In philosophy, epistemic theories of truth are attempts to analyse the notion of truth in terms of epistemic notions such as "belief", "acceptance", "verification", "justification", "perspective" and so on. Jump to: navigation, search Philosophy is a discipline or field of study involving the investigation, analysis, and development of ideas at a general, abstract, or fundamental level. ... The word notion can refer to: Notion, the philosophical concept Notion, the mathematical concept Notion, the Winchester slang term Notion, accessories used in the sewing industry. ... Jump to: navigation, search When someone sincerely agrees with an assertion, they are claiming that it is the truth. ... This article or section should include material from Episteme Epistemology (from the Greek words episteme=science and logos=word/speech) is the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature, origin and scope of knowledge. ... Look up belief in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Acceptance, in spirituality, mindfulness, and human psychology, usually refers to the experience of a situation without an intention to change that situation. ... In the context of hardware and software systems, formal verification is the act of proving or disproving the correctness of a system with respect to a certain formal specification or property, using formal methods. ... Justification can mean: justification (jurisprudence) justification (typesetting) justification (theology) In epistemology, justification of a belief is what renders it worth believing in terms of its probable truth. ... Perspective is the choice of a single point of view from which to sense, categorize, measure or codify experience, typically for comparing with another. ...

There is a variety of such conceptions, and they may be classified into two basic kinds:

1. Verificationist theories;
2. Perspectivalist (relativist) theories.

Verificationism is based on the idea that the mind engages in a certain kind of activity: "verifying" a proposition. The distinctive claim of verificationism is that the result of such verifications is, by definition, truth. That is, truth is reducible to this process of verification. Relativism is the view that the meaning and value of human beliefs and behaviors have no absolute reference. ... Proposition is a term used in logic to describe the content of assertions, content which may be taken as being true or false, and which are a non-linguistic abstraction from the linguistic sentence that constitutes an assertion. ... Jump to: navigation, search When someone sincerely agrees with an assertion, they are claiming that it is the truth. ... In the context of hardware and software systems, formal verification is the act of proving or disproving the correctness of a system with respect to a certain formal specification or property, using formal methods. ...

According to perspectivalism (or relativism), a proposition is only ever true relative to a perspective. Roughly, a proposition is true relative to a perspective if, and only if, it is "accepted" or "endorsed" or "legitimated" somehow by that perspective. Relativism is the view that the meaning and value of human beliefs and behaviors have no absolute reference. ... Proposition is a term used in logic to describe the content of assertions, content which may be taken as being true or false, and which are a non-linguistic abstraction from the linguistic sentence that constitutes an assertion. ... Perspective is the choice of a single point of view from which to sense, categorize, measure or codify experience, typically for comparing with another. ... Refers to specific legal forms of authentication by the State. ...

Verificationist views

Verificationism about truth comes in three main kinds:

Positivism

The process of verification involves the comparison of a statement with sensory experience. On this account, a proposition is true if, and only if, it is verifiable by sensory experience. Positivism can have several meanings. ... Process (lat. ...

A Priorism

The process of verification is a purely a priori process. Verification here involves a priori reflection, and results in an a priori determination of the truth value of a proposition. On this account, a proposition is true if, and only if, it is verifable by a priori reasoning. A related view is the certainty theory, associated with Descartes and Spinoza: A proposition is true if and only if it is certain, or it is known with certainty. A priori is a Latin phrase meaning from the former or less literally before experience. In much of the modern Western tradition, the term a priori is considered to mean propositional knowledge that can be had without, or prior to, experience. ... René Descartes René Descartes (IPA: , March 31, 1596 – February 11, 1650), also known as Cartesius, worked as a philosopher and mathematician. ... Baruch Spinoza Benedictus de Spinoza (November 24, 1632 - February 21, 1677), named Baruch Spinoza by his synagogue elders and known as Bento de Spinoza or Bento dEspiñoza in the community in which he grew up. ... The word probability derives from the Latin probare (to prove, or to test). ...

Pragmatism

A proposition is true if, and only if, it is useful to believe. Pragmatism is a school of philosophy which originated in the United States in the late 1800s. ...

Positivism may seem attractive to someone who thinks that all knowledge is grounded in observation and sensory experience. A priorism may seem attractive as an account of truth for the domains of logic and mathematics. Positivism can have several meanings. ... For the railroad use of the term observation, see observation car. ... Domain has several meanings: some kind of territory, such as (for example) a demesne or a realm synonymous with field, e. ... Jump to: navigation, search Logic (from Classical Greek λόγος (logos), originally meaning the word, or what is spoken, but coming to mean thought or reason) is most often said to be the study of arguments, although the exact definition of logic is a matter of controversy amongst philosophers (see below). ... Wikibooks Wikiversity has more about this subject: School of Mathematics Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Mathematics Look up Mathematics on Wiktionary, the free dictionary Wikimedia Commons has more media related to: Mathematics Bogomolny, Alexander: Interactive Mathematics Miscellany and Puzzles. ...

The logical positivists of the Vienna Circle (Rudolf Carnap, Otto Neurath, et al.) attempted to combine positivism with a version of a priorism. Roughly, statements are divided in to those which are analytic (and thus can be see to be true a priori) and those which are synthetic (which can be verified by sensory experience). Logical positivism (later referred to as logical empiricism) holds that philosophy should aspire to the same sort of rigor as science. ... The Vienna Circle was a group of philosophers and scientists organized in Vienna under Moritz Schlick. ... Rudolf Carnap (May 18, 1891 - September 14, 1970) was a German philosopher. ... Otto Neurath (December 10, 1882_December 22, 1945) was an Austrian sociologist, political economist and arguably one of the most unorthodox Marxists. ... Analytic may refer to analytic proposition or analytic philosophy, in philosophy analytic geometry, analytic function, analytic continuation, analytic set in mathematics. ... Generally, synthetic means pertaining to synthesis, i. ...

The pragmatist view of truth is associated with the American philosophers, William James and John Dewey. A philosopher is a person devoted to studying and producing results in philosophy. ... William James William James (January 11, 1842, New York - August 26, 1910, Chocorua, New Hampshire). ... Jump to: navigation, search John Dewey (October 20, 1859 – June 1, 1952) was an American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer, whose thought has been greatly influential in the United States and around the world. ...

Perspectivist views

Turning to perspectivalism (relativism), a proposition is only ever true relative to something like a perspective. There are four main versions of perspectivalism, and some interesting subdivisions:

Individual Perspectivalism

Perspectives are the points of view of particular individual persons. So, a proposition is true for a person if and only if it is accepted or believed by that person (i.e., "true for me"). A point of view, viewpoint or POV, is the following: On a given topic, a point of view is a cognitive perspective. ...

Discourse Perspectivalism (Conventionalism)

A perspective is simply any system of discourse, and it is a matter of convention which one chooses. A proposition is true relative to that particular discourse if and only if it is somehow produced ("legitimated") by the methods of that particular discourse. An example of this appears in the philosophy of mathematics: formalism. A proposition is true relative to a set of assumptions just in case it is a deductive consequence of those assumptions. In semantics, discourses are linguistic units composed of several sentences — in other words, conversations, arguments or speeches. ... Convention has at least two very distinct but related meanings. ... Refers to specific legal forms of authentication by the State. ... Jump to: navigation, search Philosophy of mathematics is that branch of philosophy which attempts to answer questions such as: why is mathematics useful in describing nature?, in which sense(s), if any, do mathematical entities such as numbers exist? and why and how are mathematical statements true?. Various approaches to... The word formalism has several meanings: A certain school in the philosophy of mathematics, stressing axiomatic proofs through theorems specifically associated with David Hilbert. ... There are several meanings for the word deduction: Natural deduction Deductive reasoning Deductions in terms of taxation, such as Itemized deductions Standard deduction See also: Logic Venn diagram Inductive reasoning Both statistics and the scientific method rely on both induction and deduction. ...

Collectivist Perspectivalism

Collectivist Perspectivalism: Perspectives are understood as collectivities of people (cultures, traditions, etc.). There are, roughly, three versions of collectivism: The word culture comes from the Latin root colere (to inhabit, to cultivate, or to honor). ... A tradition is a story or a custom that is memorized and passed down from generation to generation, originally without the need for a writing system. ...

Consensus

A perspective is, roughly, the broad opinions, and perhaps norms and practices, of a community of people, perhaps all having some special feature in common. So, a proposition is true (for a community C) if, and only if, there is a consensus amongst the members of C for believing it. The word norm coming from the latin word norma which means angle measure or (lawlike) rule, has a number of meanings: A social or sociological norm; see norm (sociology). ... A community is an amalgamation of living things that share an environment. ... For other uses, see Consensus (disambiguation). ...

Fascist (Power)

In the fascist view, a perspective is a collectivity enforced by power, authority, military might, privilege, etc. So, a proposition is true if it "makes us powerful" or is "produced by power". This view of truth is associated with Heidegger, Michel Foucault, and some social constructivists. The fascist conception of truth is summed up with the slogan that "truth is power". Fascism (in Italian, fascismo), capitalized, was the authoritarian political movement which ruled Italy from 1922 to 1943 under the leadership of Benito Mussolini. ... Sociologists usually define power as the ability to impose ones Will on others, even if those others resist in some way. ... In politics, authority generally refers to the ability to make laws, independent of the power to enforce them, or the ability to permit something. ... Armed forces are the military forces of a state. ... A privilege—etymologically private law or law relating to a specific individual—is an honour, or permissive activity granted by another person or a government. ... Martin Heidegger Martin Heidegger (September 26, 1889 – May 26, 1976) was a German philosopher. ... Jump to: navigation, search Michel Foucault Michel Foucault (October 15, 1926 – June 26, 1984) was a French philosopher and held a chair at the Collège de France, a chair to which he gave the title The History of Systems of Thought. His writings have had an enormous impact on... Jump to: navigation, search Social constructionism is a school of thought introduced into sociology by Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann with their 1966 book, The Social Construction of Reality. ... Look up Slogan on Wiktionary, the free dictionary A slogan is a memorable phrase used in political or commercial context as a repetitive expression of an idea or purpose. ...

Marxist

Truth-generating perspectives are collectives opposed to, or engaged in struggle against, power and authority. For example, the collective perspective of the "proletariat". So, proposition is true if it is the "product of political struggle" for the "emancipation of the workers" (Adorno). This view is again associated with some social constructivists (e.g., feminist epistemologists). Jump to: navigation, search Marxism is the political practice and social theory based on the works of Karl Marx, a 19th century German philosopher, economist, journalist, and revolutionary, along with Friedrich Engels. ... A collective is a group of people who are organized around an issue or to accomplish a goal together. ... In politics, authority generally refers to the ability to make laws, independent of the power to enforce them, or the ability to permit something. ... Jump to: navigation, search T I AM YOUR KING ME ME ME MEhe proletariat (from Latin proles, offspring) is a term used to identify a lower social class; a member of such a class isproletarian. ... Emancipation — Oh, Edwin dear! Heres Tom Jones. ... Adorno (front right) and Horkheimer (front left); Habermas in back, right. ... Jump to: navigation, search Feminism is a diverse collection of social theories, political movements, and moral philosophies, largely motivated by or concerning the experiences of women, especially in terms of their social, political, and economic situation. ...

Transcendental Perspectivalism

On this conception, a truth-conferring perspective is something transcendental, and outside immediate human reach. The idea is that there is a transcendental or ideal epistemic perspective and truth is, roughly, what is accepted or recognized-as-true from that ideal perspective. There are three subvarieties of transcendental perspectivalism: Transcendental in philosophical contexts In philosophy, transcendental experiences are experiences of an exclusively human nature that are other-worldly or beyond the human realm of understanding. ...

Coherentism

The ideal epistemic perspective is the set of "maximally coherent and consistent propositions". A proposition is true if and only if it is a member of this maximally coherent and consistent set of propositions (associated with several German and British 19th century idealists). Coherence is from Latin cohaerere = stick together, to be connected with). ... Consistency has three technical meanings: In mathematics and logic, as well as in theoretical physics, it refers to the proposition that a formal theory or a physical theory contains no contradictions. ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... In philosophy, idealism is any theory positing the primacy of spirit, mind, or language over matter. ...

Theological Perspectivalism

The ideal epistemic perspective is that of God ("God's point of view"). A proposition is true if, and only if, it agrees with the thoughts of God. Theology is reasoned discourse concerning God (Greek θεος, theos, God, + λογος, logos, word or reason). It also refers to the study of other religious topics. ... Jump to: navigation, search This article needs copyediting (checking for proper English spelling, grammar, usage, etc. ...

Long-Run Scientific Pragmatism

The ideal epistemic perspective is that of "completed science", which will appear in the (temporal) "limit of scientific inquiry". A proposition is true if and only if, in the long run it will come to be accepted by a group of inquirers using scientific rational inquiry]. This can also be modalized: a proposition is true if, and only if, in the long run it would come to be accepted by a group of inquirers, if they were to use scientific rational inquiry. This view is thus a modification of the consensus view. The consensus need to satisfy certain constraints in order for the "accepted" propositions to be true. For example, the methods used must be those of scientific inquiry (criticism, observation, reproducibility, etc.). For the scientific journal named Science, see Science (journal). ... Modification is the act of applying change to an original. ... A constraint is a limitation of possibilities. ... A critic (derived from the ancient Greek word krites meaning a judge) is a person who offers a value judgement or an interpretation. ... Reproducibility is one of the main principles of the scientific method. ...

Long-run scientific scientific pragmatism was first defended by C. S. Peirce. A less scientific version of this view is associated with Jürgen Habermas. Jump to: navigation, search Charles Sanders Peirce Charles Sanders/Santiago Peirce (pronounced purse), September 10, 1839 – April 19, 1914, was an American polymath, the founder of pragmatism and one of the founders of semiotics. ... Jump to: navigation, search Habermas speaking with Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, now Pope Benedict XVI, 2004 Jürgen Habermas (born June 18, 1929 in Düsseldorf, Germany) is a philosopher, political scientist and sociologist in the tradition of critical theory. ...

Summary

To summarize, the major epistemic theories of truth are:

• Verificationism
  • Positivism
  • A Priorism
  • Pragmatism
• Perspectivalism
  • Individual Perspectivalism ("true for me")
  • Discourse Perspectivalism (Conventionalism)
  • Collectivist Perspectivalism
  • Transcendental Perspectivalism

Many authors writing on the topic of the notion of truth often advocate or endorse complicated mixtures of these positions. Each of these epistemic conceptions of truth can be subjected to various criticisms. Some criticisms apply across the board, while others are more specific.