, Treanor J (Nov 30 2002). "Mercury concentrations and metabolism in infants receiving vaccines containing thiomersal: a descriptive study.". Lancet 360 (9347): 1737-41. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11682-5. PMID 12480426. 
  • Poland G, Jacobson R (Mar 21 2001). "Understanding those who do not understand: a brief review of the anti-vaccine movement.". Vaccine 19 (17-19): 2440-5. PMID 11257375. 
  • Sears R (2007). The Vaccine Book: Making the Right Decision for Your Child. Little, Brown. ISBN 0316017507. 
  • Spier R (Nov 1998). "Ethical aspects of vaccines and vaccination.". Vaccine 16 (19): 1788-94. PMID 9795382. 
  • Taylor B, Miller E, Lingam R, Andrews N, Simmons A, Stowe J (Feb 16 2002). "Measles, mumps, and rubella vaccination and bowel problems or developmental regression in children with autism: population study.". BMJ 324 (7334): 393-6. PMID 11850369. 
  • Vermeersch E (Oct 29 1999). "Individual rights versus societal duties.". Vaccine 17 Suppl 3: S14-7. PMID 10627239. 
  • Wolfe RM, Sharp LK, Lipsky MS (2002). "Content and design attributes of antivaccination web sites". JAMA 287 (24): 3245–8. PMID 12076221. 
  • Six common misconceptions about immunization. World Health Organization (16 February 2006). Retrieved on 2006-11-02.
Anti-vaccinationist publications
  • 1884 Compulsory Vaccination in England by William Tebb
  • 1885 The Story of a Great Delusion by William White
  • 1898 Vaccination A Delusion by Alfred Russel Wallace
  • 1936 The Case Against Vaccination by M. Beddow Bayly M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.
  • 1951 The Truth About Vaccination and Immunization by Lily Loat
  • 1957 The Poisoned Needle by Eleanor McBean
  • 1990 Universal Immunization: Miracle or Masterful Mirage by Dr. Raymond Obomsawin
  • 1993 Vaccination: 100 years of orthodox research shows that vaccines represent an assault on the immune system by Viera Scheibner. ISBN 0-646-15124-X
  • 2000 Behavioural Problems in Childhood by Viera Scheibner. ISBN 0-9578007-0-3

A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 317th day of the year (318th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... is the 47th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 306th day of the year (307th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1884 (MDCCCLXXXIV) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Sunday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ... 1885 (MDCCCLXXXV) is a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Saturday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Year 1898 (MDCCCXCVIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ... For the Cornish painter, see Alfred Wallis. ... 1936 (MCMXXXVI) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will take you to calendar). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with anti-vaccinationists. ... Year 1951 (MCMLI) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1957 (MCMLVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1957 Gregorian calendar). ... Year 1990 (MCMXC) was a common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar). ... Year 1993 (MCMXCIII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1993 Gregorian calendar). ... Viera Scheibner, PhD, (real name Viera Scheibnerová) is a retired micropaleontologist (a branch of geology). ... Year 2000 (MM) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full 2000 Gregorian calendar). ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Viera Scheibner, PhD, (real name Viera Scheibnerová) is a retired micropaleontologist (a branch of geology). ...

External links

The external links in this article may not comply with Wikipedia's content policies.
Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links.
Supportive of vaccines
  • Immunize.org - Immunization Action Coalition' (nonprofit working to increase immunization rates)
  • MMRtheFacts.nhs.uk - 'MMR the Facts', UK National Health Service
  • WHO.int - 'Immunizations, Vaccines and Biologicals: Towards a World Free of Vaccine Preventable Diseases', World Health Organization (WHO's global vaccination campaign website)
  • Vaccineethics.org - 'Ethics of Vaccines Project', University of Pennsylvania
  • CDC.gov - "National Immunization Program: Leading the Way to Healthy Lives", Centers for Disease Control (CDC information on vaccinations)
  • CDC.gov - "Mercury and Vaccines (Thimerosal)", Centers for Disease Control
  • NYTimes.com - "On Autism's Cause, It's Parents vs. Research", Gardiner Harris, Anahad O'Connor, New York Times (front page; June 25, 2005)
  • The Anti-Vaccine Disease: Rant or Reason? - A Review from the Science Creative Quarterly
Critical of vaccines
  • Doctors' Group Votes to Oppose Vaccine Mandates.. Association of American Physicians and Surgeons, Inc.. Archived from the original on 2000-11-02. Retrieved on 2006-07-01.
  • NVIC.org - National Vaccine Information Center
  • AVN.org.au - The Australian Vaccination Network (AVN)
  • VacLib.org - 'Free Your Mind...From the Vaccination Paradigm', Vaccination Liberation
  • VRAN.org - 'Vaccine Risk Awareness Network: Your Source for Vaccination Information' (Canada)
MMR controversy
  • BBC.co.uk - 'Does the MMR Jab Cause Autism?' (TV programme transcript), BBC (May 29, 2005)
  • Susan Mayor (March 13, 2004). "Authors Reject Interpretation Linking Autism and MMR Vaccine". British Medical Journal 328: 602. doi:10.1136/bmj.328.7440.602-c. 
  • Abi Berger (13 September 2003). "The Third Degree. MMR: Can You Decide?". British Medical Journal 327: 628. doi:10.1136/bmj.327.7415.628. 
  • BrianDeer.com - "The Lancet Scandal (Investigation of MMR Affair), Brian Deer
  • "At Last - the End of the MMR Myth: Dr Simon Atkins on Why it's Safe to Give Jabs", The Guardian, October 20, 2005. 
  • MedicalNewsToday.com - "Cochrane Library Publishes the Most Thorough Survey of MMR Vaccination Data", Medical News Today
  • Medinfo.co.uk - "Medical Information for Patients: MMR Vaccination"
  • MMRTheQuestions.com - "MMR: The Questions" (includes response from Andrew Wakefield to Brian Deer's investigation)
  • RedFlagsDaily.com - "Alive and Well: The MMR-Autism Connection", F. Edward Yazbak, MD, FAAP, Red Flags (October 29, 2005)
Critical of anti-vaccinationism
  • The Anti-Immunization Activists: A Pattern of Deception - Ed Friedlander, MD
  • Misconceptions about Immunization - Stephen Barrett, MD
  • Chiropractors and Vaccination: A Historical Perspective - James B. Campbell, PhD; Jason W. Busse, DC, MSc; and H. Stephen Injeyan, DC, PhD
  • Chiropractors and Immunization - Stephen Barrett, MD
  • Natural experiments in medicine - Ganfyd
  • Compare the Risks: Disease vs. Immunization - King County Public Health Dept.
  • Six Common Misconceptions about Vaccination and how to respond to them - CDC
  • What Would Happen If We Stopped Vaccinations? - CDC
v • d • e
Vaccination/Vaccine (and Immunization, Inoculation. See also List of vaccine topics and Epidemiology)
Development Adjuvants • Cancer vaccines • DNA vaccination • HIV • Live vector vaccine • Models • Timeline • Trial
Administration ACIP • GAVI • VAERS • Vaccine court • Vaccine injury • Policy • Schedule • VSD
Live vaccines Anthrax • BCG • Flu • MMR • MMRV • Polio(OPV) • Smallpox • Varicella
Inactivated/toxoid vaccines inactivated virus: Flu • HAV • Polio(IPV) •• inactivated bacteria/toxoid: DPwT •• conjugate: Hib • PCV
Other vaccines subunit: Anthrax • DPaT • HPV •• recombinant DNA: HBV •• other: Anthrax • PPV
Controversy A-CHAMP • Controversy • NCVIA • Pox party • Safe Minds • Thiomersal

  Results from FactBites:
 
K.N.O.W. Vaccines - Vaccine Controversy (1371 words)
Whereas the proponents of mass vaccination might have you think there is a conspiracy of quacks and unfit parents trying to thwart medical progress, the truth of the matter is that the mounting evidence of malfeasance is undeniable as the conspiracy of silence about this conflict is brought to light.
Vaccination is a medical procedure that carries an inherent risk of injury or death.
It is not clear whether vaccination became mandatory because the public cannot be trusted to always fulfill their obligations to society, so laws were created to enforce compliance, or whether because vaccination is a medical procedure that carries risk of injury or death, it must be mandated.
VACCINATION PROTOCOLS (3182 words)
Also important are the kinds of vaccines necessary for the area you live in and what type, e.g., whether a killed, recombinant or a modified live-type vaccine is being used.
The use of low passage/high titer vaccines now have made it possible to overcome maternal antibody vaccine inactivation at an earlier age and thus shorten the window of vulnerability to canine parvovirus, but remember greater efficacy means you lose some safety factors.
In general, vaccines that contain the living organisms will produce a stronger and a longer-lasting immunity, but their virulence must be reduced to a safe level.
  More results at FactBites »


 

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