History of South Asia History of India
Stone Age	70,000–7000 BCE
Mehrgarh Culture	7000–3300 BCE
Indus Valley Civilization	3300–1700 BCE
Late Harappan Culture	1700–1300 BCE
Vedic Civilization	1500–500 BCE
· Iron Age Kingdoms	· 1200–700 BCE
Maha Janapadas	700–300 BCE
Magadha Empire	684–26 BCE
· Maurya Dynasty	· 321–184 BCE
Middle Kingdoms	230 BCE–1279 CE
· Satavahana Empire	· 230 BCE–199 CE
· Ancient Tamil Kingdoms	· 200 BCE–200 CE
· Kushan Empire	· 60–240 CE
· Gupta Empire	· 240–550
· Chola Empire	· 848–1279
Islamic Sultanates	1210–1596
· Delhi Sultanate	· 1206–1526
· Deccan Sultanates	· 1490–1596
Hoysala Empire	1040–1346
Vijayanagara Empire	1336–1565
Mughal Era	1526–1707
Maratha Empire	1674–1818
Non-Native Era	1757–1947
Modern States	1947 onwards
National Histories Republic of India · Pakistan · Bangladesh Sri Lanka · Nepal · Bhutan · Maldives
Regional Histories Punjab · South India · Bengal · Assam Pakistani Regions · Sindh · Tibet
Specialised Histories Dynasties · Economy · Language Literature · Maritime · Military · Mathematics Science and Technology · Timeline
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The Vedic civilization is the culture associated with the people who composed the Vedas in the Indian subcontinent. It stretched from what is today Punjab in India and Pakistan, NWFP (Pakistan) and most of northern India. Mainstream scholarship places the Vedic civilization into the 2nd and 1st millennia BCE. Hindu traditions^[1] suggest dates as early as the 6th millennium BCE and a spread of the hyperpower-style Vedic culture. The use of Vedic Sanskrit continued up to the 6th century BCE, when the culture began to be transformed into classical forms of Hinduism. This time period in the history of India is known as the Vedic period or Vedic age. Its early phase saw the formation of various kingdoms of ancient India. In its late phase (from ca. 700 BCE), it saw the rise of the Mahajanapadas, and was succeeded by the golden age of Hinduism and classical Sanskrit literature, the Maurya Empire (from ca. 320 BCE) and the Middle kingdoms of India. This article is about the History of South Asia. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Bhutan. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Maldives. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Pakistan. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_India. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Bangladesh. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Sri_Lanka. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Nepal. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The Palaeolithic and Mesolithic in South Asia. ... Mehrgarh was an ancient settlement in South Asia and is one of the most important sites in archaeology for the study of the earliest neolithic settlements in that region. ... Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro, Sindh, Pakistan. ... The Cemetery H culture developed out of the northern part of the Indus Valley Civilization around 1900 BC, in and around the Punjab region. ... This article tries to compile and classify all the Kingdoms of Ancient India mentioned in the Sanskrit/Vedic literature. ... Mahajanapadas (महाजनपद) literally means Great kingdoms (from Sanskrit Maha = great, Janapada = foothold of tribe = country). ... Magadha was an ancient kingdom of India, mentioned in both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. ... The Maurya Empire at its largest extent. ... Middle kingdoms of India refers to the political entities in India from the 6th century BCE through to the Islamic invasions and the related Decline of Buddhism from the 7th century CE. // Kingdoms and Empires The Aryans had invaded India from the Northwest, according to the Aryan Invasion Theory, and... The Sātavāhanas, also known as the Andhras, were a dynasty which ruled in Southern and Central India starting from around 230 BCE. Although there is some controversy about when the dynasty came to an end, the most liberal estimates suggest that it lasted about 450 years. ... The ancient Tamil country of the classical era extended from River Krishna to the Cape Comorin(Kanyakumari). ... Boundary of the Kushan empire, c. ... The Gupta Empire in 400 CE (not including vassal states) The Gupta Empire was one of the largest political and military empires in ancient India. ... The Chola dynasty (Tamil: , IPA: Chola pronounced Sola) was a Tamil dynasty that ruled primarily in southern India until the 13th century CE. The dynasty originated in the fertile valley of the Kaveri River. ... During the middle ages, several Islamic regimes established empires in South Asia. ... The Delhi Sultanate (دلی سلطنت), or Sulthanath-e-Hind (سلطنتِ ہند) / Sulthanath-e-Dilli (سلطنتِ دلی) refers to the various Muslim dynasties that ruled in India from 1210 to 1526. ... The Deccan sultanates were five Muslim-ruled kingdoms–-Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmednagar, Bidar, and Berar of south-central India. ... The Hoysala Empire ruled part of southern India from 1000 to 1346. ... The Vijayanagara empire was based in the Deccan, in peninsular and southern India, from 1336 onwards. ... // The Mughal Empire Main article: Mughal Empire India in the 16th century presented a fragmented picture of rulers, both Muslim and Hindu, who lacked concern for their subjects and who failed to create a common body of laws or institutions. ... Extent of the Maratha Confederacy ca. ... In 1498, the Portuguese set foot in Goa. ... Britains holdings on the Indian subcontinent were granted independence in 1947 and 1948, becoming four new independent states: India, Burma (now Myanmar), Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), and Pakistan (including East Pakistan, modern-day Bangladesh). ... // Introduction The first known use of the word Punjab is in the book Tarikh-e-Sher Shah (1580), which mentions the construction of a fort by Sher Khan of Punjab. The name is mentioned again in Ain-e-Akbari (part 1), written by Abul Fazal, who also mentions that the... The history of South India begins with the Sangam age, from 200 BC to 300 AD. It is called so after the sangam literature. ... Bengal had been quite distant and cut off (by the rivers, especially the Ganga and the Brahmaputra) from the mainland of India for ages. ... The history of Assam is the history of a confluence of peoples from the east, west and the north; the confluence of the Indo-Aryan, Austro-Asiatic and the Tibeto-Burman cultures. ... The historical regions of Pakistan are former states, provinces and territories which mainly existed between 1947 and 1975 when the current provinces and territories were finally established. ... Sindh (Sind) (Sindhi: سنڌ ;Urdu: سندھ) is one of the provinces of Pakistan. ... Tibet is situated between the two ancient civilizations of China and India, but the tangled mountain ranges the Tibetan Plateau and the towering Himalayas serve to distance it from both. ... The following list of Indian monarchs is one of several lists of incumbents. ... Indian literature is generally acknowledged, but not wholly established, as the oldest in the world. ... India has had a maritime history dating back around 5,000 years. ... The chronology of Indian mathematics spans from the Indus Valley civilization (3300-1500 BC) and Vedic civilization (1500-500 BC) to modern India (21st century AD). ... Science and technology in ancient India covered all the major branches of human knowledge and activities, including mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, medical science and surgery, fine arts, mechanical and production technology, civil engineering and architecture, shipbuilding and navigation, sports and games. ... This is a timeline of Indian history. ... The Vedas (Sanskrit: वेद) are the main scripture in Hinduism, and are a large corpus of texts originating in Ancient India. ... Satellite image of the Indian subcontinent Map of South Asia (see note) The Indian subcontinent is a peninsular landmass of the Asian continent occupying the Indian Plate and extending into the Indian Ocean, bordered on the north by the Eurasian Plate. ... Punjab (or Panjab) may refer to: Punjab region, an area of South Asia shared by India and Pakistan Punjab (India), a state in India Punjab (Pakistan), the most populated province in Pakistan Haryana, a former part of Punjab Himachal Pradesh, a former part of Punjab A number of former states... North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) is geographically the smallest of the four provinces of Pakistan. ... (3rd millennium BC – 2nd millennium BC – 1st millennium BC – other millennia) Events Second dynasty of Babylon First Bantu migrations from west Africa The Cushites drive the original inhabitants from Ethiopia, and establish trade relations with Egypt. ... (Redirected from 1st millennium BCE) (2nd millennium BC – 1st millennium BC – 1st millennium AD – other millennia) Events The Iron Age began in Western Egypt declined as a major power The Tanakh was written Buddhism was founded Cyrus the Great conquered Babylon and created the Persian Empire (6th... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... (7th millennium BC – 6th millennium BC – 5th millennium BC – other millennia) Events c. ... Out of India Theory (OIT) is the argument that the Indo-European languages (I-E) originated in India, from which they spread into Central and Southwestern Asia and Europe. ... A hyperpower is a state that is vastly stronger than any potential rival. ... The Vedic Civilization is the Indo-Aryan culture associated with the Vedas. ... Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, which are the earliest sacred texts of India,. The Vedas were first passed down orally and therefore have no known date. ... (7th century BC - 6th century BCE - 5th century BCE - other centuries) (600s BCE - 590s BCE - 580s BCE - 570s BCE - 560s BCE - 550s BCE - 540s BCE - 530s BCE - 520s BCE - 510s BCE - 500s BCE - other decades) (2nd millennium BCE - 1st millennium BCE - 1st millennium) The 5th and 6th centuries BCE were... Hinduism (Sanskrit: , , also known as , ) is a religion that originated in the Indian subcontinent. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... This article tries to compile and classify all the Kingdoms of Ancient India mentioned in the Sanskrit/Vedic literature. ... Mahajanapadas (महाजनपद) literally means Great kingdoms (from Sanskrit Maha = great, Janapada = foothold of tribe = country). ... Literature in Sanskrit, one of Indias two oldest languages, and the basis of several modern languages in India. ... The Maurya Empire at its largest extent. ... Middle kingdoms of India refers to the political entities in India from the 6th century BCE through to the Islamic invasions and the related Decline of Buddhism from the 7th century CE. // Kingdoms and Empires The Aryans had invaded India from the Northwest, according to the Aryan Invasion Theory, and...

Overview

The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based on text-internal details. Linguistically, the Vedic texts could be classified in five chronological strata:

1. Rigvedic: The Rigveda is by far the most archaic of the Vedic texts preserved, and it retains many common Indo-Iranian elements, both in language and in content, that are not present in any other Vedic texts. Its creation must have taken place over several centuries, and apart from the youngest books (1 and 10), it must have been essentially complete by 3000 BCE ^[2], although some claim a later date, usually around 1500 BCE. Archaeologically, this period corresponds with the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), Cemetery H cultures of the Punjab and the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP) further east. It is undisputed that there is a strong component of cultural continuity of the indigenous IVC. The Rigveda (Sanskrit: , a tatpurusha compound of praise, verse and knowledge) is a collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns dedicated to the gods. ... Indo-Iranian can refer to: The Indo-Iranian languages The prehistoric Indo-Iranian people, see Aryan This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... (31st century BC - 30th century BC - 29th century BC - other centuries) (4th millennium BC - 3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC) Events 2925 - 2776 BC - First Dynasty wars in Egypt 2900 BC - Beginning of the Early Dynastic Period I in Mesopotamia. ... (Redirected from 1500 BCE) Centuries: 17th century BC - 16th century BC - 15th century BC Decades: 1550s BC 1540s BC 1530s BC 1520s BC 1510s BC - 1500s BC - 1490s BC 1480s BC 1470s BC 1460s BC 1450s BC Events and Trends Stonehenge built in Wiltshire, England The element Mercury has been... Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro, Sindh, Pakistan. ... The Cemetery H culture developed out of the northern part of the Indus Valley Civilization around 1900 BC, in and around the Punjab region. ... Punjab, 1903 Punjab Province, 1909 Punjab (meaning: Land of five Rivers (c. ... The Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP), is a 2nd millennium BC Bronze Age culture of the Ganga-Yamuna plain. ...

Map of early Iron Age Vedic India after Witzel (1989). Realms or tribes are labelled black, Foreign tribes mentioned in early Vedic texts purple, Vedic shakhas in green. Rivers are labelled blue. The Thar desert is marked orange.

2. Mantra language: This period includes both the mantra and prose language of the Atharvaveda (Paippalada and Shaunakiya), the Rigveda Khilani, the Samaveda Samhita (containing some 75 mantras not in the Rigveda), and the mantras of the Yajurveda. These texts are largely derived from the Rigveda, but have undergone certain changes, both by linguistic change and by reinterpretation. Conspicuous changes include change of vishva "all" by sarva, and the spread of the kuru- verbal stem (for Rigvedic krno-). This is the time of the early Iron Age in north-western India, corresponding to the Black and Red Ware (BRW) culture, and the kingdom of the Kurus, dating from ca. the 12th century BCE. Image File history File links by en:User:Dbachmann File links The following pages link to this file: History of Pakistan Vedic civilization Aryavarta Kuru (India) ... Image File history File links by en:User:Dbachmann File links The following pages link to this file: History of Pakistan Vedic civilization Aryavarta Kuru (India) ... Shakha (IAST ), literally branch or limb, is the Sanskrit term for a recension or version of Vedic texts according to a particular school. ... A NASA satellite image of the Thar Desert, with the India-Pakistan border superimposed. ... The Atharvaveda (Sanskrit: अथर्ववेद, , a tatpurusha compound of , a type of priest, and meaning knowledge) is a sacred text of Hinduism, and one of the four Vedas, often called the fourth Veda. According to tradition, the Atharvaveda was mainly composed by two groups of rishis known as the Bhrigus and the... The Khilani are are a collection of 98 apocryphal hymns of the Rigveda, recorded in the Bashakala, but not in the Shakala school. ... The Samaveda (Sanskrit: सामवेद, sāmaveda, a tatpurusha compound of ritual chant + knowledge ), is third in the usual order of enumeration of the four Vedas, the ancient core Hindu scriptures. ... The Yajurveda (Sanskrit , a tatpurusha compound of sacrifice + veda knowledge) is one of the four Hindu Vedas. ... Iron Age Axe found on Gotland This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age, for the mythological Iron Age see Iron Age (mythology). ... The black and red ware culture (BRW) is an early Iron Age archaeological culture of the northern Indian Subcontinent. ... The position of the Kuru kingdom in Iron Age Vedic India. ... (Redirected from 12th century BCE) (13th century BC - 12th century BC - 11th century BC - other centuries) (1200s BC - 1190s BC - 1180s BC - 1170s BC - 1160s BC - 1150s BC - 1140s BC - 1130s BC - 1120s BC - 1110s BC - 1100s BC - other decades) (3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC) Events...

3. Samhita prose: This period marks the beginning of the collection and codification of a Vedic canon. An important linguistic change is the complete loss of the injunctive, of the subjunctive, and of the aorist. The commentary part of the Yajurveda (MS, KS) belongs to this period. Archaeologically, the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture from ca. 900 BCE corresponds, and the shift of the political center from the Kurus to the Pancalas at the Ganges. The injunctive mood was a mood in Sanskrit characterized by secondary endings but no augment, and usually looked like an augmentless aorist or imperfect. ... The subjunctive mood (sometimes referred to as the conjunctive mood) is a grammatical mood of the verb that expresses wishes, commands (in subordinate clauses), and statements that are contrary to fact. ... Aorist (from Greek αοριστος, indefinite) is a term used in certain Indo-European languages to refer to a particular grammatical tense and/or aspect. ... The Yajurveda (Sanskrit , a tatpurusha compound of sacrifice + veda knowledge) is one of the four Hindu Vedas. ... The Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW) is an Iron Age culture of Gangetic plain, lasting from roughly. ... Centuries: 11th century BC - 10th century BC - 9th century BC Decades: 950s BC 940s BC 930s BC 920s BC 910s BC - 900s BC - 890s BC 880s BC 870s BC 860s BC 850s BC Events and trends 909 BC - Zhou xiao wang becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Panchala Kingdom. ... Early morning on the Ganges The River Ganges (Ganga in Indian languages) (Devanagiri गंगा) is a major river in northern India. ...

4. Brahmana prose: The Brahmanas proper of the four Vedas belong to this period, as well as the oldest of the Upanishads (BAU, ChU, JUB). The Brahmanas (Brahmin Books) are part of the Hindu Shruti; these religious scriptures focus on sacrifice -- particularly that of horses and soma. ... The Upanishads (Devanagari: उपनिषद्, ; also known as and ) are part of the Vedas and form the Hindu scriptures which primarily discuss philosophy, meditation and nature of God; they form the core spiritual thought of Vedantic Hinduism. ... In Sumerian and Akkadian mythology Bau was a goddess, daughter of An and Ninurtas wife. ... Chu could refer to: The Chu river valley in modern Kyrgyzstan. ... The Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana (JUB) is a Vedic text associated with the Jaiminiya shakha of the Samaveda. ...

5. Sutra language: This is the last stratum of Vedic Sanskrit leading up to 500 BCE, comprising the bulk of the Shrauta and Grhya Sutras, and some Upanishads (E.g. KathU, MaitrU. Younger Upanishads are post-Vedic). Videha as a third political center is established. Centuries: 7th century BC - 6th century BC - 5th century BC Decades: 550s BC - 540s BC - 530s BC - 520s BC - 510s BC - 500s BC - 490s BC - 480s BC - 470s BC - 460s BC - 450s BC Events and trends September 13, 509 BC - The temple of Jupiter on Romes Capitoline Hill is... Sutra (सूत्र) in Sanskrit is derived from the verb √siv, meaning to sew. ... Sutra (सूत्र) in Sanskrit is derived from the verb √siv, meaning to sew. ... The Upanishads (उपनिषद्, Upanişad) are part of the Hindu Shruti scriptures which primarily discuss meditation and philosophy and are seen as religious instructions by most schools of Hinduism. ... This article is about the town of Kathu in South Africa. ... The Maitrāyaṇi Upanishad is one of the older, mukhya primary Upanishads. ...

6. Epic and Paninian Sanskrit: The language of the Mahabharata and Ramayana epics, and the Classical Sanskrit described by Panini is considered post-Vedic, and belongs to the time after 500 BCE. Archaeologically, the rapid spread of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP) over all of northern India corresponds to this period. The Vedanta, the Buddha, and the Pali Prakrit dialect of Buddhist scripture belong to this period. Manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra The (Devanagari: ), is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the . ... The (Devanāgarī: ) is an ancient Sanskrit epic attributed to the poet Valmiki and is an important part of the Hindu canon (smṛti). ... Indian postage stamp depicting (2004), with the implication that he used (IPA ) was an ancient Gandharan grammarian (approximately 5th century BC, but estimates range from the 7th to the 3rd centuries) who is most famous for formulating the 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology known as the . ... The Northern Black Polished Ware culture (NBPW) of the Indian subcontinent (ca. ... Vedanta (Vedānta, वेदान्त, pronounced as ) means the anta or culmination or essence of the Vedas. ... A statue of the Sakyamuni Buddha in Tawang Gompa. ... Pāli is a Middle Indo-Aryan dialect or prakrit. ...

Historical records set in only after the end of the Vedic period, and remain scarce throughout the Indian Middle Ages. The end of Vedic India is marked by linguistic, cultural and political changes. The grammar of Panini marks a final apex in the codification of sacred texts, and at the same time the beginning of Classical Sanskrit. The invasion of Darius I of the Indus valley in the late 6th century BC marks the beginning of outside influence, continued in the kingdoms of the Indo Greeks, new waves of immigration from 150 BCE (Abhira, Shaka), and ultimately the Islamic Sultans. The most important historical source of the geography of post-Vedic India is the 2nd century Greek historian Arrian. The title given to this article is incorrect due to technical limitations. ... Seal of Darius I, showing the king hunting on his chariot, and the symbol of Ahuramazda Darius the Great (Pers. ... Maximum extent of Indo-Greek territory circa 175 BCE. The Indo-Greeks (or sometimes Greco-Indians) designate a series of Greek kings, who invaded and controlled parts of northwest and northern India from 180 BCE to around 10 BCE. They are the continuation of the Greco-Bactrian dynasty of Greek... (Redirected from 150 BCE) Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC - 150s BC - 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC Years: 155 BC 154 BC 153 BC 152 BC 151 BC - 150 BC... Ahir (a corruption of the word Abhir, fearless) is a subgroup of the Yadav caste of India. ... Image:KingShaka. ... The Sultan in Disneys Aladdin A Sultan (Arabic: سلطان) is an Islamic title, with several historical meanings. ... The 2nd century is the period from 101 - 200 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian Era. ... Alexander the Great Lucius Flavius Arrianus Xenophon (c. ...

Rigvedic period

See also Rigvedic tribes

The origin of the Vedic civilization and its relation to the Indus Valley civilization, Indo-Aryan migration and Gandhara Grave culture related cultures remains controversial and politically charged in Indian society, often leading to disputes on the history of Vedic culture. The Rigveda is primarily a collection of religious hymns, and allusions to, but not explanation of, various myths and stories, mainly in the younger books 1 and 10. The oldest hymns, probably in books 2–7, although some people hold book 9, the Soma Mandala, to be even more ancient, contain many elements inherited from pre-Vedic, common Indo-Iranian society. Therefore, it is difficult to define the precise beginning of the "Rigvedic period", as it emerges seamlessly from the era preceding it. Also, due to the nomadic nature of the society described, it cannot be localized, and in its earliest phase describes tribes that were essentially on the move. The Aryan tribes mentioned in the Rigveda are described as semi-nomadic pastoralists, subdivided into villages (vish) and headed by a tribal chief (raja) and administered by a priestly caste. ... Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro, Sindh, Pakistan. ... This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims. ... Gandhara grave culture emerges from ca. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Out of India Theory (OIT) is the argument that the Indo-European languages (I-E) originated in India, from which they spread into Central and Southwestern Asia and Europe. ... The Rigveda (Sanskrit: , a tatpurusha compound of praise, verse and knowledge) is a collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns dedicated to the gods. ... Soma (Sanskrit), or Haoma (Avestan) (from Proto-Indo-Iranian *sauma-) was a ritual drink of importance among the early Indo-Iranians, and the later Vedic and greater Persian cultures. ... Indo-Iranian can refer to: The Indo-Iranian languages The prehistoric Indo-Iranian people, see Aryan This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ...

Political organization

The grama (village), vis and jana were political units of the early Vedic Aryans. A vish was probably a subdivision of a jana, and a grama was probably a smaller unit than the other two. The leader of a grama was called gramani and that of a vish was called vishpati. Another unit was the gana whose head was a jyeshta (elder).

The rashtra (state) was governed by a rajan (king). The king is often referred to as gopa (protector) and samrat (supreme ruler). He governed the people with their consent and approval. It is possible that he was sometimes elected. The sabha and samiti were popular councils. In many Indian languages, Raj literally means Prince or Royalty though is often used to mean something more like the English term of empire and as such is often used in reference to the Mughal Raj and the British Raj: the period of direct colonial rule of India by the... Sabha is one of the municipalities of Libya. ...

The main duty of the king was to protect the tribe. He was aided by two functionaries, the purohita (chaplain) and the senani (army chief; sena: army). The former not only gave advice to the ruler but also practiced spells and charms for success in war. Soldiers on foot (patti) and on chariots (rathins), armed with bow and arrow were common. The king employed spasa (spies) and dutas (messengers). He often got a ceremonial gift, bali, from the people. Hittite chariot (drawing of an Egyptian relief) Approximate historical map of the spread of the chariot, 2000 –500 BC. A chariot is a two-wheeled, horse-drawn vehicle. ...

Society and economy

Rig Vedic society was characterized by a rural lifestyle, with cattle rearing being the chief occupation.^[3] Cattle and cows were held in high esteem and frequently appear in Rigvedic hymns; goddesses were often compared to cows, and gods to bulls. Agriculture grew more prominent with time as the community settled down. Money was unknown, and bartering with cattle and other valuables replaced financial commerce. Binomial name Bos taurus Linnaeus, 1758 Cattle (called cows in vernacular and contemporary usage, kine or kyne in pre-modern English, or kye as the Scots plural of cou) are domesticated ungulates, a member of the subfamily Bovinae of the family Bovidae. ... It has been suggested that Swapping (barter) be merged into this article or section. ...

Families were patrilineal, and people prayed for abundance of sons. Society was strictly organized in a system of varna (to be distinguished from caste or colour, it pertained to the occupation of the respective people). The four major varnas were Brahmin (the priests and learned people), Kshatriya (kings and warriors), Vaishya (traders and merchants) and Shudra (labourers and workers). Those who are outside these caste structure are known as adivasis. Patrilineality is a system in which one belongs to ones fathers lineage; it generally involves the inheritance of property, names or titles through the male line as well. ... Varna (Bulgarian: Варна) is the third largest city in Bulgaria after Sofia and Plovdiv, with a population of 351,552 (as at January 10, 2006). ... The word Caste is derived from the Portuguese word casta, meaning lineage, breed or race. ... A Brahmin (anglicised from the Sanskrit word IAST ; Devanagari ), also known as Vipra, Dvija, Dvijottama (best of the Dvijas), (god on Earth) is a member of a caste within Hindu society. ... Kshatriya (Hindi: , from Sanskrit: , ) is the title of the princely military order in the Vedic society. ... In the Hindu caste system, a Vaishya (Sanskrit वैश्य vaiśya) is a member of the third of the four major castes of the varna system of traditional Indian society. ... Shudra or Sudra is the fourth Varna in the traditional four-section division in historic Indian society. ... Ādivāsīs (आदिवासी) or tribal peoples comprise a substantial minority of the population of India. ...

The food of the Rigvedic Aryans consisted of parched grain and cakes, milk and milk products, and various fruits and vegetables. Fruit stall in Barcelona, Spain. ... Vegetables in a Market Venn diagram representing the relationship between (botanical) fruits and vegetables. ...

Vedic Religious Practices

Main article: historical Vedic religion. This article discusses the historical religious practices in the Vedic time period; see Dharmic religions for details of contemporary religious practices. ...

These forms of belief are the precursor to modern Hinduism. Texts considered to date to the Vedic period are mainly the four Vedas, but the Brahmanas, and some of the older Upanishads are also considered Vedic. The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the purohitas. The Rig-veda is considered to be the oldest written text that is in existence today. Hinduism (Sanskrit: , , also known as , ) is a religion that originated in the Indian subcontinent. ... The Vedas (Sanskrit: वेद) are the main scripture in Hinduism, and are a large corpus of texts originating in Ancient India. ... The Brahmanas (Brahmin Books) are part of the Hindu Shruti; these religious scriptures focus on sacrifice -- particularly that of horses and soma. ... The Upanishads (Devanagari: उपनिषद्, ; also known as and ) are part of the Vedas and form the Hindu scriptures which primarily discuss philosophy, meditation and nature of God; they form the core spiritual thought of Vedantic Hinduism. ... From the Greek word λειτουργία, which can be transliterated as leitourgia, meaning a public work, a liturgy comprises a prescribed religious ceremony, according to the traditions of a particular religion; it may refer to, or include, an elaborate formal ritual (such as the Catholic Mass), or a daily activity such as... The priests of Vedic religion, known as purohita, are divided into several types: The Hotar is the chief priest, presiding the sacrifice. ... The Rig Veda ऋग्वेद (Sanskrit ṛgveda from ṛc praise + veda knowledge) is a collection of hymns(each hymn is called a Rucha.) counted among the four Hindu religious scriptures known as the Vedas, and contains the oldest texts preserved in any Indo-Iranian language. ...

The rishis, the composers of the hymns of the Rigveda, were considered divinely inspired seers (or rather "hearers", shrauta means "what is heard"). In Hinduism, a Rishi ( ऋषि) is a sage and/or seer who heard (cf. ... The Rigveda (Sanskrit: , a tatpurusha compound of praise, verse and knowledge) is a collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns dedicated to the gods. ... Shruti (what is heard) is a canon of Hindu scriptures. ...

The mode of worship was performance of sacrifices and chanting of verses (see Vedic chant). The priests helped the common man in performing rituals. People prayed for abundance of children, cattle and wealth. Chant is the rhythmic speaking or singing of words or sounds, either on a single pitch or with a simple melody involving a limited set of notes and often including a great deal of repetition or statis. ... The oral tradition of the Vedas (Åšrauta) consists of several pathas, recitations or ways of chanting the Vedic mantras. ...

The main deities of the Vedic pantheon were Indra, Agni (fire), and Soma. Other deities were Varuna (the sky), Surya (the Sun), Mitra (the friend or ally), Vayu (the wind). Goddesses included Ushas (the dawn), Prithvi (the Earth) and Aditi (the mother of gods or sometimes the cow). Rivers, especially Saraswati, were also considered goddesses. Deities were not viewed as all-powerful. The relationship between the devotee and the deity was one of transaction, with Agni (the sacrificial fire) taking the role of messenger between the two. Strong traces of a common Indo-Iranian religion remain visible, especially in the Soma cult and the fire worship also preserved in Zoroastrianism. The Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) has parallels in the 2nd millennium BC Andronovo culture, in India allegedly continued until the 4th century AD. Indra is also the name of a song by the Thievery Corporation. ... Agni is a Hindu deity. ... Soma (Sanskrit), or Haoma (Avestan) (from Proto-Indo-Iranian *sauma-) was a ritual drink of importance among the early Indo-Iranians, and the later Vedic and greater Persian cultures. ... This article is about the god. ... This article is in need of attention. ... This article is about the Vedic deity Mitra. ... Chinese Wood (木) | Fire (火) | Earth (土) | Metal (金) | Water (æ°´) Hinduism and Buddhism The Panchamahabhuta or The Panchatattva (The Five Great Elements) Vayu/Pavan (Air/Wind) Agni/Tejas (Fire) Akasha (Aether) Prithvi/Bhumi (Earth) Ap/Jala (Water) In Hinduism, Vayu (also known as Vātā,Pavan) is a primary god, and (spiritual) father of... Ushas (उषः úṣas-), Sanskrit for dawn, is the chief goddess (sometimes imagined as several goddesses, Dawns) exalted in the Rigveda. ... Prithvi (pá¹›thivÄ«) is the Hindu earth-god. ... In Hinduism, Aditi (Sanskrit - limitless) is a goddess of the sky, consciousness, the past, the future and fertility. ... This article is about the Hindu goddess; see Sarasvati River for the Vedic river. ... Indo-Iranian can refer to: The Indo-Iranian languages The prehistoric Indo-Iranian people, see Aryan This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Soma (Sanskrit), or Haoma (Avestan) (from Proto-Indo-Iranian *sauma-) was a ritual drink of importance among the early Indo-Iranians, and the later Vedic and greater Persian cultures. ... Zoroastrianism is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings ascribed to the prophet Zoroaster (Zarathushtra, Zartosht). ... The Ashvamedha, or the horse sacrifice is one of the most important royal rituals of Vedic religion (1st millennium BC, the last recorded performance dates to the 4th century AD), described in detail in the Yajurveda (books 22–25) and the pertaining commentaries. ... (3rd millennium BC – 2nd millennium BC – 1st millennium BC – other millennia) // Events To grasp the spirit of the 2nd millennium BC, we must divide it in two parts, for there is a period of change around its middle so important that it creates two separate sub-millennia. First half (2000... ...

Rig-Veda advocates prohibition of cow-slaughter in numerous places such as follows :

You should impart love to each other as the non-killable cow does for its calf (RgVeda VII.56.17) Punish the killer of the cow and the man.(RgVeda VIII.101.15) Cow is pure, do not kill it.(RgVeda X.10.87.16)

Vegetarianism, the practice now thought by many to be so characteristic of Hinduism, arose as a continuitation of prohibition of cow-slaughter to prohibit eating all animals. This occurred in the late Vedic or post-Vedic times, possibly already at the time of Panini: The root-compound goghan "slaying cattle", in RV 7.56.17 used parallel to nrhan "slaying men" in reference to the referring to the weapon vadha of the Maruts,

17c aaré gohaá nRhaá vadháH vaH astu "far be your cow-slaying, men-slaying weapon!"

in Panini is taught to refer to a "receiver of a cow" exclusively; this change occurred parallel to the rise of, and possibly under the influence of, Buddhism, which began as a reform-movement of some practices of the Vedic religion namely indulgences by priests. In Rig-Veda, Upanishads and later texts, the cow is often described as aditi and aghnya (that which should not be killed).[1] A replica of an ancient statue of Gautama Buddha, found in Sarnath, near Varanasi. ...

Vedic religion evolved into the Hindu paths of Yoga and Vedanta, a religious path considering itself the 'essence' of the Vedas, interpreting the Vedic pantheon as a unitary view of the universe with God seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of Ishvara and Brahman, projected into various deities in the human mind. These post-Vedic systems of thought, along with later texts like Upanishads, epics (namely Gita of Mahabharat) Brahmanas, have been fully preserved and form the basis of modern Hinduism. The ritualistic traditions of Vedic religion are most faithfully preserved in the conservative Shrauta tradition. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... It has been suggested that Urban yoga be merged into this article or section. ... Vedanta (Vedānta, वेदान्त, pronounced as ) means the anta or culmination or essence of the Vedas. ... Ishvara (ईश्वर in devanagari script, pronunciation Ä«:shvÉ™rÉ™), also variously transliterated (romanized) as Īshvara, Īshwara, Īshwar, Īśvara, etc. ... Brahm (ब्रह्म in devanagari script) in the Vedantic (and subsequently Yogic) forms of Hinduism, is the signifying name given to the concept of the unchanging, infinite, immanent and transcendent reality that is the Divine Ground of all being in this universe. ... The Upanishads (उपनिषद्, Upanişad) are part of the Hindu Shruti scriptures which primarily discuss meditation and philosophy and are seen as religious instructions by most schools of Hinduism. ... Bhagavad Gīta भगवद्गीता, composed ca the fifth - second centuries BC, is part of the epic poem Mahabharata, located in the Bhisma-Parva chapters 23–40. ... The Mahabharata (Devanagari: महाभारत, phonetically Mahābhārata - see note), sometimes just called Bharata, is the great religious, philosophical and mythological epic of India. ... The Brahmanas (Brahmin Books) are part of the Hindu Shruti; these religious scriptures focus on sacrifice -- particularly that of horses and soma. ... Shruti (what is heard) is a canon of Hindu scriptures. ...

The later Vedic period

The transition from the early to the later Vedic period was marked by the emergence of agriculture as the dominant economic activity and a corresponding decline in the significance of cattle rearing. Several changes went hand in hand with this. For instance, several large kingdoms arose because of the increasing importance of land and its protection. The late Vedic period from ca. 500 BCE more or less seamlessly blends into the period of the Middle kingdoms of India known from historical sources. Centuries: 7th century BC - 6th century BC - 5th century BC Decades: 550s BC - 540s BC - 530s BC - 520s BC - 510s BC - 500s BC - 490s BC - 480s BC - 470s BC - 460s BC - 450s BC Events and trends September 13, 509 BC - The temple of Jupiter on Romes Capitoline Hill is... Middle kingdoms of India refers to the political entities in India from the 6th century BCE through to the Islamic invasions and the related Decline of Buddhism from the 7th century CE. // Kingdoms and Empires The Aryans had invaded India from the Northwest, according to the Aryan Invasion Theory, and...

Kingdoms

- 16 mahajanapadas (great kingdoms) are referred to in some of the literature. The power of the king greatly increased. Rulers gave themselves titles like ekarat (the one ruler), sarvabhumi (ruler of all the earth) and chakravartin (protector of land). The kings performed sacrifices like rajasuya, (royal consecration) vajapeya (drink of strength) and ashvamedha (horse sacrifice). The coronation ceremony was a major social occasion. Several functionaries came into being in addition to the purohita and the senani of earlier times. The participation of the people in the activities of the government decreased. Buddhist texts like Anguttara Nikaya and Culla-Niddesa frequently mention sixteen great nations (solasa Mahajanapadas), which existed before the time of the Buddha. ... Rajasuya was a sacrifice performed by the ancient kings of India. ... The Ashvamedha, or the horse sacrifice is one of the most important royal rituals of Vedic religion (1st millennium BC, the last recorded performance dates to the 4th century AD), described in detail in the Yajurveda (books 22–25) and the pertaining commentaries. ... The priests of Vedic religion, known as purohita, are divided into several types: The Hotar is the chief priest, presiding the sacrifice. ...

Society

The concept of varna and the rules of marriage became more rigid, but not yet watertight. The status of the Brahmins and Kshatriyas increased greatly. The Brahmins propagated specialization of an extreme order. Functioning as an intellectual bureaucracy, they also restricted social mobility, as in fields of science, war, literature, religion and the environment. The proper enunciation of verses was considered essential for prosperity and success in war and harvests. Kshatriyas amassed wealth, and commissioned the performance of sacrifices. Kshatriyas administered the state, maintained society and the economy of a kingdom. They also functioned to maintain law and order. They presided over an assembled court of intellectuals and warriors. They distributed the finances of their treasuries, with respect to acts and deeds. They also maintained budgets of the kingdom with the assistance of ministers. Young Indian brahmachari Brahmin A Brahmin (less often Brahman) is a member of the Hindu priestly caste. ... Kshatriya (Hindi: , from Sanskrit: , ) is the title of the princely military order in the Vedic society. ... Kshatriya (Hindi: , from Sanskrit: , ) is the title of the princely military order in the Vedic society. ...

Notes

1. ^ themselves dateable to the early centuries CE, with scholars like Aryabhata (5th c.)
2. ^ Demise of the Aryan Invasion Theory by Dr. Dinesh Agarwal
3. ^ The Aryan Non-Invasionist Model by Koenraad Elst

Aryabhata: Statue on the grounds of IUCAAPune. ...

References

• Bokonyi, S. 1997b. "Horse Remains from the Prehistoric Site of Surkotada, Kutch, Late 3rd Millennium BC.", South Asian Studies 13: 297-307.
• Kocchar, Rajesh, The Vedic people: their history and geography, Hyderabad: Orient Longmans (1999).
• Lal, B.B. 2005. The Homeland of the Aryans. Evidence of Rigvedic Flora and Fauna & Archaeology, New Delhi, Aryan Books International.
• R.C. Majumdar and others. An Advanced History of India, MacMillan, 1967.
• Michael Witzel, Tracing the Vedic dialects in Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes ed. Caillat, Paris, 1989, 97–265.
• Michael Witzel, The Pleiades and the Bears viewed from inside the Vedic texts, EVJS Vol. 5 (1999), issue 2 (December) [2].