This article is about the nutrient. For the chemical compound, see ascorbic acid.  |
 | | Vitamin C | | Systematic (IUPAC) name | 2-oxo-L-threo-hexono-1,4- lactone-2,3-enediol
or
(R)-3,4-dihydroxy-5-((S)- 1,2-dihydroxyethyl)furan-2(5H)-one | | Identifiers | | CAS number | 50-81-7 | | ATC code | A11G | | PubChem | 5785 | | Chemical data | | Formula | C6H8O6 | | Mol. mass | 176.14 grams per mol | | Synonyms | L-ascorbate | | Physical data | | Melt. point | 190–192 °C (374–378 °F) decomposes | | Pharmacokinetic data | | Bioavailability | rapid & complete | | Protein binding | negligible | | Metabolism | ? | | Half life | 30 minutes | | Excretion | renal | | Therapeutic considerations | | Pregnancy cat. | A Image File history File links Mergefrom. ...
This article deals with the molecular aspects of ascorbic acid. ...
Vitamin C may refer to: Vitamin C, the nutrient also known as ascorbic acid Colleen Fitzpatrick, a singer who performs under the stage name Vitamin C A slang term for caffeine This is a disambiguation page: a list of articles associated with the same title. ...
Image File history File links Size of this preview: 644 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (1100 × 1024 pixel, file size: 201 KB, MIME type: image/png) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Ascorbic acid Antioxidant...
IUPAC nomenclature is a system of naming chemical compounds and of describing the science of chemistry in general. ...
CAS registry numbers are unique numerical identifiers for chemical compounds, polymers, biological sequences, mixtures and alloys. ...
The Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System is used for the classification of drugs. ...
A section of the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System. ...
PubChem is a database of chemical molecules. ...
A chemical formula is an easy way of expressing information about the atoms that constitute a particular chemical compound. ...
For other uses, see Carbon (disambiguation). ...
This article is about the chemistry of hydrogen. ...
This article is about the chemical element and its most stable form, or dioxygen. ...
The molecular mass (abbreviated Mr) of a substance, formerly also called molecular weight and abbreviated as MW, is the mass of one molecule of that substance, relative to the unified atomic mass unit u (equal to 1/12 the mass of one atom of carbon-12). ...
Synonyms (in ancient Greek, συν (syn) = plus and όνομα (onoma) = name) are different words with similar or identical meanings. ...
The melting point of a solid is the temperature range at which it changes state from solid to liquid. ...
In pharmacology, bioavailability is used to describe the fraction of an administered dose of unchanged drug that reaches the systemic circulation, one of the principal pharmacokinetic properties of drugs. ...
A drugs efficacy may be affected by the degree to which it binds to the proteins within blood plasma. ...
Drug metabolism is the metabolism of drugs, their biochemical modification or degradation, usually through specialized enzymatic systems. ...
The biological half-life of a substance is the time required for half of that substance to be removed from an organism by either a physical or a chemical process. ...
The kidneys are important excretory organs in vertebrates. ...
The pregnancy category of a pharmaceutical agent is an assessment of the risk of fetal injury due to the pharmaceutical, if it is used as directed by the mother during pregnancy. ...
| | Legal status | general public availability The regulation of therapeutic goods, that is drugs and therapeutic devices, varies by jurisdiction. ...
| | Routes | oral | Vitamin C or L-ascorbate is an essential nutrient for a large number of higher primate species, a small number of other mammalian species (notably guinea pigs and bats), a few species of birds, and some fish. [1] In pharmacology and toxicology, a route of administration is the path by which a drug, fluid, poison or other substance is brought into contact with the body. ...
Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...
This article deals with the molecular aspects of ascorbic acid. ...
A reducing agent (also called a reductant or reducer) is the element or a compound in a redox (reduction-oxidation) reaction (see electrochemistry) that reduces another species. ...
Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...
// Dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) is an oxidized form of ascorbic acid. ...
European Union Chemical hazard symbol for oxidizing agents Dangerous goods label for oxidizing agents Oxidizing agent placard An oxidizing agent (also called an oxidant or oxidizer) is A chemical compound that readily transfers oxygen atoms or A substance that gains electrons in a redox chemical reaction. ...
An essential nutrient is a nutrient required for normal body functioning that cannot be synthesized by the body. ...
Families Cebidae Aotidae Pitheciidae Atelidae Cercopithecidae Hylobatidae Hominidae The simians (infraorder Simiiformes) are the higher primates very common to most people: the monkeys and the apes, including humans. ...
Subclasses & Infraclasses Subclass †Allotheria* Subclass Prototheria Subclass Theria Infraclass †Trituberculata Infraclass Metatheria Infraclass Eutheria For the folk-rock band see The Mammals. ...
For other uses, see Guinea pig (disambiguation). ...
“Chiroptera†redirects here. ...
The presence of ascorbate is required for a range of essential metabolic reactions in all animals and plants. It is made internally by almost all organisms, humans being the most well-known exception. It is widely known as the vitamin whose deficiency causes scurvy in humans.[2][3][4] It is also widely used as a food additive. Structure of the coenzyme adenosine triphosphate, a central intermediate in energy metabolism. ...
Biosynthesis is a phenomenon where chemical compounds are produced from simpler reagents. ...
Retinol (one vitamer of Vitamin A) A vitamin is an organic compound required as a nutrient in tiny amounts by an organism. ...
Scurvy (N.Lat. ...
Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavor or improve its taste and appearance. ...
The pharmacophore of vitamin C is the ascorbate ion. In living organisms, ascorbate is an antioxidant, since it protects the body against oxidative stress,[5] and is a cofactor in several vital enzymatic reactions.[6] A pharmacophore is a three-dimensional substructure of a molecule that carries (phoros) the essential features responsible for a drugs (pharmacon) biological activity. ...
This article is about the electrically charged particle. ...
Space-filling model of the antioxidant metabolite glutathione. ...
Oxidative stress is caused by an imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen and a biological systems ability to readily detoxify the reactive intermediates or easily repair the resulting damage. ...
A cofactor is the following: In mathematics a cofactor is the minor of an element of a square matrix. ...
Ribbon diagram of the enzyme TIM, surrounded by the space-filling model of the protein. ...
The uses and the daily requirement amounts of vitamin C are matters of on-going debate. People consuming diets rich in ascorbate from natural foods, such as fruits and vegetables, are healthier and have lower mortality from a number of chronic illnesses. However, a recent meta-analysis of 68 reliable antioxidant supplementation experiments involving a total of 232,606 individuals concluded that consuming additional ascorbate from supplements may not be as beneficial as thought.[7]
Biological significance - Further information: ascorbic acid
Vitamin C is purely the L-enantiomer of ascorbate; the opposite D-enantiomer has no physiological significance. Both forms are mirror images of the same molecular structure. When L-ascorbate, which is a strong reducing agent, carries out its reducing function, it is converted to its oxidized form, L-dehydroascorbate.[6] L-dehydroascorbate can then be reduced back to the active L-ascorbate form in the body by enzymes and glutathione.[8] This article deals with the molecular aspects of ascorbic acid. ...
In chemistry, enantiomers (from the Greek á¼Î½Î¬Î½Ï„ιος, opposite, and μÎÏος, part or portion) are stereoisomers that are nonsuperimposable complete mirror images of each other, much as ones left and right hands are the same but opposite. ...
In chemistry, enantiomers (from the Greek á¼Î½Î¬Î½Ï„ιος, opposite, and μÎÏος, part or portion) are stereoisomers that are nonsuperimposable complete mirror images of each other, much as ones left and right hands are the same but opposite. ...
The term chiral (pronounced ) is used to describe an object which is non-superimposable on its mirror image. ...
A reducing agent (also called a reductant or reducer) is the element or a compound in a redox (reduction-oxidation) reaction (see electrochemistry) that reduces another species. ...
ed|other uses|reduction}} Illustration of a redox reaction Redox (shorthand for reduction/oxidation reaction) describes all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation number (oxidation state) changed. ...
ed|other uses|reduction}} Illustration of a redox reaction Redox (shorthand for reduction/oxidation reaction) describes all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation number (oxidation state) changed. ...
// Dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) is an oxidized form of ascorbic acid. ...
Ribbon diagram of the enzyme TIM, surrounded by the space-filling model of the protein. ...
Glutathione (GSH) is a tripeptide. ...
L-ascorbate is a weak sugar acid structurally related to glucose which naturally occurs either attached to a hydrogen ion, forming ascorbic acid, or to a metal ion, forming a mineral ascorbate. A weak acid is an acid that does not fully ionize in solution; that is, if the acid was represented by the general formula HA, then in aqueous solution a significant amount of undissolved HA still remains. ...
Sugar acids are monosaccharides that have had an -OH group oxidized to a carboxyl group. ...
Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. ...
Hydronium is the common name for the cation H3O+. Nomenclature According to IUPAC ion nomenclature, it should be referred to as oxonium. ...
This article deals with the molecular aspects of ascorbic acid. ...
This article is about metallic materials. ...
Ascorbic acid Mineral ascorbates are salts of ascorbic acid (aka vitamin C). ...
Function In humans, vitamin C is a highly effective antioxidant, acting to lessen oxidative stress, a substrate for ascorbate peroxidase,[4] as well as an enzyme cofactor for the biosynthesis of many important biochemicals. Vitamin C acts as an electron donor for eight different enzymes:[9] Space-filling model of the antioxidant metabolite glutathione. ...
Oxidative stress is caused by an imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen and a biological systems ability to readily detoxify the reactive intermediates or easily repair the resulting damage. ...
Ascorbate peroxidases are enzymes that detoxify peroxides such as hydrogen peroxide using ascorbate as a substrate. ...
A cofactor is the following: In mathematics a cofactor is the minor of an element of a square matrix. ...
Biosynthesis is a phenomenon where chemical compounds are produced from simpler reagents. ...
An electron donor is a compound that gives up or donates an electron during cellular respiration, resulting in the release of energy. ...
Ribbon diagram of the enzyme TIM, surrounded by the space-filling model of the protein. ...
- The remaining three have the following functions:
Biological tissues that accumulate over 100 times the level in blood plasma of vitamin C are the adrenal glands, pituitary, thymus, corpus luteum, and retina.[22] Those with 10 to 50 times the concentration present in blood plasma include the brain, spleen, lung, testicle, lymph nodes, liver, thyroid, small intestinal mucosa, leukocytes, pancreas, kidney and salivary glands. Tropocollagen triple helix. ...
Hydroxylation is any chemical process that introduces one or more hydroxyl groups (-OH) into a compound (or radical) thereby oxidising it. ...
Hydroxide is a polyatomic ion consisting of oxygen and hydrogen: OH− It has a charge of −1. ...
Proline is an α-amino acid with the chemical formula HO2CCH(NH[CH2)3]. L-Proline is one of the twenty DNA-encoded amino acids. ...
Lysine is one of the 20 amino acids normally found in proteins. ...
Prolyl hydroxylase (or procollagen-proline dioxygenase) is an enzyme involved in the production of collagen, acting to hydroxylate proline to hydroxyproline. ...
Lysyl hydroxylase (or procollagen-lysine 5-dioxygenase) is an oxygenase enzyme associated with Ehlers-Danlos syndrome. ...
Granulation tissue is the perfused, fibrous connective tissue that replaces a fibrin clot in healing wounds. ...
f you all The blood vessels are part of the circulatory system and function to transport blood throughout the body. ...
This article or section contains information that has not been verified and thus might not be reliable. ...
Not to be confused with fats. ...
In cell biology, a mitochondrion is an organelle found in the cells of most eukaryotes. ...
Adenosine 5-triphosphate (ATP) is a multifunctional nucleotide that is most important as a molecular currency of intracellular energy transfer. ...
Dopamine β-hydroxylase (DBH) is an enzyme that converts dopamine to norepinephrine: In the peripheral nervous system, it is located predominantly within sympathetic nerve vesicles, but it is also present in preganglionic motor nerve fibers of the vagus nerve. ...
Norepinephrine (INN)(abbr. ...
For other uses, see Dopamine (disambiguation). ...
Amide functional group Amides possess a conjugated system spread over the O, C and N atoms, consisting of molecular orbitals occupied by delocalized electrons. ...
Peptide hormones are a class of peptides that are secreted into the blood stream and have endocrine functions in living animals. ...
Tyrosine (from the Greek tyros, meaning cheese, as it was first discovered in 1846 by German chemist Justus von Liebig in the protein casein from cheese[1][2]), 4-hydroxyphenylalanine, or 2-amino-3(4-hydroxyphenyl)-propanoic acid, is one of the 20 amino acids that are used by cells...
Biological tissue is a collection of interconnected cells that perform a similar function within an organism. ...
In mammals, the adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are the triangle-shaped endocrine glands that sit on top of the kidneys; their name indicates that position (ad-, near or at + -renes, kidneys). They are chiefly responsible for regulating the stress response through the synthesis of corticosteroids and catecholamines...
Located at the base of the skull, the pituitary gland is protected by a bony structure called the sella turcica. ...
Thymus, see Thyme. ...
The corpus luteum (Latin for yellow body) is a small, temporary endocrine structure in animals. ...
Human eye cross-sectional view. ...
For other uses, see Brain (disambiguation). ...
The spleen is an organ located in the abdomen, where it functions in the destruction of old red blood cells and holding a reservoir of blood. ...
For the village in Tibet, see Lung, Tibet. ...
Look up testes in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...
Lymph nodes are components of the lymphatic system. ...
The liver is the largest internal organ in the human body, and is an organ present in vertebrates and some other animals. ...
In biology the small intestine is the part of the gastrointestinal tract (gut) between the stomach and the large intestine and comprises the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. ...
The mucous membranes (or mucosae; singular: mucosa) are linings of mostly endodermal origin, covered in epithelium, and are involved in absorption and secretion. ...
White Blood Cells is also the name of a White Stripes album. ...
The pancreas is a gland organ in the digestive and endocrine systems of vertebrates. ...
The kidneys are the organs that filter wastes (such as urea) from the blood and excrete them, along with water, as urine. ...
The salivary glands produce saliva, which keeps the mouth and other parts of the digestive system moist. ...
Biosynthesis The vast majority of animals and plants are able to synthesize their own vitamin C, through a sequence of four enzyme-driven steps, which convert glucose to vitamin C.[6] The glucose needed to produce ascorbate in the liver (in mammals and perching birds) is extracted from glycogen; ascorbate synthesis is a glycogenolysis-dependent process.[23] In reptiles and birds the biosynthesis is carried out in the kidneys. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1046x1093, 147 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Ascorbic acid Vitamin C ...
Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1046x1093, 147 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Ascorbic acid Vitamin C ...
3D (left and center) and 2D (right) representations of the terpenoid molecule atisane. ...
For other uses, see Carbon (disambiguation). ...
This article is about the chemical element and its most stable form, or dioxygen. ...
This article is about the chemistry of hydrogen. ...
Ribbon diagram of the enzyme TIM, surrounded by the space-filling model of the protein. ...
Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. ...
Orders Subclass Monotremata Monotremata Subclass Marsupialia Didelphimorphia Paucituberculata Microbiotheria Dasyuromorphia Peramelemorphia Notoryctemorphia Diprotodontia Subclass Placentalia Xenarthra Dermoptera Desmostylia Scandentia Primates Rodentia Lagomorpha Insectivora Chiroptera Pholidota Carnivora Perissodactyla Artiodactyla Cetacea Afrosoricida Macroscelidea Tubulidentata Hyracoidea Proboscidea Sirenia The mammals are the class of vertebrate animals primarily characterized by the presence of mammary...
Families Many, see text A passerine is a bird of the giant order Passeriformes. ...
Orders Crocodilia - Crocodilians scary crocodiles. ...
For other meanings of bird, see bird (disambiguation). ...
The kidneys are the organs that filter wastes (such as urea) from the blood and excrete them, along with water, as urine. ...
Among the animals that have lost the ability to synthesise vitamin C are simians (specifically the suborder haplorrhini), guinea pigs, a number of species of passerine birds (but not all of them), and in apparently many major families of bats and perhaps all of them. Humans have no enzymatic capability to manufacture vitamin C. The cause of this phenomenon is that the last enzyme in the synthesis process, L-gulonolactone oxidase, cannot be made by the listed animals because the gene for this enzyme, Pseudogene ΨGULO, is defective.[24] The mutation has not been lethal because vitamin C is abundant in their food sources. It has been found that species with this mutation (including humans) have adapted a vitamin C recycling mechanism to compensate.[25] Families Cebidae Aotidae Pitheciidae Atelidae Cercopithecidae Hylobatidae Hominidae The simians (infraorder Simiiformes) are the higher primates very common to most people: the monkeys and the apes, including humans. ...
Families Tarsiidae Cebidae Aotidae Pitheciidae Atelidae Cercopithecidae Hylobatidae Hominidae The haplorrhines, the dry-nosed primates (the Greek name means simple-nosed), are members of the Haplorrhini clade: the prosimian tarsiers and all of the true simians (the monkeys and the apes, including humans). ...
For other uses, see Guinea pig (disambiguation). ...
Families Many, see text A passerine is a bird of the giant order Passeriformes. ...
The effect of riboflavin deficiency on the activity of L-gulonolactone oxidase [L-gulono-gamma-lactone: oxygen 2-oxidoreductase, EC 1. ...
A pseudogene is a nucleotide sequences that is similar to a normal gene, but is not expressed as a functional protein. ...
For linguistic mutation, see Apophony. ...
Most simians consume the vitamin in amounts 10 to 20 times higher than that recommended by governments for humans.[26] This discrepancy constitutes the basis of the controversy on current recommended dietary allowances. Families Cebidae Aotidae Pitheciidae Atelidae Cercopithecidae Hylobatidae Hominidae The simians (infraorder Simiiformes) are the higher primates very common to most people: the monkeys and the apes, including humans. ...
It has been noted that the loss of the ability to synthesize ascorbate strikingly parallels the evolutionary loss of the ability to break down uric acid. Uric acid and ascorbate are both strong reducing agents. This has led to the suggestion that in higher primates, uric acid has taken over some of the functions of ascorbate.[27] Ascorbic acid can be oxidised (broken down) in the human body by the enzyme ascorbic acid oxidase. Uric acid (or urate) is an organic compound of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen with the formula C5H4N4O3. ...
A reducing agent (also called a reductant or reducer) is the element or a compound in a redox (reduction-oxidation) reaction (see electrochemistry) that reduces another species. ...
An adult goat, a typical example of a vitamin C-producing animal, will manufacture more than 13,000 mg of vitamin C per day in normal health and the biosynthesis will increase "many fold under stress".[28] Trauma or injury has also been demonstrated to use up large quantities of vitamin C in humans.[29] Some microorganisms such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae have been shown to be able to synthesize vitamin C from simple sugars.[30][31] This article is about the domestic species. ...
A cluster of Escherichia coli bacteria magnified 10,000 times. ...
Binomial name Meyen ex E.C. Hansen Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a species of budding yeast. ...
Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates. ...
Deficiency Scurvy is an avitaminosis resulting from lack of vitamin C, since without this vitamin, the synthesised collagen is too unstable to perform its function. Scurvy leads to the formation of liver spots on the skin, spongy gums, and bleeding from all mucous membranes. The spots are most abundant on the thighs and legs, and a person with the ailment looks pale, feels depressed, and is partially immobilized. In advanced scurvy there are open, suppurating wounds and loss of teeth and, eventually, death. The human body can store only a certain amount of vitamin C,[32] and so the body soon depletes itself if fresh supplies are not consumed. Scurvy (N.Lat. ...
Avitaminosis is any disease caused by chronic or long-term vitamin deficiency or caused by a defect in metabolic conversion, such as tryptophan to niacin. ...
Tropocollagen triple helix. ...
The mucous membranes (or mucosae; singular: mucosa) are linings of mostly endodermal origin, covered in epithelium, and are involved in absorption and secretion. ...
Pus is a whitish-yellow or yellow substance produced during inflammatory responses of the body that can be found in regions of pyogenic bacterial infections. ...
Types of teeth Molars are used for grinding up foods Carnassials are used for slicing food. ...
It has been shown that smokers who have diets poor in vitamin C are at a higher risk of lung born diseases than those smokers who have higher concentrations of Vitamin C in the blood. [33]
History of human understanding The need to include fresh plant food or raw animal flesh in the diet to prevent disease was known from ancient times. Native peoples living in marginal areas incorporated this into their medicinal lore. For example, spruce needles were used in temperate zones in infusions, or the leaves from species of drought-resistant trees in desert areas. In 1536, the French explorer Jacques Cartier, exploring the St. Lawrence River, used the local natives' knowledge to save his men who were dying of scurvy. He boiled the needles of the arbor vitae tree to make a tea that was later shown to contain 50 mg of vitamin C per 100 grams.[34][35] Image File history File links James_lind. ...
Image File history File links James_lind. ...
James Lind (1716 in Edinburgh – 1794 in Gosport) was the pioneer of naval hygiene in the Royal Navy. ...
-1...
For other uses, see Jacques Cartier (disambiguation). ...
a broat veiew of the St LAwrence River, with a Quebec City on a background The Saint Lawrence River (In French: fleuve Saint-Laurent) is a large south west-to-north east flowing river in the middle latitudes of North America, connecting the Great Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean. ...
Species Thuja koraiensis Thuja occidentalis Thuja plicata Thuja standishii Thuja sutchuenensis Thuja (pronounced thoo-ya or thoo-ja) is a genus of coniferous trees in the Cupressaceae (cypress family). ...
Throughout history, the benefit of plant food to survive long sea voyages has been occasionally recommended by authorities. John Woodall, the first appointed surgeon to the British East India Company, recommended the preventive and curative use of lemon juice in his book "The Surgeon's Mate", in 1617. The Dutch writer, Johann Bachstrom, in 1734, gave the firm opinion that "scurvy is solely owing to a total abstinence from fresh vegetable food, and greens; which is alone the primary cause of the disease." Frontispiece of the 1639 edition of Military and Domestic Surgery by John Woodall. ...
The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was the first joint-stock company (the Dutch East India Company was the first to issue public stock). ...
This article is about the fruit. ...
Johann Friedrich Bachstrom, (24 December 1688 - ? 1742) was a Dutch writer, scientist and Lutheran theologian who lived in Leyden. ...
While the earliest documented case of scurvy was described by Hippocrates around the year 400 BC, the first attempt to give scientific basis for the cause of this disease was by a ship's surgeon in the British Royal Navy, James Lind. Scurvy was common among those with poor access to fresh fruit and vegetables, such as remote, isolated sailors and soldiers. While at sea in May 1747, Lind provided some crew members with two oranges and one lemon per day, in addition to normal rations, while others continued on cider, vinegar, sulfuric acid or seawater, along with their normal rations. In the history of science this is considered to be the first occurrence of a controlled experiment comparing results on two populations of a factor applied to one group only with all other factors the same. The results conclusively showed that citrus fruits prevented the disease. Lind published his work in 1753 in his Treatise on the Scurvy. For other uses, see Hippocrates (disambiguation). ...
This article is about the navy of the United Kingdom. ...
James Lind (1716 in Edinburgh – 1794 in Gosport) was the pioneer of naval hygiene in the Royal Navy. ...
This article is about maritime crew. ...
This article is about a military rank. ...
Cider in a pint glass Cider (or cyder) is an alcoholic beverage made primarily from the juices of specially grown varieties of apples. ...
Vinegar is sometimes infused with spices or herbs—as here, with oregano. ...
Sulfuric acid, (also known as sulphuric acid) H2SO4, is a strong mineral acid. ...
Annual mean sea surface salinity for the World Ocean. ...
Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by a global community of researchers making use of a body of techniques known as scientific methods, emphasizing the observation, experimentation and scientific explanation of real world phenomena. ...
 Citrus fruits were one of the first sources of vitamin C available to ship's surgeons. Lind's work was slow to be noticed, partly because he gave conflicting evidence within the book, and partly because the British admiralty saw care for the well-being of crews as a sign of weakness. In addition, fresh fruit was very expensive to keep on board, whereas boiling it down to juice allowed easy storage but destroyed the vitamin (especially if boiled in copper kettles[36]). Ship captains assumed wrongly that Lind's suggestions didn't work because those juices failed to cure scurvy. Download high resolution version (640x752, 112 KB)Ambersweet oranges, a new cold-resistant orange variety. ...
Download high resolution version (640x752, 112 KB)Ambersweet oranges, a new cold-resistant orange variety. ...
For other uses, see Citrus (disambiguation). ...
It was 1795 before the British navy adopted lemons or lime as standard issue at sea. Limes were more popular as they could be found in British West Indian Colonies, unlike lemons which weren't found in British Dominions, and were therefore more expensive. This practice led to the American use of the nickname "limey" to refer to the British. Captain James Cook had previously demonstrated and proven the principle of the advantages of carrying "Sour krout" on board, by taking his crews to the Hawaiian Islands and beyond without losing any of his men to scurvy[37]. For this otherwise unheard of feat, the British Admiralty awarded him a medal. Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ...
This article is about Dominions of the British Empire and of the Commonwealth of Nations. ...
This article is about terms applied to people some of which are controversial. ...
This article is about the British explorer. ...
Map of the Hawaiian Islands, a chain of islands that stretches 1,500 mi (2,400 km) in a northwesterly direction from the southern tip of the Island of Hawaii. ...
The name "antiscorbutic" was used in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries as general term for those foods known to prevent scurvy, even though there was no understanding of the reason for this. These foods included but were not limited to: lemons, limes, and oranges; sauerkraut, cabbage, malt, and portable soup. Portable soup was a precursor of modern bouillon cubes and dehydrated food. ...
In 1907, Axel Holst and Theodor Frølich, two Norwegian physicians studying beriberi contracted aboard ship's crews in the Norwegian Fishing Fleet, wanted a small test mammal to substitute for the pigeons they used. They fed guinea pigs their test diet, which had earlier produced beriberi in their pigeons, and were surprised when scurvy resulted instead. Until that time scurvy had not been observed in any organism apart from humans, and had been considered an exclusively human disease. Axel Holst (September 6, 1860 in Christiania (present day Oslo) – 1931 in Oslo) was a Norwegian professor of hygiene and bacteriology at the University of Oslo, known for his contributions to beriberi and scurvy. ...
Beriberi is a nervous system ailment caused by thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency. ...
Pigeon redirects here. ...
For other uses, see Guinea pig (disambiguation). ...
Discovery of ascorbic acid
 Albert Szent-Györgyi, pictured here in 1948, was awarded the 1937 Nobel Prize in Medicine for the discovery of vitamin C In 1912, the Polish-American biochemist Casimir Funk, while researching deficiency diseases, developed the concept of vitamins to refer to the non-mineral micro-nutrients which are essential to health. The name is a portmanteau of "vital", due to the vital role they play biochemically, and "amines" because Funk thought that all these materials were chemical amines. One of the "vitamines" was thought to be the anti-scorbutic factor, long thought to be a component of most fresh plant material. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (759x1022, 366 KB) Summary Portrait of Nobel Prize laurate Albert Szent-Györgyi, photo by J.W. McGuire of the National Institutes of Health, ca. ...
Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (759x1022, 366 KB) Summary Portrait of Nobel Prize laurate Albert Szent-Györgyi, photo by J.W. McGuire of the National Institutes of Health, ca. ...
Emil Adolf von Behring was the first person to receive the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, for his work on the treatment of diphtheria. ...
A Polish American is an American citizen of Polish descent. ...
Kazimierz Funk (February 23, 1884 - January 19, 1967), commonly anglicized as Casimir Funk, was a Polish biochemist, generally credited with the first formulation of the concept of Vitamins in 1912, which he called vital amines or vitamines. ...
Retinol (Vitamin A) Vitamins are nutrients required in very small amounts for essential metabolic reactions in the body [1]. The term vitamin does not encompass other essential nutrients such as dietary minerals, essential fatty acids, or essential amino acids. ...
A portmanteau (IPA: ) is a word or morpheme that fuses two or more words or word parts to give a combined or loaded meaning. ...
In 1928 the Arctic anthropologist Vilhjalmur Stefansson attempted to prove his theory of how the Eskimos are able to avoid scurvy with almost no plant food in their diet, despite the disease striking European Arctic explorers living on similar high-meat diets. Stefansson theorised that the natives get their vitamin C from fresh meat that is minimally cooked. Starting in February 1928, for one year he and a colleague lived on an exclusively minimally-cooked meat diet while under medical supervision; they remained healthy. (Later studies done after vitamin C could be quantified in mostly-raw traditional food diets of the Yukon, Inuit, and Métís of the Northern Canada, showed that their daily intake of vitamin C averaged between 52 and 62 mg/day, an amount approximately the dietary reference intake (DRI), even at times of the year when little plant-based food were eaten.)[38] Vilhjalmur Stefansson (Icelandic: Vilhjálmur Stefánsson / Vilhjálms Stefánssonar) (November 3, 1879 – August 26, 1962) was a Canadian Arctic explorer and ethnologist. ...
For other uses, see Eskimo (disambiguation). ...
The Dietary Reference Intake is a system of nutrition recommendations from the Institute of Medicine of the USA National Academy (IOM). ...
From 1928 to 1933, the Hungarian research team of Joseph L Svirbely and Albert Szent-Györgyi and, independently, the American Charles Glen King, first isolated the anti-scorbutic factor, calling it "ascorbic acid" for its vitamin activity. Ascorbic acid turned out not to be an amine, or even to contain any nitrogen. For their accomplishment, Szent-Györgyi was awarded the 1937 Nobel Prize in Medicine.[39] Albert Szent-Györgyi at the time of his appointment to the National Institutes of Health Albert Szent-Györgyi de Nagyrápolt (September 16, 1893 – October 22, 1986) was a Hungarian physiologist who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1937. ...
Charles Glenn King (1896-1988) was born in Entiat, WA., and was a pioneer in the field of nutrition research. ...
Emil Adolf von Behring was the first person to receive the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, for his work on the treatment of diphtheria. ...
Between 1933 and 1934, the British chemists Sir Walter Norman Haworth and Sir Edmund Hirst and, independently, the Polish chemist Tadeus Reichstein, succeeded in synthesizing the vitamin, making it the first to be artificially produced. This made possible the cheap mass-production of what was by then known as vitamin C. Only Haworth was awarded the 1937 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this work, but the "Reichstein process" retained Reichstein's name. Sir Walter Norman Haworth (March 19, 1883 – March 19, 1950) was a British chemist who is best known for his groundbreaking work on ascorbic acid (vitamin C). ...
Sir Edmund Langley Hirst M.A., D.Sc. ...
Tadeus Reichstein (July 20, 1897 - August 1, 1996) was a Polish Nobel Prize-winning chemist. ...
This is a list of Nobel Prize laureates in Chemistry from 1901 to 2006. ...
In 1934 Hoffmann–La Roche became the first pharmaceutical company to mass-produce synthetic vitamin C, under the brand name of Redoxon. F. Hoffmann–La Roche, Ltd. ...
Redoxon is the brand name of the first artificially synthesised Vitamin C to be sold to the public. ...
In 1957 the American J.J. Burns showed that the reason some mammals were susceptible to scurvy was the inability of their liver to produce the active enzyme L-gulonolactone oxidase, which is the last of the chain of four enzymes which synthesize vitamin C.[40][41] American biochemist Irwin Stone was the first to exploit vitamin C for its food preservative properties. He later developed the theory that humans possess a mutated form of the L-gulonolactone oxidase coding gene. The liver is the largest internal organ in the human body, and is an organ present in vertebrates and some other animals. ...
Ribbon diagram of the enzyme TIM, surrounded by the space-filling model of the protein. ...
The effect of riboflavin deficiency on the activity of L-gulonolactone oxidase [L-gulono-gamma-lactone: oxygen 2-oxidoreductase, EC 1. ...
Dr. Irwin Stone (b. ...
Daily requirements The North American Dietary Reference Intake recommends 90 milligrams per day and no more than 2 grams per day (2000 milligrams per day).[42] Other related species sharing the same inability to produce vitamin C and requiring exogenous vitamin C consume 20 to 80 times this reference intake.[43][44] There is continuing debate within the orthodox scientific community over the best dose schedule (the amount and frequency of intake) of vitamin C for maintaining optimal health in humans.[45] It is generally agreed that a balanced diet without supplementation contains enough vitamin C to prevent scurvy in an average healthy adult, while those who are pregnant, smoke tobacco, or are under stress require slightly more.[42] North American redirects here. ...
The Dietary Reference Intake is a system of nutrition recommendations from the Institute of Medicine of the USA National Academy (IOM). ...
To help compare different orders of magnitude, the following list describes various mass levels between 10−36 kg and 1053 kg. ...
High doses (thousands of milligrams) may result in diarrhea in healthy adults. Proponents of alternative medicine (specifically orthomolecular medicine)[46] claim the onset of diarrhea to be an indication of where the body’s true vitamin C requirement lies, though this has yet to be clinically verified. In medicine, diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea (see spelling differences), refers to frequent loose or liquid bowel movements. ...
Orthomolecular medicine and optimum nutrition are controversial medical and health approaches[1] that posit that many diseases and abnormalities result from various chemical imbalances or deficiencies and can be prevented, treated, or sometimes cured by achieving optimal levels of naturally occurring chemical substances, such as vitamins, dietary minerals, enzymes, antioxidants...
In medicine, diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea (see spelling differences), refers to frequent loose or liquid bowel movements. ...
| United States vitamin C recommendations[42] | | Recommended Dietary Allowance (adult male) | 90 mg per day | | Recommended Dietary Allowance (adult female) | 75 mg per day | | Tolerable Upper Intake Level (adult male) | 2,000 mg per day | | Tolerable Upper Intake Level (adult female) | 2,000 mg per day | It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Daily values. ...
The milligram (symbol mg) is an SI unit of mass. ...
The milligram (symbol mg) is an SI unit of mass. ...
The milligram (symbol mg) is an SI unit of mass. ...
The milligram (symbol mg) is an SI unit of mass. ...
Government recommended intakes Recommendations for vitamin C intake have been set by various national agencies: The United States defined Tolerable Upper Intake Level for a 25-year-old male is 2,000 milligrams per day. The Food Standards Agency is a non-ministerial government department of the Government of the United Kingdom. ...
WHO redirects here. ...
President Harding and the National Academy of Sciences at the White House, Washington, DC, April 1921 The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) is a corporation in the United States whose members serve pro bono as advisers to the nation on science, engineering, and medicine. ...
The Dietary Reference Intake is a system of nutrition recommendations from the Institute of Medicine of the USA National Academy (IOM). ...
Alternative recommendations on intakes Some independent researchers have calculated the amount needed for an adult human to achieve similar blood serum levels as vitamin C synthesising mammals as follows: The Linus Pauling Institute was established at Oregon State University in August 1996 under an agreement reached between OSU and the Linus Pauling Institute of Science and Medicine (located in California from 1973 to 1996). ...
Roc Ordman (Full name Alfred B. Ordman) is an American biochemist and researcher into aging, life extention and the effects of free radicals on the body. ...
In chemistry, radicals (often referred to as free radicals) are atomic or molecular species with unpaired electrons on an otherwise open shell configuration. ...
The Vitamin C Foundation is a consortium of physicians and other practitioners, healthcare activists, and other concerned Individuals, as well as of health and nutrition oriented organizations and nutrient suppliers--all of whom are dedicated to promoting the extraordinary therapeutic value of vitamin C.[1] Official website ^ Vitamin C Foundation...
Linus Carl Pauling (February 28, 1901 – August 19, 1994) was an American scientist, peace activist, author and educator of German ancestry. ...
Vitamin C high dose arguments -
There is a strong advocacy movement for large doses of vitamin C based on some in vitro and retrospective studies [53], though large, randomized clinical trials are still lacking. Many pro-vitamin C organizations promote usage levels well beyond the current Dietary Reference Intake. The movement is led by scientists and doctors such as Robert Cathcart, Ewan Cameron, Steve Hickey, Irwin Stone and the twice Nobel Prize laureate Linus Pauling and Dr Matthias Rath. Pauling's 1986 book How to Live Longer and Feel Better was a bestseller and advocated taking many grams per day orally. There is some scientific literature critical of governmental agency dose recommendations.[45][54] The biological halflife for vitamin C is fairly short, about 30 minutes in blood plasma, a fact which high dose advocates say that mainstream researchers have failed to take into account. Researchers at the National Institutes of Health decided upon the current RDA based upon tests conducted 12 hours (24 half lives) after consumption. Mainstream medicine remains skeptical of these claims. It has been suggested that Dynamic Flow be merged into this article or section. ...
In nutrition and CAM, megavitamin therapy makes use of large amounts of vitamins, often many times greater than the recommended dietary allowance (RDA), to treat many types of diseases. ...
Orthomolecular medicine and optimum nutrition are controversial medical and health approaches[1] that posit that many diseases and abnormalities result from various chemical imbalances or deficiencies and can be prevented, treated, or sometimes cured by achieving optimal levels of naturally occurring chemical substances, such as vitamins, dietary minerals, enzymes, antioxidants...
In vitro (Latin: within the glass) refers to the technique of performing a given experiment in a test tube, or, generally, in a controlled environment outside a living organism. ...
Retrospective (from Latin retrospectare, look back) generally means to take a look back at events that already have taken place. ...
The Dietary Reference Intake is a system of nutrition recommendations from the Institute of Medicine of the USA National Academy (IOM). ...
Ewan Cameron (July 31, 1922 - March 21, 1991) was a medical doctor born in Glasgow, Scotland who worked with Linus Pauling on Vitamin C research. ...
Dr. Irwin Stone (b. ...
The Nobel Prize (Swedish: ) was established in Alfred Nobels will in 1895, and it was first awarded in Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature, and Peace in 1901. ...
Linus Carl Pauling (February 28, 1901 – August 19, 1994) was an American scientist, peace activist, author and educator of German ancestry. ...
Matthias Rath, M.D. (born 1955 in Stuttgart, Germany) is a controversial German physician. ...
The biological half life of a substance is the time required for half of that substance to be removed from an organism by either a physcial or a chemical process. ...
National Institutes of Health Building 50 at NIH Clinical Center - Building 10 The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is an agency of the United States Ministry of Health and Human Services and is the primary agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical and health-related research. ...
Genetic rationales for high doses Four gene products are necessary to manufacture vitamin C from glucose. The loss of activity of the gene for the last step, Pseudogene ΨGULO (GLO) the terminal enzyme responsible for manufacture of vitamin C, has occurred separately in the history of several species. The loss of this enzyme activity is responsible of inability of guinea pigs to enzymatically synthesize vitamin C, but this event happened independently of the loss in the haplorrhini suborder of primates, including humans. The remains of this non-functional gene with many mutations, is however still present in the genome of the guinea pigs and in primates, including humans.[55][56] GLO activity has also been lost in all major families of bats, regardless of diet.[57] In addition, the function of GLO appears to have been lost several times, and possibly re-acquired, in several lines of passerine birds, where ability to make vitamin C varies from species to species. [58] The effect of riboflavin deficiency on the activity of L-gulonolactone oxidase [L-gulono-gamma-lactone: oxygen 2-oxidoreductase, EC 1. ...
For other uses, see Guinea pig (disambiguation). ...
Families Tarsiidae Cebidae Aotidae Pitheciidae Atelidae Cercopithecidae Hylobatidae Hominidae The haplorrhines, the dry-nosed primates (the Greek name means simple-nosed), are members of the Haplorrhini clade: the prosimian tarsiers and all of the true simians (the monkeys and the apes, including humans). ...
Families Many, see text A passerine is a bird of the giant order Passeriformes. ...
Loss of GLO activity in the primate order supposedly occurred about 63 million years ago, at about the time it split into the suborders haplorrhini (which lost the enzyme activity) and the more primitive strepsirrhini (which retained it). The haplorrhini ("simple nosed") primates, which cannot make vitamin C enzymatically, include the tarsiers and the simians (apes, monkeys and humans). The suborder strepsirrhini (bent or wet-nosed prosimians) which are still able to make vitamin C enzymatically, include lorises, galagos, pottos, and to some extent, lemurs. [59] Families 15, See classification A primate is any member of the biological order Primates, the group that contains all the species commonly related to the lemurs, monkeys, and apes, with the latter category including humans. ...
Families Tarsiidae Cebidae Aotidae Pitheciidae Atelidae Cercopithecidae Hylobatidae Hominidae The haplorrhines, the dry-nosed primates (the Greek name means simple-nosed), are members of the Haplorrhini clade: the prosimian tarsiers and all of the true simians (the monkeys and the apes, including humans). ...
Families Cheirogaleidae Lemuridae Lepilemuridae Indridae Daubentoniidae (Aye-aye) Lorisidae Galagidae The Strepsirrhini clade is one of the two suborders of primates. ...
Prosimians are the most primitive extant primates; they represent forms that were ancestral to monkeys, apes and humans. ...
Genera Loris Nycticebus For other uses, see Loris (disambiguation). ...
For the desktop presence framework, see Galago (software). ...
Binomial name (Statius Müller, 1766) For other uses, see Potto (disambiguation). ...
Superfamilies and Families Cheirogaleoidea Cheirogaleidae Lemuroidea Lemuridae Lepilemuridae Indriidae Lemurs make up the infraorder Lemuriformes and are members of a group of primates known as prosimians. ...
Stone[60] and Pauling[44] calculated, based on the diet of our primate cousins[43] (similar to what our common descendants are likely to have consumed when the gene mutated), that the optimum daily requirement of vitamin C is around 2,300 milligrams for a human requiring 2,500 kcal a day. A group of organisms is said to have common descent if they have a common ancestor. ...
The calorie is a unit of energy, in particular heat. ...
The established RDA has been criticized by Pauling to be one that will prevent acute scurvy, and is not necessarily the dosage for optimal health.[52] In medicine, an acute disease is a disease with either or both of: a rapid onset; a short course (as opposed to a chronic course). ...
Scurvy (N.Lat. ...
Therapeutic uses |
