The Vedic civilization is the Indo-Aryan culture associated with the Vedas, the earliest known records of Indian history. Mainstream scholarship places the Vedic civilization into the 2nd and 1st millennia BC, while some Hindu schlors date its beginnings as early as the 5th millennium BC based on alleged astronomical information in the Vedas. The use of Vedic Sanskrit continued up to the 6th century BC, when the culture started to be transformed into classical forms of Hinduism. This article is about the History of South Asia. ... The Indus Valley Civilization existed along the Indus River in present-day Pakistan. ... Middle kingdoms of India refers to the political entities in India from the 6th century BC through to the Islamic invasions and the related Decline of Buddhism from the 7th century AD. // Kingdoms and Empires The Aryans had invaded India from the Northwest, according to the Aryan Invasion Theory, and... During the middle ages, several Islamic regimes established empires in India. ... // The Mughal empire Main article: Mughal empire India in the 16th century presented a fragmented picture of rulers, both Muslim and Hindu, who lacked concern for their subjects and who failed to create a common body of laws or institutions. ... Company Rule, 1757-1857 Expansion and territory It was not until the middle of the 19th century that almost all of the territory that now constitutes Bangladesh, India and Pakistan came under the rule of the British East India Company. ... The British Raj is an informal term for the British colonial administration of most of the Indian subcontinent, or present-day India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, also included from 1886 was Burma. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... The History of Pakistan for times preceding 1947 overlaps with that of the history of the Indian subcontinent, Afghanistan, and Iran. ... This article contains information that has not been verified. ... Proto-Indo-European Indo-European studies Indo-European is originally a linguistic term, referring to the Indo-European language family. ... The Indo-European languages include some 443 (SIL estimate) languages and dialects spoken by about three billion people, including most of the major language families of Europe and western Asia, which belong to a single superfamily. ... The Anatolian languages are a group of extinct languages, either Indo-European or (in some classifications) closely related to Indo-European, which were spoken in Asia Minor, including Hittite. ... The Baltic languages are a group of genetically-related languages spoken in the Northern Europe and belonging to the Indo-European language family. ... Celtic languages are the languages descended from Proto-Celtic, both those spoken by the ancient Celts, and those used by their modern descendants, the Gaels, Welsh, Cornish and Bretons. ... Indo-Iranian languages (also called Aryan languages) are the eastern-most group of the living Indo-European languages. ... The Italic subfamily is a member of the Centum branch of the Indo-European language family. ... Slav, Slavic or Slavonic can refer to: Slavic peoples Slavic languages Slavic mythology Church Slavonic language Old Church Slavonic language Slav, a former Jewish settlement in the Gaza Strip. ... Tocharian is one of the most obscure branches of the Indo-European language group. ... Proto-Indo-European Indo-European studies Indo-European is originally a linguistic term, referring to the Indo-European language family. ... The Proto-Indo-Europeans (PIE) were a patrilineal society of the Bronze Age (roughly 5th to 4th millennium BC), probably semi-nomadic, relying on animal husbandry. ... This article is about Bronze Age burial mounds and the Kurgan culture. ... Proto-Indo-European Indo-European studies The Yamna (from Russian яма pit) or pit grave culture is a prehistoric culture of the Bug/Dniester/Ural region, dating to the 36th–23rd centuries BC. The culture was predominantly nomadic, with some agriculture practiced near rivers and a few hillforts. ... Approximate extent of the Corded Ware horizon with adjacent 3rd millennium cultures (after EIEC). ... Indo-European studies is a field of linguistics, dealing with the Indo-European languages. ... The Indo-Aryan languages form a subgroup of the Indo-Iranian languages, thus belonging to the Indo-European family of languages. ... The Vedas (also referred to as Vedam) are part of the Hindu Shruti; these religious scriptures form part of the core of the Brahminical and Vedic traditions within Hinduism and are the inspirational, metaphysical and mythological foundation for later Vedanta, Yoga, Tantra and even Bhakti forms of Hinduism. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... (3rd millennium BC – 2nd millennium BC – 1st millennium BC – other millennia) // Events Second dynasty of Babylon First Bantu migrations from west Africa The Cushites drive the original inhabitants from Ethiopia, and establish trade relations with Egypt. ... (2nd millennium BC – 1st millennium BC – 1st millennium – other millennia) Events The Iron Age began in Western Europe Egypt declined as a major power The Tanakh was written Buddhism was founded Cyrus the Great conquered Babylon and created the Persian Empire (6th century BC) Sparta and Athens fought the Peloponnesian... (6th millennium BC – 5th millennium BC – 4th millennium BC – other millennia) Events 4713 BC – The epoch (origin) of the Julian Period described by Joseph Justus Scaliger occurred on January 1, the astronomical Julian day number zero. ... Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, the earliest sacred texts of India. ... (7th century BC - 6th century BC - 5th century BC - other centuries) (600s BC - 590s BC - 580s BC - 570s BC - 560s BC - 550s BC - 540s BC - 530s BC - 520s BC - 510s BC - 500s BC - other decades) (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 5th and 6th centuries BC were... Hinduism (सनातन धर्म; also known as Sanātana Dharma, and Vaidika-Dharma) is a worldwide religious tradition that is based on the bedrock of the Veda scriptures. ...

Overview

Map of early Iron Age Vedic India after Witzel (1989). Realms or tribes are labelled black, Foreign tribes mentioned in early Vedic texts purple, Vedic schools green. Rivers are labelled blue. The Thar desert is marked orange.

The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based on text-internal evidence, and on matching information from the texts with archaeological evidence. Linguistically, the Vedic texts can be roughly classified in five chronological strata. Image File history File links by en:User:Dbachmann File links The following pages link to this file: History of Pakistan Vedic civilization Aryavarta Kuru (India) ... Image File history File links by en:User:Dbachmann File links The following pages link to this file: History of Pakistan Vedic civilization Aryavarta Kuru (India) ... The Thar Desert (also known as the Great Indian Desert) is a desert mainly Goo goo gaa gaa. ...

1. Rigvedic. The Rigveda is by far the most archaic of the Vedic texts preserved, and it retains many common Indo-Iranian elements, both in language and in content, that are not present in any other Vedic texts. Its creation must have taken place over several centuries, and apart from the youngest books (1 and 10), it must have been essentially complete by 1500 BC. Archaeologically, this period corresponds with the late Indus Valley Civilization, and the Cemetary H cultures of the Punjab and the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP) further east.
2. Mantra language. This period includes both the mantra and prose language of the Atharvaveda (Paippalada and Shaunakiya), the Rigveda Khilani, the Samaveda Samhita (containing some 75 mantras not in the Rigveda), and the mantras of the Yajurveda. These texts are largely derived from the Rigveda, but have undergone certain changes, both by linguistic change and by reinterpretation. Conspicuous changes include change of vishva "all" by sarva, and the spread of the kuru- verbal stem (for Rigvedic krno-). This is the time of the early Iron Age in north-western India, corresponding to the Black and Red Ware (BRW) culture, and the kingdom of the Kurus, dating from ca. the 12th century BC.
3. Samhita prose. This period marks the beginning of the collection and codification of a Vedic canon. An important linguistic change is the complete loss of the injunctive, of the subjunctive, and of the aorist. The commentary part of the Yajurveda (MS, KS) belongs to this period. Archaeologically, the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture from ca. 900 BC corresponds, and the shift of the political center from the Kurus to the Pancalas at the Ganges.
4. Brahmana prose. The Brahmanas proper of the four Vedas belong to this period, as well as the oldest of the Upanishads (BAU, ChU, JUB).
5. Sutra language. This is the last stratum of vedic Sanskrit leading up to 500 BC, comprising the bulk of the Shrauta and Grhya Sutras, and some Upanishads (E.g. KathU, MaitrU. Younger Upanishads are post-Vedic). Videha as a third political center is established.
6. Epic and Paninean Sanskrit. The language of the Mahabharata and Ramayana epics, and the Classical Sanskrit described by Panini is considered post-Vedic, and belongs to the time after 500 BC. Archaeologically, the rapid spread of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP) over all of northern India corresponds to this period. The Vedanta, the Buddha, and the Pali Prakrit dialect of Buddhist scripture belong to this period.

Historical records set in only after the end of the Vedic period, and remain scarce throughout the Indian Middle Ages. The end of Vedic India is marked by linguistic, cultural and political changes. The grammar of Panini marks a final apex in the codification of sacred texts, and at the same time the beginning of Classical Sanskrit. The invasion of Darius I of the Indus valley in the late 6th century BC marks the beginning of outside influence, continued in the kingdoms of the Indo Greeks, new waves of immigration from 150 BC (Abhira, Shaka), and ultimately the medieval Islamic Maharajas. The most important historical source of the geography of post-Vedic India is the 2nd century Greek historian Arrian. The Rig Veda ऋग्वेद (Sanskrit ṛc praise + veda knowledge) is the earliest of the four Hindu religious scriptures known as the Vedas. ... Indo-Iranian can refer to: The Indo-Iranian languages The prehistoric Indo-Iranian people, see Aryan This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... (Redirected from 1500 BC) Centuries: 17th century BC - 16th century BC - 15th century BC Decades: 1550s BC 1540s BC 1530s BC 1520s BC 1510s BC - 1500s BC - 1490s BC 1480s BC 1470s BC 1460s BC 1450s BC Events and Trends Stonehenge built in Wiltshire, England The element Mercury has been... The Indus Valley Civilization existed along the Indus River in present-day Pakistan. ... The Cemetery H culture developed out of the northern part of the Indus Valley Civilisation around 1900 BC, in and around the Punjab region. ... Punjab, 1903 Punjab Province, 1909 The Punjab (Meaning: Land of five Rivers) (also Panjab, Gurmukhi: ਪੰਜਾਬ, Shahmukhi: پنجاب) is a region straddling the border between India and Pakistan. ... The Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP), is a 2nd millennium BC Bronze Age culture of the the Ganga-Yamuna plain. ... The Atharva Veda is a sacred text of Hinduism, part of the four books of the Vedas. ... The Khilani are are a collection of 98 apocryphal hymns of the Rigveda, recorded in the Bashakala, but not in the Shakala school. ... The Sama Veda (सामवेद), or Veda of Holy Songs, is third in the usual order of enumeration of the four Vedas, the ancient core Hindu scriptures. ... The Yajur Veda यजुर्वेद is one of the four Hindu Vedas; it contains religious texts focussing on liturgy and ritual. ... Iron Age Axe found on Gotland This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age, for the mythological Iron Age see Iron Age (mythology). ... The black and red ware culture (BRW) is an early Iron Age archaeological culture of the northern Indian Subcontinent. ... The position of the Kuru kingdom in Iron Age Vedic India. ... (13th century BC - 12th century BC - 11th century BC - other centuries) (1200s BC - 1190s BC - 1180s BC - 1170s BC - 1160s BC - 1150s BC - 1140s BC - 1130s BC - 1120s BC - 1110s BC - 1100s BC - other decades) (3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC) Events 1200 BC - Ancient Pueblo Peoples... An injunction is an equitable remedy in the form of a court order that either prohibits or compels (enjoins or restrains) a party from continuing a particular activity. ... The subjunctive mood (sometimes referred to as the conjunctive mood) is a grammatical mood of the verb that expresses wishes, commands (in subordinate clauses), and statements that are contrary to fact. ... The aorist aspect was one of the three original aspects that defined the Indo_European verbal paradigm. ... The Yajur Veda यजुर्वेद is one of the four Hindu Vedas; it contains religious texts focussing on liturgy and ritual. ... Centuries: 11th century BC - 10th century BC - 9th century BC Decades: 950s BC 940s BC 930s BC 920s BC 910s BC - 900s BC - 890s BC 880s BC 870s BC 860s BC 850s BC Events and Trends 909 BC - Zhou xiao wang becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China. ... Early morning on the Ganges The River Ganges (Ganga in Indian languages) (Devanagiri गंगा) is a major river in northern India. ... The Brahmanas (Brahmin Books) are part of the Hindu Shruti; these religious scriptures focus on sacrifice -- particularly that of horses and soma. ... The Upanishads (उपनिषद्, UpaniÅŸad) are part of the Hindu Shruti scriptures which primarily discuss meditation and philosophy and are seen as religious instructions by most schools of Hinduism. ... Centuries: 7th century BC - 6th century BC - 5th century BC Decades: 550s BC - 540s BC - 530s BC - 520s BC - 510s BC - 500s BC - 490s BC - 480s BC - 470s BC - 460s BC - 450s BC Events and Trends 509 BC - Foundation of the Roman Republic 508 BC - Office of pontifex maximus created... Sutra (सूत्र) in Sanskrit is derived from the verb √siv, meaning to sew. ... Sutra (सूत्र) in Sanskrit is derived from the verb √siv, meaning to sew. ... The Upanishads (उपनिषद्, Upanişad) are part of the Hindu Shruti scriptures which primarily discuss meditation and philosophy and are seen as religious instructions by most schools of Hinduism. ... The Mahabharata (Devanagari: महाभारत, phonetically Mahābhārata - see note), sometimes just called Bharata, is one of the two major ancient Sanskrit epics of India, the other being the Ramayana. ... Lord Ram, Laxman, Sita and Hanuman(crouching) The Ramayana (Sanskrit: march (ayana) of Rama) is part of the Hindu smriti, written by Valmiki. ... Vedanta (Vedānta) is an important branch of Hindu philosophy and is a form of Jnana Yoga (one of the four basic yoga practices in Hinduism; the others are: Raja Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, Karma Yoga), a form of yoga which involves an individual seeking the path of intellectual analysis or... A stone image of the Buddha. ... . Pāli (ISO 639-1: pi; ISO 639-2: pli) is a Middle Indo-Aryan dialect or prakrit. ... The title given to this article is incorrect due to technical limitations. ... Seal of Darius I, showing the king hunting on his chariot, and the symbol of Ahuramazda Darius the Great (Pers. ... Maximum extent of Indo-Greek territory circa 175 BCE. The Indo-Greeks (or sometimes Greco-Indians) designate a series of Greek kings, who invaded and controlled parts of northwest and northern India from 180 BCE to around 10 BCE. They are the continuation of the Greco-Bactrian dynasty of Greek... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC - 150s BC - 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC Years: 155 BC 154 BC 153 BC 152 BC 151 BC - 150 BC - 149 BC 148 BC... Shaka Shaka (sometimes spelled Chaka) (ca. ... (1st century - 2nd century - 3rd century - other centuries) Events Roman Empire governed by the Five Good Emperors (96–180) – Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius. ... Lucius Flavius Arrianus Xenophon (c 92-c 175), known in English as Arrian, was a Roman historian. ...

Rigvedic period

The origin of the Vedic civilization and its relation to the Indus Valley civilization remains highly controversial and politically charged in Indian society; see the Aryan Invasion Theory for details. The Rigveda is primarily a collection of religious hymns, and allusions to, but not explanation of, various myths and stories, mainly in the younger books 1 and 10. The oldest hymns, probably in books 2–7, although some people hold book 9, the Soma Mandala, to be even more ancient, contain many elements inherited from pre-Vedic, common Indo-Iranian society. Therefore, it is difficult to define the precise beginning of the "Rigvedic period", as it emerges seamlessly from the era preceding it. Also, due to the nomadic nature of the society described, it cannot be localized, and in its earliest phase describes tribes that were essentially on the move. The Indus Valley Civilization existed along the Indus River in present-day Pakistan. ... The controversial Aryan invasion theory is a historical theory first put forth by the German Indologist Friedrich Max Müller and others in the mid nineteenth century in India. ... The Rig Veda ऋग्वेद (Sanskrit ṛc praise + veda knowledge) is the earliest of the four Hindu religious scriptures known as the Vedas. ... Soma (Sanskrit), or Haoma (Avestan) (from Proto-Indo-Iranian *Sauma) was a ritual drink of importance among the early Indo-Iranians, and the later Vedic and Iranian cultures. ... Indo-Iranian can refer to: The Indo-Iranian languages The prehistoric Indo-Iranian people, see Aryan This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ...

Political organization

The grama (village), vis and jana were political units of the early Vedic Aryans. A vish was probably a subdivision of a jana, and a grama was probably a smaller unit than the other two. The leader of a grama was called gramani and that of a vish was called vishpati. Another unit was the gana whose head was a jyeshta (elder).

The rashtra (state) was governed by a rajan (king). The king is often referred to as gopa (protector) and samrat (supreme ruler). He governed the people with their consent and approval. It is possible that he was sometimes elected. The sabha and samiti were popular councils. Sabha is one of the municipalities of Libya. ...

The main duty of the king was to protect the tribe. He was aided by two functionaries, the purohita (chaplain) and the senani (army chief; sena: army). The former not only gave advice to the ruler but also practiced spells and charms for success in war. Soldiers on foot (patti) and on chariots (rathins), armed with bow and arrow were common. The king employed spasa (spies) and dutas (messengers). He often got a ceremonial gift, bali, from the people. Chariot was the name of a WW2 naval weapon, the British manned torpedo. ...

Society and economy

Rig Vedic society was characterized by a nomadic lifestyle, with cattle rearing being the chief occupation. Cattle and cows were held in high esteem and frequently appear in Rigvedic hymns; goddesses were often compared to cows, and gods to bulls. Agriculture grew more prominent with time as the community settled down. Money was unknown, and bartering with cattle and other valuables replaced financial commerce. Communities of nomadic people move from place to place, rather than settling down in one location. ... Binomial name Bos taurus Linnaeus, 1758 Cattle are domesticated ungulates, a member of the subfamily Bovinae of the family Bovidae. ... Barter is a form of trade where goods or services are exchanged for a certain amount of other goods or services, i. ...

Families were patrilineal, and people prayed for abundance of sons. Society was strictly organized in a system of caste. The four major varnas were Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. Those who are outside these caste structure are known as adivasis. Patrilineality is a system in which one belongs to ones fathers lineage; it generally involves the inheritance of property, names or titles through the male line as well. ... A caste system is a rigid system of social stratification, which divides members of a society into different castes. ... The word Caste is derived from the Portuguese word casta, meaning lineage, breed or race. ... A Brahmin (less often Brahman) is a member of the Hindu caste. ... According to the Hindu code of Manu, a Kshatriya is a member of the military or reigning order, the second ranking caste of the Indian varna system of four castes, the first being the Brahmin or priestly caste, the third the Vaishya or mercantile caste and the lowest the Shudra. ... In the Hindu caste system, a Vaishya (Sanskrit vaiśya, female vaiśyā) is a member of the third of the four major castes of the varna system of traditional Indian society, comprising farmers, herders, merchants, and businessmen. ... Shudra, or Sudra, is the fourth caste, or varna, in the traditional four-caste division among Indian castes. ... Ä€divāsÄ«s (आदिवासी) or tribal peoples comprise a substantial minority of the population of India. ...

The food of the Rigvedic Aryans consisted of parched grain and cakes, milk and milk products, and various fruits and vegetables. Consumption of meat was also common among, at least among the upper classes. The Rigveda contains many references to animal sacrifice and meat offered to the gods. Fruit stall in Barcelona, Spain. ... Vegetables in a market Vegetable is a nutritional and culinary term denoting any part of a plant that is commonly consumed by humans as food, but is not regarded as a culinary fruit, nut, herb, or spice. ...

Vedic Religion

Main article: Vedic religion. The religion of the Vedic civilization is the predecessor of classical Hinduism, usually included in the term. ...

Texts considered to date to the Vedic period are mainly the four Vedas, but the Brahmanas, and some of the older Upanishads are also considered Vedic. The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the purohitas. The Vedas (also referred to as Vedam) are part of the Hindu Shruti; these religious scriptures form part of the core of the Brahminical and Vedic traditions within Hinduism and are the inspirational, metaphysical and mythological foundation for later Vedanta, Yoga, Tantra and even Bhakti forms of Hinduism. ... The Brahmanas (Brahmin Books) are part of the Hindu Shruti; these religious scriptures focus on sacrifice -- particularly that of horses and soma. ... The Upanishads (उपनिषद्, Upanişad) are part of the Hindu Shruti scriptures which primarily discuss meditation and philosophy and are seen as religious instructions by most schools of Hinduism. ... From the Greek word λειτουργια, which can be transliterated as leitourgia, meaning the work of the people, a liturgy comprises a prescribed religious ceremony, according to the traditions of a particular religion; it may refer to, or include, an elaborate formal ritual (such as the Catholic Mass), a daily activity such... The priests of Vedic religion, known as purohita, are divided into several types: The Hotar is the chief priest, presiding the sacrifice. ...

The rishis, the composers of the hymns of the Rigveda, were considered divinely inspired seers (or rather "hearers", shrauta means "what is heard"). In Hinduism, the Rishis are sages and/or seers who heard the hymns of the Devas; and then wrote them down as Vedic scriptures. ... The Rig Veda ऋग्वेद (Sanskrit ṛc praise + veda knowledge) is the earliest of the four Hindu religious scriptures known as the Vedas. ...

The mode of worship was performance of sacrifices and chanting of verses (see Vedic chant). The priests helped the common man in performing rituals. People prayed for abundance of children, cattle and wealth. A chant (peace¹) is the rhythmic speaking or singing of words or sounds, either on a single pitch or with a simple melody involving a limited set of notes and often including a great deal of repetition or statis. ...

The main deities of the Vedic pantheon were Indra, Agni (fire), and Soma. Other deities were Varuna, Surya (the Sun), Mitra, Vayu (the wind). Goddesses included Ushas (the dawn), Prithvi (the Earth) and Aditi. Rivers, especially Sarasvati, were also considered goddesses. Deities were not viewed as all-powerful. The relationship between the devotee and the deity was one of transaction, with Agni (the sacrificial fire) taking the role of messenger between the two. Strong traces of a common Indo-Iranian religion remain visible, especially in the Soma cult and the fire worship also preserved in Zoroastrianism. The Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) has parallels in the 2nd millennium BC Andronovo culture, in India allegedly continued until the 4th century AD. Vegetarianism, the practice now thought by many to be so characteristic of Hinduism, arose only in late or post-Vedic times, possibly already at the time of Panini: The root-compound goghan "slaying cattle", in RV 7.56.17 used parallel to nrhan "slaying men" in reference to the referring to the weapon vadha of the Maruts, Indra (इन्द्र), god of weather and war, and Lord of Heaven or Swargaloka, was the supreme deva of Hinduism during the early Vedic period. ... The word Agni can have these meanings:- A fire-god in three religions: described below. ... Soma (Sanskrit), or Haoma (Avestan) (from Proto-Indo-Iranian *Sauma) was a ritual drink of importance among the early Indo-Iranians, and the later Vedic and Iranian cultures. ... This article is about the god. ... In Hinduism, Surya is the chief solar deity, son of Dyaush or Indra. ... Mitra or Mithra is an important deity of Persian and Indic culture; he appears in the Vedas as one of the Adityas, a solar deity and the god of honesty, friendship, and contracts. ... In Hinduism, Vayu is a primary god, father of Bhima and Hanuman. ... Ushas (उषः úṣas-), Sanskrit for dawn, is the chief goddess (sometimes imagined as several goddesses, Dawns) exalted in the Rigveda. ... In Hinduism, Prithvi (pṛthvī) is an Earth Mother or Prithvi Mata, wife of Dyaus Pita, mother of Indra and Agni. ... In Hinduism, Aditi (limitless) is a goddess of the sky, consciousness, the past, the future and fertility. ... This article is about Saraswati, the Hindu goddess. ... Indo-Iranian can refer to: The Indo-Iranian languages The prehistoric Indo-Iranian people, see Aryan This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Soma (Sanskrit), or Haoma (Avestan) (from Proto-Indo-Iranian *Sauma) was a ritual drink of importance among the early Indo-Iranians, and the later Vedic and Iranian cultures. ... Faravahar, the depiction of the human soul before birth and after death. ... The Ashvamedha, or the horse-sacrifice is one of the most important royal rituals from Vedic India, described in detail in the Yajurveda (books 22–25) and the pertaining commentaries. ... (3rd millennium BC – 2nd millennium BC – 1st millennium BC – other millennia) // Events Second dynasty of Babylon First Bantu migrations from west Africa The Cushites drive the original inhabitants from Ethiopia, and establish trade relations with Egypt. ... ...

17c aaré gohaá nRhaá vadháH vaH astu "far be your cow-slaying, men-slaying weapon!"

in Panini is taught to refer to a "receiver of a cow" exclusively; this change occurred parallel to the rise of, and possibly under the influence of, Buddhism, which began as a reform-movement of the Vedic religion. In later texts, the cow is often described as aditi and aghnya (that which should not be killed). A replica of an ancient statue found among the ruins of a temple at Sarnath Buddhism is a religion and philosophy based on the teachings of the Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama, who lived between approximately 566 and 486 BCE. Originating in India, Buddhism gradually spread throughout Asia to Central Asia...

Vedic religion evolved into the Hindu paths of Yoga and Vedanta, a religious path considering itself the 'essence' of the Vedas. The Vedic pantheon was interpreted as a unitary view of the universe with God seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of Ishvara and Brahman, projected into various deities in the human mind. A Hindu is an adherent of Hinduism, the predominant religious, philosophical and cultural system of India (Bharat). ... Vedanta (Vedānta) is an important branch of Hindu philosophy and is a form of Jnana Yoga (one of the four basic yoga practices in Hinduism; the others are: Raja Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, Karma Yoga), a form of yoga which involves an individual seeking the path of intellectual analysis or... Saguna Brahman, also called Iswara, in Hinduism, is God with personal characteristics or attributes. ... Here the underlined vowels carry the Vedic Sanskrit udātta pitch accent. ...

The later Vedic period

The transition from the early to the later Vedic period was marked by the emergence of agriculture as the dominant economic activity and a corresponding decline in the significance of cattle rearing. Several changes went hand in hand with this. For instance, several large kingdoms arose because of the increasing importance of land and its protection. The late Vedic period from ca. 500 BC more or less seamlessly blends into the period of the Middle kingdoms of India known from historical sources. Centuries: 7th century BC - 6th century BC - 5th century BC Decades: 550s BC - 540s BC - 530s BC - 520s BC - 510s BC - 500s BC - 490s BC - 480s BC - 470s BC - 460s BC - 450s BC Events and Trends 509 BC - Foundation of the Roman Republic 508 BC - Office of pontifex maximus created... Middle kingdoms of India refers to the political entities in India from the 6th century BC through to the Islamic invasions and the related Decline of Buddhism from the 7th century AD. // Kingdoms and Empires The Aryans had invaded India from the Northwest, according to the Aryan Invasion Theory, and...

Kingdoms

Several small kingdoms and tribes merged to form a few large ones which were often at war with each other. 16 mahajanapadas (great kingdoms) are referred to in some of the literature. By this time the Aryan tribes had spread from their original home in the west to much of the east and the south. The power of the king greatly increased. Rulers gave themselves titles like ekarat (the one ruler), sarvabhumi (ruler of all the earth) and chakravartin (protector of land). The kings performed sacrifices like rajasuya, (royal consecration) vajapeya (drink of strength) and ashvamedha (horse sacrifice). The coronation ceremony was a major social occasion. Several functionaries came into being in addition to the purohita and the senani of earlier times. The participation of the people in the activities of the government decreased. Buddhist texts like Anguttara Nikaya and Culla-Niddesa frequently mention sixteen great nations (solasa Mahajanapadas), which existed before the time of the Buddha. ... The Ashvamedha, or the horse-sacrifice is one of the most important royal rituals from Vedic India, described in detail in the Yajurveda (books 22–25) and the pertaining commentaries. ... The priests of Vedic religion, known as purohita, are divided into several types: The Hotar is the chief priest, presiding the sacrifice. ...

Society

The concept of varna and the rules of marriage became more rigid, but not yet watertight. The status of the Brahmanas and Kshatriyas increased greatly. The Brahmanas propagated specialization of an extreme order, and also restricted social mobility as an intellectual beaureau in fields of science, war, literature, religion and the environment. The proper enunciation of verses was considered essential for prosperity and success in war and harvests. Kshatriyas amassed wealth, and commissioned the performance of sacrifices.Kshatriyas administered the state,maintained society and the economy of a kingdom.They also developed into a Law enforcement force to maintain law and order to ensure prosterity. They presided over an assembled court of intellectuals and warriors.They distributed the finances of their treasuries, with respect to acts and deeds. They also maintained budgets of the kingdom with the assistance of ministers. A Brahmin (less often Brahman) is a member of the Hindu caste. ... According to the Hindu code of Manu, a Kshatriya is a member of the military or reigning order, the second ranking caste of the Indian varna system of four castes, the first being the Brahmin or priestly caste, the third the Vaishya or mercantile caste and the lowest the Shudra. ... According to the Hindu code of Manu, a Kshatriya is a member of the military or reigning order, the second ranking caste of the Indian varna system of four castes, the first being the Brahmin or priestly caste, the third the Vaishya or mercantile caste and the lowest the Shudra. ...

References

• R.C. Majumdar and others. An Advanced History of India, MacMillan, 1967.
• Michael Witzel, Tracing the Vedic dialects in Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes]] ed. Caillat, Paris, 1989, 97–265.
• Michael Witzel, The Pleiades and the Bears viewed from inside the Vedic texts, EVJS Vol. 5 (1999), issue 2 (December) [1].