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Brodmann area 17 (primary visual cortex) is shown in red in this image which also shows area 18 (orange) and 19 (yellow)

The visual cortex refers to the primary visual cortex (also known as striate cortex or V1) and extrastriate visual cortical areas such as V2, V3, V4, and V5. The primary visual cortex is anatomically equivalent to Brodmann area 17, or BA17. Brodmann areas are based on a histological map of the human brain created by Korbinian Brodmann. Image File history File links Neuro_logo. ... Image File history File links Description Brodmann areas 17, 18 and 19 BA 17 is shown in red. ... Image File history File links Description Brodmann areas 17, 18 and 19 BA 17 is shown in red. ... A Brodmann area is a region in the brain cortex defined in many different species based on its cytoarchitecture. ... A sketch of the human brain by artist Priyan Weerappuli, imposed upon the profile of Michaelangelos David. ... Korbinian Brodmann (November 17, 1868 - August 22, 1918) was a German neurologist who became famous for his definition of the cerebral cortex into 52 distinct regions from their cytoarchitectonic (histological) characteristics. ...

Introduction

The primary visual cortex, V1, is the koniocortex (sensory type) located in and around the calcarine fissure in the occipital lobe. It is the one that receives information directly from the lateral geniculate nucleus.To this have been added later as many as thirty interconnected (secondary or tertiary) visual areas. At the present time there is fair agreement for only 3 of these areas, V2, V3 and MT (aka V5). Grays FIG. 719– Hind- and mid-brains; postero-lateral view. ...

The first cortical visual area transmits information to two primary pathways, called the ventral stream and the dorsal stream:

• The ventral stream begins with V1, goes through Visual area V2, then through Visual area V4, and to the inferior temporal lobe. The ventral stream, sometimes called the "What Pathway", is associated with form recognition and object representation. It is also associated with storage of long-term memory.

• The dorsal stream begins with V1, goes through Visual area V2, then to the dorsomedial area and Visual area MT (also known as V5) and to the inferior parietal lobule. The dorsal stream, sometimes called the "How Pathway", is associated with motion, representation of object locations, and control of the eyes and arms, especially when visual information is used to guide saccades or reaching.

The dichotomy of the dorsal/ventral pathways (also called the "what/where" or "action/perception" streams) was first defined by Ungerleider and Mishkin (In: Ingle DJ, Goodale MA and Mansfield RJW (Editors), Analysis of Visual Behavior MIT Press, Boston, 1982) and is still contentious among vision scientists and psychologists. It is probably an over-simplification of the true state of affairs in the visual cortex. It is based on the findings that visual illusions such as the Ebbinghaus illusion may distort judgements of a perceptual nature, but when the subject responds with an action, such as grasping, no distortion occurs. However, recent work (Franz et al, 2005) suggests that both the action and perception systems are equally fooled by such illusions. The primate visual system consists of about thirty areas of the cerebral cortex called the visual cortex. ... Visual area V2 is the second major area in the occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex. ... Visual area V4 is an one of the visual areas in the extrastriate visual cortex of the macaque monkey. ... // Overview Long-term memory (LTM) is memory that can last as little as 30 seconds or as long as decades. ... The dorsal stream is a pathway for visual information which flows through the visual cortex, the part of the brain which provides visual processing. ... Visual area V2 is the second major area in the occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex. ... The dorsomedial area, also known as DM, is a subdivision of the visual cortex of primates initially described by John Allman and Jon Kaas in 1971. ... Visual Area MT MT or middle/medial temporal visual cortex (often referred to as V5) is a region in the Extrastriate cortex that appears to process complex visual motion stimuli. ... The inferior parietal lobule (subparietal district or lobule) lies below the horizontal portion of the intraparietal sulcus, and behind the lower part of the postcentral sulcus. ... A saccade is a fast movement of an eye, head, or other part of an animals body or of a device. ... The Ebbinghaus illusion is an optical illusion of relative size perception. ...

Neurons in the visual cortex fire action potentials when visual stimuli appear within their receptive field. By definition, the receptive field is the region within the entire visual field which elicits an action potential. But for any given neuron, it may respond to a subset of stimuli within its receptive field. This property is called tuning. In the earlier visual areas, neurons have simpler tuning. For example, a neuron in V1 may fire to any vertical stimulus in its receptive field. In the higher visual areas, neurons have complex tuning. For example, in the inferior temporal cortex (IT), a neuron may only fire when a certain face appears in its receptive field. A. A schematic view of an idealized action potential illustrates its various phases as the action potential passes a point on a cell membrane. ... Receptive fields are areas of the retina, producing a change in the firing of cells in the visual system. ... A. A schematic view of an idealized action potential illustrates its various phases as the action potential passes a point on a cell membrane. ...

The visual cortex receives its blood supply primarily from the calcarine branch of the posterior cerebral artery. In human anatomy, the posterior cerebral artery is the blood vessel that supplies oxygenated blood to the posterior aspect of the brain (occipital lobe). ... The arterial circle and arteries of the brain. ...

Primary visual cortex (V1)

The primary visual cortex is the best studied visual area in the brain. Like that of all mammals studied, it is located in the posterior pole of the occipital cortex (the occipital cortex is responsible for processing visual stimuli). It is the simplest, earliest cortical visual area. It is highly specialized for processing information about static and moving objects and is excellent in pattern recognition. Image File history File links Visualcortex. ... In animals, the brain, or encephalon (Greek for in the head), is the control center of the central nervous system. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Pattern recognition is a field within the area of machine learning. ...

The functionally defined primary visual cortex is approximately equivalent to the anatomically defined striate cortex. The name "striate cortex" is derived from the stria of Gennari, a distinctive stripe visible to the naked eye that represents myelinated axons from the lateral geniculate body terminating in layer 4 of the gray matter. The stria of Gennari (also band or line of Gennari) is a band of myelinated axons projecting into layer 4C of the primary visual cortex from the lateral geniculate nucleus. ... In neuroscience, myelin is an electrically insulating phospholipid layer that surrounds the axons of many neurons. ... An axon, or nerve fiber, is a long slender projection of a nerve cell, or neuron, which conducts electrical impulses away from the neurons cell body or soma. ... The lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus is a part of the brain, which is the primary processor of visual information, received from the retina, in the CNS. Schematic diagram of the primate lateral geniculate nucleus. ... Grey matter is a category of nervous tissue with many nerve cell bodies and few myelinated axons. ...

The primary visual cortex is divided into six functionally distinct layers, labelled 1 through 6. Layer 4, which receives most visual input from the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), is further divided into 4 layers, labelled 4A, 4B, 4Cα, and 4Cβ. Sublamina 4Cα receives most magnocellular input from the LGN, while layer 4Cβ receives input from parvocellular pathways. Grays FIG. 719– Hind- and mid-brains; postero-lateral view. ... Magnocellular can refer to: Magnocellular part Magnocellular neurosecretory cell Category: ... The parvocellular part of a nucleus in the brain (if the nucleus has a parvocellular part) is that part which contains small-bodied, punctate neuronal cells. ...

Function

V1 has a very well-defined map of the spatial information in vision. For example, in humans the upper bank of the calcarine sulcus responds strongly to the lower half of visual field (below the center), and the lower bank of the calcarine to the upper half of visual field. Conceptually, this retinotopy mapping is a transformation of the visual image from retina to V1. The correspondence between a given location in V1 and in the subjective visual field is very precise: even the blind spots are mapped into V1. Evolutionally, this correspondence is very basic and found in most animals that possess a V1. In human and animals with a fovea in the retina, a large portion of V1 is mapped to the small, central portion of visual field, a phenomenon known as cortical magnification. Perhaps for the purpose of accurate spatial encoding, neurons in V1 have the smallest receptive field size of any visual cortex regions. The calcarine fissure (or calcarine sulcus) is on the medial surface of the hemisphere. ... The term visual field is sometimes used as a synonym to field of view, though they do not designate the same thing. ... Retinotopy is the concept that certain areas of the visual cortex are organized in a way that adjacent points in the visual field (that fall on adjacent points on the retina) are processed by neurons in adjacent parts of that cortical area. ... Human eye cross-sectional view. ... A blind spot, also known as a scotoma, is an obscuration of the visual field. ... The fovea, a part of the eye, is a spot located in the center of the macula. ... Cortical magnification describes how many neurons in an area of the visual cortex are responsible for processing a stimulus of a given size, as a function of visual field location. ...

The tuning properties of V1 neurons (what the neurons respond to) differ greatly over time. Early in time (40 ms and further) individual V1 neurons have strong tuning to a small set of stimuli. That is, the neuronal responses can discriminate small changes in visual orientations, spatial frequencies and colors. Furthermore, individual V1 neurons in human and animals with binocular vision have ocular dominance, namely tuning to one of the two eyes. In V1, and primary sensory cortex in general, neurons with similar tuning properties tend to cluster together as cortical columns. David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel proposed the classic ice-cube organization model of cortical columns for two tuning properties: ocular dominance and orientation. However, this model cannot accommodate the color, spatial frequency and many other features to which neurons are tuned. The exact organization of all these cortical columns within V1 remains a hot topic of current research. Sine waves of various frequencies; the lower waves have higher frequencies than those above. ... Color is an important part of the visual arts. ... David Hunter Hubel (b. ... Torsten Nils Wiesel (b. ...

Current consensus seems to be that early responses of V1 neurons consists of tiled sets of selective spatiotemporal filters. In the spatial domain, the functioning of V1 can be thought of as similar to many spatially local, complex Fourier transforms. Theoretically, these filters together can carry out neuronal processing of spatial frequency, orientation, motion, direction, speed (thus temporal frequency), and many other spatiotemporal features. Experiments of V1 neurons substantiate these theories, but also raise new questions. In mathematics, the Fourier transform is a certain linear operator that maps functions to other functions. ...

Later in time (after 100 ms) neurons in V1 are also sensitive to the more global organisation of the scene (Lamme & Roelfsema, 2000). These response properties probably stem from recurrent processing (the influence of higher-tier cortical areas on lower-tier cortical areas) and lateral connections from pyramidal neurons (Hupe et al 1998).

The visual information relayed to V1 is not coded in terms of spatial (or optical) imagery, but rather as the local contrast. As an example, for an image comprising half side black and half side white, the divide line between black and white has strongest local contrast and is encoded, while few neurons code the brightness information (black or white per se). As information is further relayed to subsequent visual areas, it is coded as increasingly non-local frequency/phase signals. Importantly, at these early stages of cortical visual processing, spatial location of visual information is well preserved amid the local contrast encoding.

Current research

Research on the primary visual cortex can involve recording action potentials from electrodes within the brain of cats, ferrets, mice, or monkeys, or through recording intrinsic optical signals from animals or fMRI signals from human and monkey V1. A. A schematic view of an idealized action potential illustrates its various phases as the action potential passes a point on a cell membrane. ... Look up CAT, cat, Cat in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Trinomial name Mustela putorius furo (Linnaeus, 1758) In general use, a ferret is a domestic ferret (Mustela putorius furo). ... Feral mouse A mouse (Plural mice) is a mammal that belongs to one of numerous species of small rodents. ... For the TV show Monkey see Monkey (TV series) Cynomolgus Monkey at Batu Caves, Malaysia A monkey is any member of two of the three groupings of simian primates. ... Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (or fMRI) describes the use of MRI to measure hemodynamic signals related to neural activity in the brain or spinal cord of humans or other animals. ...

One recent discovery about V1 is that signals measured by fMRI show very large attentional modulation. This result strongly contrasts with macaque physiology research showing very small changes (or no changes) in firing associated with attentional modulation. Research with the macaque monkey is usually performed by measuring spiking activity from single neurons. The neural basis of the fMRI signal on the other hand is mostly related to post synaptic potentiation (PSP). This difference therefore does not necessarily indicate a difference between macaque and human physiology. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (or fMRI) describes the use of MRI to measure hemodynamic signals related to neural activity in the brain or spinal cord of humans or other animals. ...

Other current work on V1 seeks to fully characterize its tuning properties, and to use it as a model area for the canonical cortical circuit.

Lesions to primary visual cortex usually lead to a scotoma, or hole in the visual field. Interestingly, patients with scotomas are often able to make use of visual information presented to their scotomas, despite being unable to consciously perceive it. This phenomenon, called blindsight, is widely studied by scientists interested in the neural correlate of consciousness. The word scotoma is derived from the Greek word for darkness. ... Visual processing in the brain goes through a series of processing stages. ... Consciousness is a quality of the mind generally regarded to comprise qualities such as subjectivity, self-awareness, sentience, sapience, and the ability to perceive the relationship between oneself and ones environment. ...

V2

Visual area V2 is the second major area in the visual cortex, and first region within the visual association area. It receives strong feedforward connections from V1 and sends strong connections to V3, V4, and V5. It also sends strong feedback connections to the V1. Feed-forward is a term describing a kind of system which reacts to changes in its environment, usually to maintain some desired state of the system. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Feedback loop. ...

Anatomically, V2 is split into four quadrants, a dorsal and ventral representation in the left and the right hemispheres. Together these four regions provide a complete map of the visual world. Functionally, V2 has many properties in common with V1. Cells are tuned to simple properties such as orientation, spatial frequency, and color. The responses of many V2 neurons are also modulated by more complex properties, such as the orientation of illusory contours and whether the stimulus is part of the figure or the ground (Qiu and von der Heydt, 2005). In anatomy, the dorsum is the upper or back side of an animal, as opposed to the ventrum. ... In zootomy, several terms are used to describe the location of organs and other structures in the body of bilateral animals. ... The human brain as viewed from above, showing the cerebral hemispheres. ...

Recent research has shown that V2 cells show a small amount of attentional modulation (more than V1, less than V4), are tuned for moderately complex patterns, and may be driven by multiple orientations at different subregions within a single receptive field.

V3

Visual area V3 is a term used to refer to the region of cortex located immediately in front of V2. To date, some controversy exists regarding the exact extent of this area, with some researchers proposing that this is in fact a complex of two or three functional subdivisions. For example, David Van Essen and others (1986) have proposed that the existence of a "dorsal V3" in the upper part of the cerebral hemisphere, which is dinstinct from the "ventral V3" (or ventral posterior area, VP) located in the lower part of the brain. Dorsal and ventral V3 have distinct connections with other parts of the brain, appear different in sections stained with a variety of methods, and contain neurons that respond to different combinations of visual stimulus (for example, colour-selective neurons are more common in the ventral V3).

Dorsal V3 is normally considered to be part of the dorsal stream, receiving inputs from V2 and from the primary visual area and projecting to the posterior parietal cortex. It may be anatomically located in Brodmann area 19. Debate exists as to whether there are also adjacent areas 3A and 3B. Recent work with fMRI has suggested that area V3/V3A may play a role in the processing of global motion (Braddick, 2001). Other studies prefer to consider dorsal V3 as part of a larger area, named the dorsomedial area (DM), which contains a representation of the entire visual field. Neurons in area DM respond to coherent motion of large patterns covering extensive portions of the visual field (Lui and collaborators, 2006). The parietal lobe is a lobe in the brain. ... Brodmann area 19 is shown in yellow in this image which also shows ares 17 (red) and 18 (orange) Brodmann area 19, or BA19, is part of the occipital lobe cortex in the human brain. ... The dorsomedial area, also known as DM, is a subdivision of the visual cortex of primates initially described by John Allman and Jon Kaas in 1971. ...

Ventral V3 (VP) has much weaker connections from the primary visual area, and stronger connections with the inferior temporal cortex. While earlier studies proposed that VP only contained a representation of the upper part of the visual field (above the point of fixation), more recent work indicates that this area is more extensive than previously appreciated, and like other visual areas it may contain a complete visual representation. The revised, more extensive VP is referred to as the ventrolateral posterior area (VLP) by Rosa and Tweedale (2000). The inferior temporal gyrus is placed below the middle temporal sulcus, and is connected behind with the inferior occipital gyrus; it also extends around the infero-lateral border on to the inferior surface of the temporal lobe, where it is limited by the inferior sulcus. ...

V4

Visual area V4 is one of the visual areas in the extrastriate visual cortex of the macaque monkey. It is located anterior to V2 and posterior to visual area PIT. It comprises at least four regions (left and right V4d, left and right V4v), and some groups report that it contains rostral and caudal subdivisions as well. It is unknown what the human homologue of V4 is, and this issue is currently the subject of much scrutiny. This term refers the region of the cortex of the mammalian brain located next to the striate cortex (also known as primary visual cortex). ... Type Species Simia inuus Linnaeus, 1758 = Simia sylvanus Linnaeus, 1758 Species See text. ...

V4 is the third cortical area in the ventral stream, receiving strong feedforward input from V2 and sending strong connections to the posterior inferotemporal cortex (PIT). It also receives direct inputs from V1, especially for central space. In addition, it has weaker connections to V5 and visual area DP (the dorsal prelunate gyrus). The primate visual system consists of about thirty areas of the cerebral cortex called the visual cortex. ...

V4 is the first area in the ventral stream to show strong attentional modulation. Most studies indicate that selective attention can change firing rates in V4 by about 20%. A seminal paper by Moran and Desimone characterizing these effects was the first paper to find attention effects anywhere in the visual cortex [1]. The primate visual system consists of about thirty areas of the cerebral cortex called the visual cortex. ... Selective attention is a state of consciousness which involves focusing on a specific aspect of a scene while ignoring other aspects. ...

Like V1, V4 is tuned for orientation, spatial frequency, and color. Unlike V1, it is tuned for object features of intermediate complexity, like simple geometric shapes, although no one has developed a full parametric description of the tuning space for V4. Visual area V4 is not tuned for complex objects such as faces, as areas in the inferotemporal cortex are. The inferior temporal gyrus is placed below the middle temporal sulcus, and is connected behind with the inferior occipital gyrus; it also extends around the infero-lateral border on to the inferior surface of the temporal lobe, where it is limited by the inferior sulcus. ...

The firing properties of V4 were first described by Semir Zeki in the late 1970s, who also named the area. Before that, V4 was known by its anatomical description, the prelunate gyrus. Originally, Zeki argued that the purpose of V4 was to process color information. Work in the early 1980s proved that V4 was as directly involved in form recognition as earlier cortical areas. This research supported the Two Streams hypothesis, first presented by Ungerleider and Mishkin in 1982. Semir Zeki is Professor of Neurobiology at University College London. ... The angular gyrus is a region of the brain in the parietal lobe, that lies near the superior edge of the temporal lobe, and immediately posterior to the supramarginal gyrus; it is involved in a number of processes related to language and cognition. ... The Two-Streams hypothesis is a widely accepted account of visual processing. ...

Recent work has shown that V4 exhibits long-term plasticity, encodes stimulus salience, is gated by signals coming from the frontal eye fields, shows changes in the spatial profile of its receptive fields with attention, and encodes hazard functions. This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Exponential failure density functions A failure rate is the average frequency with which something fails. ...

V5/MT

Visual area V5, also known as visual area MT (middle temporal), is a region of extrastriate visual cortex that is thought to play a major role in the perception of motion, the integration of local motion signals into global percepts and the guidance of some eye movements ^[1]. Eye movements are the voluntary or involuntary movements of the eye. ...

Connections

MT is connected to a wide array of cortical and subcortical brain areas. Its inputs include the visual cortical areas V1, V2, and dorsal V3 (dorsomedial area)^[2], the koniocellular regions of the LGN ^[3], and the inferior pulvinar. The pattern of projections to MT changes somewhat between the representations of the foveal and peripheral visual fields, with the latter receiving inputs from areas located in the midline cortex and retrosplenial region (Ungerleider and Desimone 1986; Palmer and Rosa 2006). The dorsomedial area, also known as DM, is a subdivision of the visual cortex of primates initially described by John Allman and Jon Kaas in 1971. ... Koniocellular refers to a visual pathway in the brains of some animals. ... The lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus is a part of the brain, which is the primary processor of visual information, received from the retina, in the CNS. Schematic diagram of the primate lateral geniculate nucleus. ... The pulvinar is the caudal-most nucleus of the thalamus that is conventionally divided into oral, inferior, lateral, and medial subnuclei. ...

A standard view is that V1 provides the "most important" input to MT ^[1]. Nonetheless, several studies have demonstrated that neurons in MT are capable of responding to visual information, often in a direction-selective manner, even after V1 has been destroyed or inactivated (Rodman and collaborators 1989). Moreover, research by Semir Zeki and collaborators has suggested that certain types of visual information may reach MT before it reaches V1. This has been linked to the Riddoch phenomenon. Semir Zeki is Professor of Neurobiology at University College London. ...

MT sends its major outputs to areas located in the cortex immediately surrounding it, including areas FST, MST and V4t (middle temporal crescent). Other projections of MT target the eye movement-related areas of the frontal and parietal lobes (frontal eye field and lateral intraparietal area).

Function

The first studies of the electrophysiological properties of neurons in MT showed that a large portion of the cells were tuned to the speed and direction of moving visual stimuli ^{[4] [5]}. These results suggested that MT played a significant role in the processing of visual motion. Electrophysiology is the study of the electrical properties of biological cells and tissues. ... Neuronal tuning refers to the property of brain cells to selectively represent a particular kind of sensory, motor or cognitive information. ...

Lesion studies have also supported the role of MT in visual perception and eye movements. A lesion is a non-specific term referring to abnormal tissue in the body. ...

However, since neurons in V1 are also tuned to the direction and speed of motion, these early results left open the question of precisely what MT could do that V1 could not. Much work has been carried out on this region as it appears to integrate local visual motion signals into the global motion of complex objects. ^[6] For examples, lesion to the V5 lead to deficits in perceiving motion and processing of complex stimuli. It contains many neurons selective for the motion of complex visual features (line ends, corners). Microstimulation of a neuron located in the V5 affects the perception of motion. For example if one finds a neuron with preferecne for upward motion, and then we use an electrode to stimulate it, the monkey becomes more likely to report 'upward' motion.^[7]

There is still much controversy over the exact form of the computations carried out in area MT ^[8] and some research suggests that feature motion is in fact already available at lower levels of the visual system such as V1 ^{[9] [10]}.

Functional Organization

MT was shown to be organized in direction columns ^[11]. DeAngelis argued for an organization of disparity tuning.^{[citation needed]}

References

1. ^ ^{a b} Born and Bradley, 2005
2. ^ Felleman and Van Essen, 1991
3. ^ Sincich et al., 2004
4. ^ Dubner and Zeki, 1971
5. ^ Maunsell and Van Essen, 1983
6. ^ Movshon, J.A., Adelson, E.H., Gizzi, M.S., & Newsome, W.T. (1985). The analysis of moving visual patterns. In: C. Chagas, R. Gattass, & C. Gross (Eds.), Pattern recognition mechanisms (pp. 117-151), Rome: Vatican Press.
7. ^ Britten & Van Wezel 1998
8. ^ Wilson, H.R., Ferrera, V.P., & Yo, C. (1992). A psychophysically motivated model for two-dimensional motion perception. Vis Neurosci, 9 (1), 79-97.
9. ^ Tinsley, C.J., Webb, B.S., Barraclough, N.E., Vincent, C.J., Parker, A., & Derrington, A.M. (2003). The nature of V1 neural responses to 2D moving patterns depends on receptive-field structure in the marmoset monkey. J Neurophysiol, 90 (2), 930-937.
10. ^ Pack & Born, 2003
11. ^ Albright et al., 1984

• Braddick, OJ, O'Brian, JMD, et al (2001) Brain areas sensitive to visual motion. Perception, 30, 61-72
• Franz VH, Scharnowski F, Gegenfurtner (2005) Illusion effects on grasping are temporally constant not dynamic. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 31(6), 1359-78
• Goodale & Milner (1992) Separate pathways for perception and action. Trends in Neuroscience, 15, 20-25.
• Peters, Alan (ed), and Kathleen S. Rockland (ed). 1994. Cerebral Cortex: Primary Visual Cortex in Primates v. 10 (Cerebral Cortex). Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers
• Lui LL, Bourne JA, Rosa MG (2006) Functional response properties of neurons in the dorsomedial visual area of New World monkeys (Callithrix jacchus). Cereb Cortex 16:162-77.
• Peters, Alan (ed) and Bertram Payne (ed). 2001. The Cat Primary Visual Cortex Academic Press.
• Rosa MG, Tweedale R (2000) Visual areas in lateral and ventral extrastriate cortices of the marmoset monkey. J Comp Neurol 422:621-51.
• Moran & Desimone. Selective Attention Gates Visual Processing in the Extrastriate Cortex. Science 229(4715), 1985.
• Rodman HR, Gross CG, Albright TD (1989) Afferent basis of visual response properties in area MT of the macaque. I. Effects of striate cortex removal. J Neurosci 9(6):2033-50.
• Ungerleider LG, Desimone R (1986) Cortical connections of visual area MT in the macaque. J Comp Neurol 248(2):190-222.
• Palmer SM, Rosa MG (2006) A distinct anatomical network of cortical areas for analysis of motion in far peripheral vision. Eur J Neurosci 24(8):2389-405.

External links

• The Primary Visual Cortex by Matthew Schmolesky
• Architecture of the Visual Cortex, by David Hubel
• For Neuroanatomy of the striate area 17 visit BrainInfo
• For Neuroanatomy and Internal Structure of Brodmann area 17 in guenon visit BrainInfo
• Histochemical Images of the Visual Cortex
• Computational Maps in the Visual Cortex
• Simulator for computational modeling of visual cortex maps

See also

• Brodmann area
• Cortical area
• Cortical blindness
• Feature integration theory
• List of regions in the human brain
• Retinotopy