NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Vipera berus

Common names: common European adder,^[2] common European viper,^[3] more.

Vipera berus is a venomous viper species that is extremely widespread and can be found throughout most of western Europe and Great Britain and all the way to Far East Asia.^[1] They are not regarded as highly dangerous;^[2] bites can be very painful, but are seldom fatal.^[4] The specific name, berus, is New Latin and was at one time used to refer to a snake, possibly the grass snake, Natrix natrix.^[5] Three subspecies are recognized, including the typical form described here.^[6] Image File history File links File links The following pages link to this file: Crossed Viper ... Scientific classification or biological classification is a method by which biologists group and categorize species of organisms. ... For other uses, see Animal (disambiguation). ... Typical Classes Subphylum Urochordata - Tunicates Ascidiacea Thaliacea Larvacea Subphylum Cephalochordata - Lancelets Subphylum Myxini - Hagfishes Subphylum Vertebrata - Vertebrates Petromyzontida - Lampreys Placodermi (extinct) Chondrichthyes - Cartilaginous fishes Acanthodii (extinct) Actinopterygii - Ray-finned fishes Actinistia - Coelacanths Dipnoi - Lungfishes Amphibia - Amphibians Reptilia - Reptiles Aves - Birds Mammalia - Mammals Chordates (phylum Chordata) include the vertebrates, together with... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Subclasses Anapsida Diapsida Synonyms Reptilia Laurenti, 1768 Reptiles are tetrapods and amniotes, animals whose embryos are surrounded by an amniotic membrane, and members of the class Sauropsida. ... Suborders Lacertilia- Lizards Serpentes - Snakes Amphisbaenia - Worm lizards This article is about the Squamata order of reptiles. ... Infraorders and Families Alethinophidia - Nopcsa, 1923 Acrochordidae- Bonaparte, 1831 Aniliidae - Stejneger, 1907 Anomochilidae - Cundall, Wallach & Rossman, 1993 Atractaspididae - GÃ¼nther, 1858 Boidae - Gray, 1825 Bolyeriidae - Hoffstetter, 1946 Colubridae - Oppel, 1811 Cylindrophiidae - Fitzinger, 1843 Elapidae - F. Boie, 1827 Loxocemidae - Cope, 1861 Pythonidae - Fitzinger, 1826 Tropidophiidae - Brongersma, 1951 Uropeltidae - MÃ¼ller, 1832... Synonyms Viperae - Laurenti, 1768 Viperini - Oppel, 1811 Viperidae - Gray, 1825[1] The Viperidae are a family of venomous snakes commonly referred to as vipers, although the term viperids is more specific and distinguishes them from the viperines (subfamily Viperinae). ... Synonyms Viperini - Oppel, 1811 Viperes - Cuvier, 1817 Viperides - Latreille, 1825 Viperina - Gray, 1825 Viperiodea - Fitzinger, 1826 Viperiodei - Eichwald, 1831 Viperinae - Cantor, 1847 Viperiformes - GÃ¼nther, 1864 Viperida - Strauch, 1869[1] Common names: pitless vipers, true vipers, Old World vipers,[2] true adders. ... Synonyms Vipera - Laurenti, 1768 Pelias - Merrem, 1820 Chersea - Fleming, 1822 Rhinaspis - Bonaparte, 1834 Rhinechis - Fitzinger, 1843 Echidnoides - Mauduyt, 1844 Mesocoronis - Reuss, 1927 Teleovipera - Reuss, 1927 Acridophaga - Reuss, 1927 Mesovipera - Reuss, 1927 Mesohoronis - Reuss, 1927 Mesohorinis - Reuss, 1927 Latastea - Reuss, 1929 Tzarevcsya - Reuss, 1929 Latasteopara - Reuss, 1935[1] Common names: Palaearctic... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Carl Linnaeus, Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as , (May 23, 1707[1] â€“ January 10, 1778), was a Swedish botanist, physician and zoologist[2] who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of nomenclature. ... Year 1758 (MDCCLVIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Thursday of the 11-day slower Julian calendar). ... In scientific nomenclature, synonyms are different scientific names used for a single taxon. ... A venomous snake is a snake that uses modified saliva, venom, delivered through fangs in its mouth, to immobilize or kill its prey. ... Synonyms Viperini - Oppel, 1811 Viperes - Cuvier, 1817 Viperides - Latreille, 1825 Viperina - Gray, 1825 Viperiodea - Fitzinger, 1826 Viperiodei - Eichwald, 1831 Viperinae - Cantor, 1847 Viperiformes - GÃ¼nther, 1864 Viperida - Strauch, 1869[1] Common names: pitless vipers, true vipers, Old World vipers,[2] true adders. ... The hierarchy of scientific classification. ... The borders of Western Europe were largely defined by the Cold War. ... East Asia is a subregion of Asia. ... New Latin (or Neo-Latin) is a post-medieval version of Latin, now used primarily in International Scientific Vocabulary cladistics and systematics. ... Binomial name Natrix natrix Linnaeus, 1758 The Grass Snake, sometimes called the Ringed Snake or Water Snake (Natrix natrix) is a European non-venomous snake. ...

Description

Relatively thick-bodied, adults grow to 60 cm in length with an average of 55 cm. Maximum size varies per region. The largest -- over 90 cm -- are found in Sweden; specimens of 104 cm have been observed there on two occasions. In France and Great Britain, the maximum size is 80-87 cm.^[2]

The head is fairly large and distinct, the sides of which are almost flat and vertical. The edge of the snout is usually raised into a low ridge. Seen from above, the rostral scale is not visible, or only just. Immediately behind the rostral, there are 2 (rarely 1) small scales. Dorsally, there are usually 5 large plates: a squarish frontal (longer than wide, sometimes rectangular), 2 parietals (sometimes with a tiny scale between the frontal and the parietals), and 2 long and narrow supraoculars. The latter are large and distinct, each separated from the frontal by 1-4 small scales. The nostril is situated in a shallow depression within a large nasal scale. The eye is relatively large -- equal in size or slightly larger than the nasal scale -- but often smaller in females. Below the supraoculars there are 6-13 (usually 8-10) small circumorbital scales. The temporal scales are smooth (rarely weakly keeled). There are 10-12 sublabials and 6-10 (usually 8-9) supralabials. Of the latter, the numbers 3 and 4 are the largest, while 4 and 5 (rarely 3 and 4) are separated from the eye by a single row of small scales (sometimes 2 rows in alpine specimens).^[2] Image File history File links Metadata No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links Metadata No higher resolution available. ... Echis carinatus sochureki The rostral scale, or rostral, in snakes and other scaled reptiles refers to the median plate on the tip of the snout that borders the mouth opening. ... Frontal scale refers to the scales of a snake which lie in the general region of the forehead of a snake, more sprecifically between the eyes and to the anterior of this area. ... Parietal scale refers to the scales of a snake which are on the head of the snake and are connected to the frontals towards the posterior. ... Crotalus durissus In scaled reptiles, supraocular scales are (enlarged) scales on the crown immediately above the eye. ... In reptiles, the nasal scale refers to the scale that encloses the nostril. ... Atheris ceratophora In scaled reptiles, the ocular scales are those forming the margin of the eye. ... Nomenclature of scales (top view of head) In snakes, the temporal scales are those scales on the side of the head between the parietals and the supralabials, and behind the postoculars. ... Atheris ceratophora In reptiles, the sublabial scales, also called lower-labials or infralabials, are those scales that border the mouth opening along the lower jaw. ... Atheris ceratophora In reptiles, the supralabial scales, also called upper-labials, are those scales that border the mouth opening along the upper jaw. ...

Midbody there are 21 dorsal scales rows (rarely 19, 20, 22 or 23). These are strongly keeled, except for those bodering the ventral scales. These scales seem loosely attached to the skin and lower rows become increasingly wide; those closest to the ventral scales are twice as wide as the ones along the midline. The ventral scales number 132-150 in males and 132-158 in females. The anal plate is single. The subcaudals are paired, numbering 32-46 in males and 23-38 in females.^[2] Dorsal scales on the body of a Banded Krait Bungarus fasciatus, an Elapid. ... Amphiesma stolata In snakes, the ventral scales, or gastrosteges, are the enlarged scales that extend down the underside of the body[1] from the head to the anal plate. ... Amphiesma stolata In snakes, the anal scale (or anal plate) is the scale just in front of and covering the cloacal opening. ... Amphiesma stolata In snakes, the subcaudal scales are the enlarged plates on the underside of the tail. ...

The color pattern varies, ranging from very light-colored specimens with small incomplete dark dorsal crossbars to melanistic individuals that are entirely dark and lack any apparent dorsal pattern. However, most have some kind of zigzig dorsal pattern down the entire length of the body and tail. The head usually has a distinctive dark V or X on the back. A dark streak runs from the eye to the neck and continues as a longitudinal series of spots along the flanks.^[2]

Common names

Common European adder,^[2] common European viper,^[3] European viper,^[7] northern viper,^[8] adder, common adder, crossed viper, European adder,^[9] common viper, European common viper, cross adder,^[10] common cross adder.^[11]

Geographic range

From western Europe (Great Britain, Scandinavia, France) across central (Italy, Albania, Bulgaria, and northern Greece) and eastern Europe to north of the Arctic Circle, and Russia to the Pacific Ocean, Sakhalin Island, North Korea, northern Mongolia and northern China. The type locality is listed as "Europa." Mertens and Müller (1940) proposed restricting the type locality to "Upsala, Schweden" (Uppsala, Sweden).^[1] The borders of Western Europe were largely defined by the Cold War. ... Scandinavia is a historical and geographical region centered on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe which includes the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden. ... Central Europe The Alpine Countries and the VisegrÃ¡d Group (Political map, 2004) Central Europe is the region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and Western Europe. ... Pre-1989 division between the West (grey) and Eastern Bloc (orange) superimposed on current national boundaries: Russia (dark orange), other countries of the former USSR (medium orange),members of the Warsaw pact (light orange), and other former Communist regimes not aligned with Moscow (lightest orange). ... World map showing the Arctic Circle in red A sign along the Dalton Highway marking the location of the Arctic Circle The Arctic Circle is one of the five major circles of latitude that mark maps of the Earth. ... Sakhalin (Russian: Сахалин), also Saghalien, 库页岛 (Ku Ye Dao, Chinese), or Karafuto (Japanese: 樺太) is a large elongated island in the North Pacific, lying between 45° 50 and 54° 24 N, in East Siberia, Russia. ... In biology the term type locality is used to refer to the location at which a type specimen was collected. ...

Conservation status

This species is listed as protected (Appendix III) under the Berne Convention.^[12] The Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats 1979, also known as the Bern Convention (or Berne Convention), came into force on June 1, 1982. ...

Habitat

Sufficient habitat complexity is a crucial requirement for the presence of this species, in order to support their various behaviors -- basking, foraging and hibernation -- as well as to offer some protection from predators and human harassment.^[2] It is found in variety of habitats, including: chalky downs, rocky hillsides, moors, sandy heaths, meadows, rough commons, edges of woods, sunny glades and clearings, bushy slopes and hedgerows, dumps, coastal dunes and stone quarries. They will venture into wetlands if dry ground is available nearby. Therefore, they may be found on the banks of streams, lakes and ponds.^[13] Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 600 pixelsFull resolution (1600 Ã— 1200 pixel, file size: 419 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Vipera berus, zoopark Chomutov, 28. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 600 pixelsFull resolution (1600 Ã— 1200 pixel, file size: 419 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Vipera berus, zoopark Chomutov, 28. ...

In much of southern Europe, such as southern France and northern Italy, it is found in either low lying wetlands or at high altitudes. In the Swiss Alps, it may ascend to about 3000 m. In Hungary and Russia, it avoids open steppeland; a habitat in which V. ursinii is more likely to occur. In Russia, however, it does occur in the forest steppe zone.^[13]
Southern Europe is a region of the European continent. ... The Swiss Alps are the central portion of the Alps mountain range that lies within Switzerland. ... Binomial name Vipera ursinii (Bonaparte, 1835) Synonyms Coluber foetidus - GÃ¼ldenstedt In Georgi, 1801 Pelias Ursinii - Bonaparte, 1835 [P[elias]. berus] Var. ...

Behavior

This is mainly a diurnal species, especially in the north of its range. Further south it is said to be active in the evening, and it may even be active at night during the summer months. It is predominantly a terrestrial species, although it has been known climb up banks and into low bushes in order to bask or search for prey.^[13]

Generally speaking, this is not an aggressive species, tending to be rather timid and biting only when cornered or alarmed. Many people are only bitten after stepping on them. They will usually disappear into the undergrowth at a hint of any danger, but will return once all is quiet, often to the same spot. Occasionally, individuals will reveal their presence with a loud and sustained hissing, hoping to warn off potential aggressors. Often, these turn out to be pregnant females. When threatened, the front part of the body is drawn into a S-shape to prepare for a strike.^[13]

This is a cold-adapted species that hibernates in the winter. In Great Britain, males and females hibernate for about 150 and 180 days respectively. However, in northern Sweden hibernation lasts 8-9 months. On mild winter days, they may emerge to bask where the snow has melted and will often travel across snow. Nevertheless, about 15% of adults and 30-40% of juveniles die during hibernation.^[2]

Feeding

Diet consists mainly of small mammals, such as mice, voles and shrews, as well as lizards. Sometimes, slow worms are taken, and even weasels and moles. They feed on amphibians, such as frogs, newts and salamanders. Birds are also reported to be on the menu, especially nestlings and even eggs, for which they will climb into shrubbery and bushes. Generally, diet varies depending on locality.^[13]

Juveniles will eat nestling mammals, small lizards and frogs, as well as insects, worms and spiders. Once they reach about 30 cm in length, their diet begins to resemble that of the adults.^[2]

Reproduction

In Hungary, mating takes place in the last week of April, while in the north it happens later in the second week of May. Matings have also been observed in June and even early October, but it is not known if the autumn matings result in any young.^[2] Females often breed once every two years,^[13] or even once every three years if the seasons are short and the climate is severe.^[2]

Males find females by following their scent trails, sometimes tracking them for hundreds of meters a day. If a female is found and flees, the male follows. Courtship involves side-by-side parallel "flowing" behavior, tongue flicking along the back and excited lashing of the tail. Pairs stay together for one or two days after mating. Males chase away their rivals and engage in combat. Often, this also starts with the aforementioned flowing behavior before culminating in the dramatic "adder dance."^[2] In this act, the males confront each other, raise up the front part of the body vertically, make swaying movements and attempt to push each other to the ground. This is repeated until one of the two becomes exhausted and crawls off to find another mate. Interestingly, Appleby (1971) notes that he has never seen an intruder win one of these contests, as if the frustrated defender is so aroused by courtship that he refuses to lose his chance to mate. There are no records of any biting taking place during these bouts.^[13] Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 600 pixelsFull resolution (1600 Ã— 1200 pixel, file size: 374 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) author ZdenÄ›k Fric (fric@entu. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 600 pixelsFull resolution (1600 Ã— 1200 pixel, file size: 374 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) author ZdenÄ›k Fric (fric@entu. ...

Females usually give birth in August-September, but sometimes as early as July, or as late as early October. Litters range in size from 3 to 20. The young are usually born encased in a transparent sac from which they must free themselves. Sometimes, they succeed in freeing themselves from this membrane while still inside the female. The neonates, measuring 14 to 23 cm (average of 17 cm), are born with a fully functional venom apparatus and a reserve supply of yolk within their bodies. They shed their skins for the first time within a day or two. Females do not appear to take much interest in their offspring, but the young have been observed to remain near their mothers for several days after birth.^[13]

Venom

Because of the rapid rate of human expansion throughout the range of this species, bites are relatively common. Domestic animals and livestock are frequent victims. In Great Britain, most instances occur in March-October. In Sweden, there are about 1300 bites a year, with an estimated 12% that require hospitalisation.^[2]

Mallow et al. (2003) describe the venom toxicity as being relatively low compared to other viper species. They cite Minton (1974) who reported the LD₅₀ values for mice to be 0.55 mg/kg IV, 0.80 mg/kg IP and 6.45 mg/kg SC. As a comparison, in one test the minimum lethal dose of for a guinea pig was 40-67 mg, but only 1.7 mg was necessary when D. russelii venom was used.^[2] Brown (1973) gives a higher subcutaneous LD₅₀ range of 1.0-4.0 mg/kg.^[11] All agree that the venom yield is low: Minton (1974) mentions 10-18 mg for specimens 48-62 cm in length,^[2] while Brown (1973) lists only 6 mg.^[11] An LD50 test being administered In toxicology, the LD50 or colloquially semilethal dose of a particular substance is a measure of how much constitutes a lethal dose. ... Intravenous therapy or IV therapy is the giving of liquid substances directly into a vein. ... In higher vertebrates, the peritoneum is the serous membrane that forms the lining of the abdominal cavity - it covers most of the intra-abdominal organs. ... The distribution of the bloodvessels in the skin of the sole of the foot. ... Binomial name Daboia russelii (Shaw & Nodder, 1797) Synonyms Daboia - Gray, 1840 (nomen nudum) Daboia - Gray, 1842 Chersophis - Fitzinger, 1843 Daboya - Hattori, 1913[1] Coluber russelii - Shaw & Nodder, 1797 Coluber Russelii - Shaw, 1802 Coluber Daboie - Latreille In Sonnini & Latreille, 1801 Coluber trinoculus - Schneider In Bechstein, 1802 Vipera daboya - Daudin, 1803 Vipera...

Relatively speaking, bites from this species are not highly dangerous.^[2] In Britain there have been only 14 known fatalities since 1876; the last a 5 year old child in 1975.^[4] An 82 year old woman died following a bite in Germany in 2004, although it is not clear whether her death was due to the effect of the venom.^[14] Even so, professional medical help should always be sought as soon as possible after any bite. Very occasionally bites can be life threatening, particularly in small children, while adults may experience discomfort and disability long after the bite.^[4] The length of recovery varies, but may take up to a year.^[2] Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 583 pixelsFull resolution (1460 Ã— 1064 pixel, file size: 409 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 583 pixelsFull resolution (1460 Ã— 1064 pixel, file size: 409 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ...

Local symptoms include immediate and intense pain, followed after a few minutes (but perhaps by as much as 30 minutes) by swelling and a tingling sensation. Blisters containing blood are not common. The pain may spread within a few hours, along with tenderness and inflammation. Reddish lymphangitic lines and bruising may appear, and the whole limb can become swollen and bruised within 24 hours. Swelling may also spread to the trunk, and with children, throughout the entire body. Necrosis and intracompartmental syndromes are very rare.^[4]

Systemic symptoms resulting from anaphylaxis can be dramatic. These may appear within 5 minutes post bite, or can be delayed for many hours. Such symptoms include nausea, retching and vomiting, abdominal colic and diarrhoea, incontinence of urine and faeces, sweating, fever, vasoconstriction, tachycardia, lightheadedness, loss of consciousness, shock, angioedema of the face, lips, gums, tongue, throat and epiglotis, urticaria and bronchospam. If left untreated, these symptoms may persist or fluctuate for up to 48 hours.^[4] In severe cases, cardiovascular failure may occur.^[2] Anaphylaxis is an acute systemic (multi-system) and severe Type I Hypersensitivity allergic reaction in humans and other mammals. ... The blood vessels are part of the circulatory system and function to transport blood throughout the body. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... This article is about the medical condition. ... Angioedema (BE: angiooedema), also known by its eponym Quinckes edema, is the rapid swelling (edema) of the skin, mucosa and submucosal tissues. ... The epiglottis is a thin, lid-like flap of cartilage tissue covered with a mucous membrane, attached to the root of the tongue. ...

At least eight different antivenins are available against bites from this species.^[15]

Subspecies

Carl Linnaeus, Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as , (May 23, 1707[1] â€“ January 10, 1778), was a Swedish botanist, physician and zoologist[2] who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of nomenclature. ... Year 1758 (MDCCLVIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Thursday of the 11-day slower Julian calendar). ... For the county in Shanxi province, see Xinjiang County. ... Trinomial name Vipera berus bosniensis Boettger, 1889 Synonyms Vipera berus var. ... Johann Friedrich BÃ¶ttger Johann Friedrich BÃ¶ttger (born February 4, 1682 in Schleiz; died March 13, 1719 in Dresden) was a German alchemist. ... Year 1889 (MDCCCLXXXIX) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Thursday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... The Balkans is the historic and geographic name used to describe southeastern Europe (see the Definitions and boundaries section below). ... Trinomial name Vipera berus sachalinensis Zarevskij, 1917 Synonyms Vipera berus sachalinensis - Zarevskij, 1917 Vipera sachalinensis - Mertens, 1934 Vipera (Vipera) berus sachalinensis - Obst, 1983[1] Common names: Sakhalin Island adder,[2] Sakhalin adder. ... 1917 (MCMXVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 13-day slower Julian calendar (see: 1917 Julian calendar). ... (Chinese: ; Pinyin: JÃlÃn; Wade-Giles: Chi-lin; Postal System Pinyin: Kirin; Manchu: Girin ula), is a province of the Peoples Republic of China located in the northeastern part of the country. ...

Taxonomy

The subspecies V. b. bosniensis and V. b. sachalinensis have been regarded as full species in some recent publications.^[2]

See also

This is a list of all species and subspecies of the subfamily Viperinae, otherwise referred to as the true vipers, the pitless vipers or the Old World vipers. ... A snakebite, or snake bite, is a bite inflicted by a Snake. ...

Cited references

^ ^a ^b ^c McDiarmid RW, Campbell JA, Touré T. 1999. Snake Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference, vol. 1. Herpetologists' League. 511 pp. ISBN 1-893777-00-6 (series). ISBN 1-893777-01-4 (volume).
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u Mallow D, Ludwig D, Nilson G. 2003. True Vipers: Natural History and Toxinology of Old World Vipers. Krieger Publishing Company, Malabar, Florida. 359 pp. ISBN 0-89464-877-2.
^ ^a ^b Stidworthy J. 1974. Snakes of the World. Grosset & Dunlap Inc. 160 pp. ISBN 0-448-11856-4.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Warrell DA. 2005. Treatment of bites by adders and exotic venomous snakes. British Medical Journal 331:1244-7. PDF at bmj.com. Accessed 15 September 2006.
^ Gotch AF. 1986. Reptiles -- Their Latin Names Explained. Poole, UK: Blandford Press. 176 pp. ISBN 0-7137-1704-1.
^ ^a ^b ^c Vipera berus (TSN 634988). Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Accessed on 15 August 2006.
^ U.S. Navy. 1991. Poisonous Snakes of the World. US Govt. New York: Dover Publications Inc. 203 pp. ISBN 0-486-26629-X.
^ Species Vipera berus at The Reptile Database
^ ^a ^b Mehrtens JM. 1987. Living Snakes of the World in Color. New York: Sterling Publishers. 480 pp. ISBN 0-8069-6460-X.
^ ^a ^b Steward JW. 1971. The Snakes of Europe. Cranbury, New Jersey: Associated University Press (Fairleigh Dickinson University Press). 238 pp. LCCCN 77-163307. ISBN 0-8386-1023-4.
^ ^a ^b ^c Brown JH. 1973. Toxicology and Pharmacology of Venoms from Poisonous Snakes. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas. 184 pp. LCCCN 73-229. ISBN 0-398-02808-7.
^ Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, Appendix III at Council of Europe. Accessed 9 October 2006.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Street D. 1979. The Reptiles of Northern and Central Europe. London: B.T. Batsford Ltd. ISBN 0-7134-1374-3.
^ Tod durch Kreuzotterbiss? at Gemeinsames Giftinformationszentrum. Accessed 25 May 2007.
^ Vipera berus antivenoms at Munich Antivenom Index. Accessed 15 September 2006.

is the 258th day of the year (259th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link displays full 2006 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) is a partnership designed to provide consistent and reliable information on the taxonomy of biological species. ... is the 227th day of the year (228th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link displays full 2006 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 282nd day of the year (283rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link displays full 2006 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 145th day of the year (146th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 258th day of the year (259th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link displays full 2006 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Other references

Ananjeva NB, Borkin LJ, Darevsky IS, Orlov NL. 1998. Amphibiand and Reptiles. Encyclopedia of Nature of Russia. ABF Moscow (in Russian). 574 pp.
Appleby LG. 1971. British Snakes. London: J. Baker. 201 pp. ISBN 0-212-98393-8.
Joger U, Lenk P, Baran I, Böme W, Ziegler T, Heidrich P, Wink M. 1997. The phylogenetic position of Vipera barani and of Vipera nikolskii within the Vipera berus complex.
Minton SA Jr. 1974. Venom Diseases. Springfield (IL): CC Thomas Publ. 386 pp.
Wüster W, Allum CSE, Bjargardottir IB, Bailey KL, Dawson KJ, Guenioui J, Lewis J, McGurk J, Moore AG, Niskanen M, Pollard CP. 2004. Do aposematism and Batesian mimicry require bright colours? A test, using European viper markings. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. B 271 pp 2495-2499. PDF at Wolfgang Wüster, School of Biological Sciences, University of Wales, Bangor. Accessed on 15 August 2006.

External links

Categories: True vipers | Reptiles of Europe | Reptiles of Asia | Wildlife of Siberia | Arctic land animals Image File history File links Commons-logo. ... is the 228th day of the year (229th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link displays full 2006 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 282nd day of the year (283rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link displays full 2006 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 282nd day of the year (283rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link displays full 2006 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 282nd day of the year (283rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link displays full 2006 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 282nd day of the year (283rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link displays full 2006 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 282nd day of the year (283rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link displays full 2006 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 282nd day of the year (283rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link displays full 2006 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 303rd day of the year (304th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link displays full 2006 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 88th day of the year (89th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ...

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