NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Vitamin C

Vitamin C or L-ascorbate is an essential nutrient for a large number of higher primate species, a small number of other mammalian species (notably guinea pigs and bats), a few species of birds, and some fish. ^[1] In pharmacology and toxicology, a route of administration is the path by which a drug, fluid, poison or other substance is brought into contact with the body. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... This article deals with the molecular aspects of ascorbic acid. ... A reducing agent (also called a reductant or reducer) is the element or a compound in a redox (reduction-oxidation) reaction (see electrochemistry) that reduces another species. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... // Dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) is an oxidized form of ascorbic acid. ... European Union Chemical hazard symbol for oxidizing agents Dangerous goods label for oxidizing agents Oxidizing agent placard An oxidizing agent (also called an oxidant or oxidizer) is A chemical compound that readily transfers oxygen atoms or A substance that gains electrons in a redox chemical reaction. ... An essential nutrient is a nutrient required for normal body functioning that cannot be synthesized by the body. ... Families Cebidae Aotidae Pitheciidae Atelidae Cercopithecidae Hylobatidae Hominidae The simians (infraorder Simiiformes) are the higher primates very common to most people: the monkeys and the apes, including humans. ... Subclasses & Infraclasses Subclass â€ Allotheria* Subclass Prototheria Subclass Theria Infraclass â€ Trituberculata Infraclass Metatheria Infraclass Eutheria For the folk-rock band see The Mammals. ... For other uses, see Guinea pig (disambiguation). ... â€œChiropteraâ€ redirects here. ...

The presence of ascorbate is required for a range of essential metabolic reactions in all animals and plants. It is made internally by almost all organisms, humans being the most well-known exception. It is widely known as the vitamin whose deficiency causes scurvy in humans.^[2]^[3]^[4] It is also widely used as a food additive. Structure of the coenzyme adenosine triphosphate, a central intermediate in energy metabolism. ... Biosynthesis is a phenomenon where chemical compounds are produced from simpler reagents. ... Retinol (one vitamer of Vitamin A) A vitamin is an organic compound required as a nutrient in tiny amounts by an organism. ... Scurvy (N.Lat. ... Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavor or improve its taste and appearance. ...

The pharmacophore of vitamin C is the ascorbate ion. In living organisms, ascorbate is an antioxidant, since it protects the body against oxidative stress,^[5] and is a cofactor in several vital enzymatic reactions.^[6] A pharmacophore is a three-dimensional substructure of a molecule that carries (phoros) the essential features responsible for a drugs (pharmacon) biological activity. ... This article is about the electrically charged particle. ... Space-filling model of the antioxidant metabolite glutathione. ... Oxidative stress is caused by an imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen and a biological systems ability to readily detoxify the reactive intermediates or easily repair the resulting damage. ... A cofactor is the following: In mathematics a cofactor is the minor of an element of a square matrix. ... Ribbon diagram of the enzyme TIM, surrounded by the space-filling model of the protein. ...

The uses and the daily requirement amounts of vitamin C are matters of on-going debate. People consuming diets rich in ascorbate from natural foods, such as fruits and vegetables, are healthier and have lower mortality from a number of chronic illnesses. However, a recent meta-analysis of 68 reliable antioxidant supplementation experiments involving a total of 232,606 individuals concluded that consuming additional ascorbate from supplements may not be as beneficial as thought.^[7]

Biological significance

Vitamin C is purely the L-enantiomer of ascorbate; the opposite D-enantiomer has no physiological significance. Both forms are mirror images of the same molecular structure. When L-ascorbate, which is a strong reducing agent, carries out its reducing function, it is converted to its oxidized form, L-dehydroascorbate.^[6] L-dehydroascorbate can then be reduced back to the active L-ascorbate form in the body by enzymes and glutathione.^[8] This article deals with the molecular aspects of ascorbic acid. ... In chemistry, enantiomers (from the Greek á¼Î½Î¬Î½Ï„Î¹Î¿Ï‚, opposite, and Î¼ÎÏÎ¿Ï‚, part or portion) are stereoisomers that are nonsuperimposable complete mirror images of each other, much as ones left and right hands are the same but opposite. ... In chemistry, enantiomers (from the Greek á¼Î½Î¬Î½Ï„Î¹Î¿Ï‚, opposite, and Î¼ÎÏÎ¿Ï‚, part or portion) are stereoisomers that are nonsuperimposable complete mirror images of each other, much as ones left and right hands are the same but opposite. ... The term chiral (pronounced ) is used to describe an object which is non-superimposable on its mirror image. ... A reducing agent (also called a reductant or reducer) is the element or a compound in a redox (reduction-oxidation) reaction (see electrochemistry) that reduces another species. ... ed|other uses|reduction}} Illustration of a redox reaction Redox (shorthand for reduction/oxidation reaction) describes all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation number (oxidation state) changed. ... ed|other uses|reduction}} Illustration of a redox reaction Redox (shorthand for reduction/oxidation reaction) describes all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation number (oxidation state) changed. ... // Dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) is an oxidized form of ascorbic acid. ... Ribbon diagram of the enzyme TIM, surrounded by the space-filling model of the protein. ... Glutathione (GSH) is a tripeptide. ...

L-ascorbate is a weak sugar acid structurally related to glucose which naturally occurs either attached to a hydrogen ion, forming ascorbic acid, or to a metal ion, forming a mineral ascorbate. A weak acid is an acid that does not fully ionize in solution; that is, if the acid was represented by the general formula HA, then in aqueous solution a significant amount of undissolved HA still remains. ... Sugar acids are monosaccharides that have had an -OH group oxidized to a carboxyl group. ... Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. ... Hydronium is the common name for the cation H3O+. Nomenclature According to IUPAC ion nomenclature, it should be referred to as oxonium. ... This article deals with the molecular aspects of ascorbic acid. ... This article is about metallic materials. ... Ascorbic acid Mineral ascorbates are salts of ascorbic acid (aka vitamin C). ...

Function

In humans, vitamin C is a highly effective antioxidant, acting to lessen oxidative stress, a substrate for ascorbate peroxidase,^[4] as well as an enzyme cofactor for the biosynthesis of many important biochemicals. Vitamin C acts as an electron donor for eight different enzymes:^[9] Space-filling model of the antioxidant metabolite glutathione. ... Oxidative stress is caused by an imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen and a biological systems ability to readily detoxify the reactive intermediates or easily repair the resulting damage. ... Ascorbate peroxidases are enzymes that detoxify peroxides such as hydrogen peroxide using ascorbate as a substrate. ... A cofactor is the following: In mathematics a cofactor is the minor of an element of a square matrix. ... Biosynthesis is a phenomenon where chemical compounds are produced from simpler reagents. ... An electron donor is a compound that gives up or donates an electron during cellular respiration, resulting in the release of energy. ... Ribbon diagram of the enzyme TIM, surrounded by the space-filling model of the protein. ...

Biological tissues that accumulate over 100 times the level in blood plasma of vitamin C are the adrenal glands, pituitary, thymus, corpus luteum, and retina.^[22] Those with 10 to 50 times the concentration present in blood plasma include the brain, spleen, lung, testicle, lymph nodes, liver, thyroid, small intestinal mucosa, leukocytes, pancreas, kidney and salivary glands. Tropocollagen triple helix. ... Hydroxylation is any chemical process that introduces one or more hydroxyl groups (-OH) into a compound (or radical) thereby oxidising it. ... Hydroxide is a polyatomic ion consisting of oxygen and hydrogen: OHâˆ’ It has a charge of âˆ’1. ... Proline is an Î±-amino acid with the chemical formula HO2CCH(NH[CH2)3]. L-Proline is one of the twenty DNA-encoded amino acids. ... Lysine is one of the 20 amino acids normally found in proteins. ... Prolyl hydroxylase (or procollagen-proline dioxygenase) is an enzyme involved in the production of collagen, acting to hydroxylate proline to hydroxyproline. ... Lysyl hydroxylase (or procollagen-lysine 5-dioxygenase) is an oxygenase enzyme associated with Ehlers-Danlos syndrome. ... Granulation tissue is the perfused, fibrous connective tissue that replaces a fibrin clot in healing wounds. ... f you all The blood vessels are part of the circulatory system and function to transport blood throughout the body. ... This article or section contains information that has not been verified and thus might not be reliable. ... Not to be confused with fats. ... In cell biology, a mitochondrion is an organelle found in the cells of most eukaryotes. ... Adenosine 5-triphosphate (ATP) is a multifunctional nucleotide that is most important as a molecular currency of intracellular energy transfer. ... Dopamine Î²-hydroxylase (DBH) is an enzyme that converts dopamine to norepinephrine: In the peripheral nervous system, it is located predominantly within sympathetic nerve vesicles, but it is also present in preganglionic motor nerve fibers of the vagus nerve. ... Norepinephrine (INN)(abbr. ... For other uses, see Dopamine (disambiguation). ... Amide functional group Amides possess a conjugated system spread over the O, C and N atoms, consisting of molecular orbitals occupied by delocalized electrons. ... Peptide hormones are a class of peptides that are secreted into the blood stream and have endocrine functions in living animals. ... Tyrosine (from the Greek tyros, meaning cheese, as it was first discovered in 1846 by German chemist Justus von Liebig in the protein casein from cheese[1][2]), 4-hydroxyphenylalanine, or 2-amino-3(4-hydroxyphenyl)-propanoic acid, is one of the 20 amino acids that are used by cells... Biological tissue is a collection of interconnected cells that perform a similar function within an organism. ... In mammals, the adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are the triangle-shaped endocrine glands that sit on top of the kidneys; their name indicates that position (ad-, near or at + -renes, kidneys). They are chiefly responsible for regulating the stress response through the synthesis of corticosteroids and catecholamines... Located at the base of the skull, the pituitary gland is protected by a bony structure called the sella turcica. ... Thymus, see Thyme. ... The corpus luteum (Latin for yellow body) is a small, temporary endocrine structure in animals. ... Human eye cross-sectional view. ... For other uses, see Brain (disambiguation). ... The spleen is an organ located in the abdomen, where it functions in the destruction of old red blood cells and holding a reservoir of blood. ... For the village in Tibet, see Lung, Tibet. ... Look up testes in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Lymph nodes are components of the lymphatic system. ... The liver is the largest internal organ in the human body, and is an organ present in vertebrates and some other animals. ... In biology the small intestine is the part of the gastrointestinal tract (gut) between the stomach and the large intestine and comprises the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. ... The mucous membranes (or mucosae; singular: mucosa) are linings of mostly endodermal origin, covered in epithelium, and are involved in absorption and secretion. ... White Blood Cells is also the name of a White Stripes album. ... The pancreas is a gland organ in the digestive and endocrine systems of vertebrates. ... The kidneys are the organs that filter wastes (such as urea) from the blood and excrete them, along with water, as urine. ... The salivary glands produce saliva, which keeps the mouth and other parts of the digestive system moist. ...

Biosynthesis

The vast majority of animals and plants are able to synthesize their own vitamin C, through a sequence of four enzyme-driven steps, which convert glucose to vitamin C.^[6] The glucose needed to produce ascorbate in the liver (in mammals and perching birds) is extracted from glycogen; ascorbate synthesis is a glycogenolysis-dependent process.^[23] In reptiles and birds the biosynthesis is carried out in the kidneys. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1046x1093, 147 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Ascorbic acid Vitamin C ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1046x1093, 147 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Ascorbic acid Vitamin C ... 3D (left and center) and 2D (right) representations of the terpenoid molecule atisane. ... For other uses, see Carbon (disambiguation). ... This article is about the chemical element and its most stable form, or dioxygen. ... This article is about the chemistry of hydrogen. ... Ribbon diagram of the enzyme TIM, surrounded by the space-filling model of the protein. ... Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. ... Orders Subclass Monotremata Monotremata Subclass Marsupialia Didelphimorphia Paucituberculata Microbiotheria Dasyuromorphia Peramelemorphia Notoryctemorphia Diprotodontia Subclass Placentalia Xenarthra Dermoptera Desmostylia Scandentia Primates Rodentia Lagomorpha Insectivora Chiroptera Pholidota Carnivora Perissodactyla Artiodactyla Cetacea Afrosoricida Macroscelidea Tubulidentata Hyracoidea Proboscidea Sirenia The mammals are the class of vertebrate animals primarily characterized by the presence of mammary... Families Many, see text A passerine is a bird of the giant order Passeriformes. ... Orders Crocodilia - Crocodilians scary crocodiles. ... For other meanings of bird, see bird (disambiguation). ... The kidneys are the organs that filter wastes (such as urea) from the blood and excrete them, along with water, as urine. ...

Among the animals that have lost the ability to synthesise vitamin C are simians (specifically the suborder haplorrhini), guinea pigs, a number of species of passerine birds (but not all of them), and in apparently many major families of bats and perhaps all of them. Humans have no enzymatic capability to manufacture vitamin C. The cause of this phenomenon is that the last enzyme in the synthesis process, L-gulonolactone oxidase, cannot be made by the listed animals because the gene for this enzyme, Pseudogene ΨGULO, is defective.^[24] The mutation has not been lethal because vitamin C is abundant in their food sources. It has been found that species with this mutation (including humans) have adapted a vitamin C recycling mechanism to compensate.^[25] Families Cebidae Aotidae Pitheciidae Atelidae Cercopithecidae Hylobatidae Hominidae The simians (infraorder Simiiformes) are the higher primates very common to most people: the monkeys and the apes, including humans. ... Families Tarsiidae Cebidae Aotidae Pitheciidae Atelidae Cercopithecidae Hylobatidae Hominidae The haplorrhines, the dry-nosed primates (the Greek name means simple-nosed), are members of the Haplorrhini clade: the prosimian tarsiers and all of the true simians (the monkeys and the apes, including humans). ... For other uses, see Guinea pig (disambiguation). ... Families Many, see text A passerine is a bird of the giant order Passeriformes. ... The effect of riboflavin deficiency on the activity of L-gulonolactone oxidase [L-gulono-gamma-lactone: oxygen 2-oxidoreductase, EC 1. ... A pseudogene is a nucleotide sequences that is similar to a normal gene, but is not expressed as a functional protein. ... For linguistic mutation, see Apophony. ...

Most simians consume the vitamin in amounts 10 to 20 times higher than that recommended by governments for humans.^[26] This discrepancy constitutes the basis of the controversy on current recommended dietary allowances. Families Cebidae Aotidae Pitheciidae Atelidae Cercopithecidae Hylobatidae Hominidae The simians (infraorder Simiiformes) are the higher primates very common to most people: the monkeys and the apes, including humans. ...

It has been noted that the loss of the ability to synthesize ascorbate strikingly parallels the evolutionary loss of the ability to break down uric acid. Uric acid and ascorbate are both strong reducing agents. This has led to the suggestion that in higher primates, uric acid has taken over some of the functions of ascorbate.^[27] Ascorbic acid can be oxidised (broken down) in the human body by the enzyme ascorbic acid oxidase. Uric acid (or urate) is an organic compound of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen with the formula C5H4N4O3. ... A reducing agent (also called a reductant or reducer) is the element or a compound in a redox (reduction-oxidation) reaction (see electrochemistry) that reduces another species. ...

An adult goat, a typical example of a vitamin C-producing animal, will manufacture more than 13,000 mg of vitamin C per day in normal health and the biosynthesis will increase "many fold under stress".^[28] Trauma or injury has also been demonstrated to use up large quantities of vitamin C in humans.^[29] Some microorganisms such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae have been shown to be able to synthesize vitamin C from simple sugars.^[30]^[31] This article is about the domestic species. ... A cluster of Escherichia coli bacteria magnified 10,000 times. ... Binomial name Meyen ex E.C. Hansen Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a species of budding yeast. ... Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates. ...

Deficiency

Scurvy is an avitaminosis resulting from lack of vitamin C, since without this vitamin, the synthesised collagen is too unstable to perform its function. Scurvy leads to the formation of liver spots on the skin, spongy gums, and bleeding from all mucous membranes. The spots are most abundant on the thighs and legs, and a person with the ailment looks pale, feels depressed, and is partially immobilized. In advanced scurvy there are open, suppurating wounds and loss of teeth and, eventually, death. The human body can store only a certain amount of vitamin C,^[32] and so the body soon depletes itself if fresh supplies are not consumed. Scurvy (N.Lat. ... Avitaminosis is any disease caused by chronic or long-term vitamin deficiency or caused by a defect in metabolic conversion, such as tryptophan to niacin. ... Tropocollagen triple helix. ... The mucous membranes (or mucosae; singular: mucosa) are linings of mostly endodermal origin, covered in epithelium, and are involved in absorption and secretion. ... Pus is a whitish-yellow or yellow substance produced during inflammatory responses of the body that can be found in regions of pyogenic bacterial infections. ... Types of teeth Molars are used for grinding up foods Carnassials are used for slicing food. ...

It has been shown that smokers who have diets poor in vitamin C are at a higher risk of lung born diseases than those smokers who have higher concentrations of Vitamin C in the blood. ^[33]

History of human understanding

The need to include fresh plant food or raw animal flesh in the diet to prevent disease was known from ancient times. Native peoples living in marginal areas incorporated this into their medicinal lore. For example, spruce needles were used in temperate zones in infusions, or the leaves from species of drought-resistant trees in desert areas. In 1536, the French explorer Jacques Cartier, exploring the St. Lawrence River, used the local natives' knowledge to save his men who were dying of scurvy. He boiled the needles of the arbor vitae tree to make a tea that was later shown to contain 50 mg of vitamin C per 100 grams.^[34]^[35] Image File history File links James_lind. ... Image File history File links James_lind. ... James Lind (1716 in Edinburgh â€“ 1794 in Gosport) was the pioneer of naval hygiene in the Royal Navy. ... -1... For other uses, see Jacques Cartier (disambiguation). ... a broat veiew of the St LAwrence River, with a Quebec City on a background The Saint Lawrence River (In French: fleuve Saint-Laurent) is a large south west-to-north east flowing river in the middle latitudes of North America, connecting the Great Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean. ... Species Thuja koraiensis Thuja occidentalis Thuja plicata Thuja standishii Thuja sutchuenensis Thuja (pronounced thoo-ya or thoo-ja) is a genus of coniferous trees in the Cupressaceae (cypress family). ...

Throughout history, the benefit of plant food to survive long sea voyages has been occasionally recommended by authorities. John Woodall, the first appointed surgeon to the British East India Company, recommended the preventive and curative use of lemon juice in his book "The Surgeon's Mate", in 1617. The Dutch writer, Johann Bachstrom, in 1734, gave the firm opinion that "scurvy is solely owing to a total abstinence from fresh vegetable food, and greens; which is alone the primary cause of the disease." Frontispiece of the 1639 edition of Military and Domestic Surgery by John Woodall. ... The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was the first joint-stock company (the Dutch East India Company was the first to issue public stock). ... This article is about the fruit. ... Johann Friedrich Bachstrom, (24 December 1688 - ? 1742) was a Dutch writer, scientist and Lutheran theologian who lived in Leyden. ...

While the earliest documented case of scurvy was described by Hippocrates around the year 400 BC, the first attempt to give scientific basis for the cause of this disease was by a ship's surgeon in the British Royal Navy, James Lind. Scurvy was common among those with poor access to fresh fruit and vegetables, such as remote, isolated sailors and soldiers. While at sea in May 1747, Lind provided some crew members with two oranges and one lemon per day, in addition to normal rations, while others continued on cider, vinegar, sulfuric acid or seawater, along with their normal rations. In the history of science this is considered to be the first occurrence of a controlled experiment comparing results on two populations of a factor applied to one group only with all other factors the same. The results conclusively showed that citrus fruits prevented the disease. Lind published his work in 1753 in his Treatise on the Scurvy. For other uses, see Hippocrates (disambiguation). ... This article is about the navy of the United Kingdom. ... James Lind (1716 in Edinburgh â€“ 1794 in Gosport) was the pioneer of naval hygiene in the Royal Navy. ... This article is about maritime crew. ... This article is about a military rank. ... Cider in a pint glass Cider (or cyder) is an alcoholic beverage made primarily from the juices of specially grown varieties of apples. ... Vinegar is sometimes infused with spices or herbsâ€”as here, with oregano. ... Sulfuric acid, (also known as sulphuric acid) H2SO4, is a strong mineral acid. ... Annual mean sea surface salinity for the World Ocean. ... Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by a global community of researchers making use of a body of techniques known as scientific methods, emphasizing the observation, experimentation and scientific explanation of real world phenomena. ...

Lind's work was slow to be noticed, partly because he gave conflicting evidence within the book, and partly because the British admiralty saw care for the well-being of crews as a sign of weakness. In addition, fresh fruit was very expensive to keep on board, whereas boiling it down to juice allowed easy storage but destroyed the vitamin (especially if boiled in copper kettles^[36]). Ship captains assumed wrongly that Lind's suggestions didn't work because those juices failed to cure scurvy. Download high resolution version (640x752, 112 KB)Ambersweet oranges, a new cold-resistant orange variety. ... Download high resolution version (640x752, 112 KB)Ambersweet oranges, a new cold-resistant orange variety. ... For other uses, see Citrus (disambiguation). ...

It was 1795 before the British navy adopted lemons or lime as standard issue at sea. Limes were more popular as they could be found in British West Indian Colonies, unlike lemons which weren't found in British Dominions, and were therefore more expensive. This practice led to the American use of the nickname "limey" to refer to the British. Captain James Cook had previously demonstrated and proven the principle of the advantages of carrying "Sour krout" on board, by taking his crews to the Hawaiian Islands and beyond without losing any of his men to scurvy^[37]. For this otherwise unheard of feat, the British Admiralty awarded him a medal. Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ... This article is about Dominions of the British Empire and of the Commonwealth of Nations. ... This article is about terms applied to people some of which are controversial. ... This article is about the British explorer. ... Map of the Hawaiian Islands, a chain of islands that stretches 1,500 mi (2,400 km) in a northwesterly direction from the southern tip of the Island of Hawaii. ...

The name "antiscorbutic" was used in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries as general term for those foods known to prevent scurvy, even though there was no understanding of the reason for this. These foods included but were not limited to: lemons, limes, and oranges; sauerkraut, cabbage, malt, and portable soup. Portable soup was a precursor of modern bouillon cubes and dehydrated food. ...

In 1907, Axel Holst and Theodor Frølich, two Norwegian physicians studying beriberi contracted aboard ship's crews in the Norwegian Fishing Fleet, wanted a small test mammal to substitute for the pigeons they used. They fed guinea pigs their test diet, which had earlier produced beriberi in their pigeons, and were surprised when scurvy resulted instead. Until that time scurvy had not been observed in any organism apart from humans, and had been considered an exclusively human disease. Axel Holst (September 6, 1860 in Christiania (present day Oslo) â€“ 1931 in Oslo) was a Norwegian professor of hygiene and bacteriology at the University of Oslo, known for his contributions to beriberi and scurvy. ... Beriberi is a nervous system ailment caused by thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency. ... Pigeon redirects here. ... For other uses, see Guinea pig (disambiguation). ...

Discovery of ascorbic acid

In 1912, the Polish-American biochemist Casimir Funk, while researching deficiency diseases, developed the concept of vitamins to refer to the non-mineral micro-nutrients which are essential to health. The name is a portmanteau of "vital", due to the vital role they play biochemically, and "amines" because Funk thought that all these materials were chemical amines. One of the "vitamines" was thought to be the anti-scorbutic factor, long thought to be a component of most fresh plant material. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (759x1022, 366 KB) Summary Portrait of Nobel Prize laurate Albert Szent-GyÃ¶rgyi, photo by J.W. McGuire of the National Institutes of Health, ca. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (759x1022, 366 KB) Summary Portrait of Nobel Prize laurate Albert Szent-GyÃ¶rgyi, photo by J.W. McGuire of the National Institutes of Health, ca. ... Emil Adolf von Behring was the first person to receive the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, for his work on the treatment of diphtheria. ... A Polish American is an American citizen of Polish descent. ... Kazimierz Funk (February 23, 1884 - January 19, 1967), commonly anglicized as Casimir Funk, was a Polish biochemist, generally credited with the first formulation of the concept of Vitamins in 1912, which he called vital amines or vitamines. ... Retinol (Vitamin A) Vitamins are nutrients required in very small amounts for essential metabolic reactions in the body [1]. The term vitamin does not encompass other essential nutrients such as dietary minerals, essential fatty acids, or essential amino acids. ... A portmanteau (IPA: ) is a word or morpheme that fuses two or more words or word parts to give a combined or loaded meaning. ...

In 1928 the Arctic anthropologist Vilhjalmur Stefansson attempted to prove his theory of how the Eskimos are able to avoid scurvy with almost no plant food in their diet, despite the disease striking European Arctic explorers living on similar high-meat diets. Stefansson theorised that the natives get their vitamin C from fresh meat that is minimally cooked. Starting in February 1928, for one year he and a colleague lived on an exclusively minimally-cooked meat diet while under medical supervision; they remained healthy. (Later studies done after vitamin C could be quantified in mostly-raw traditional food diets of the Yukon, Inuit, and Métís of the Northern Canada, showed that their daily intake of vitamin C averaged between 52 and 62 mg/day, an amount approximately the dietary reference intake (DRI), even at times of the year when little plant-based food were eaten.)^[38] Vilhjalmur Stefansson (Icelandic: VilhjÃ¡lmur StefÃ¡nsson / VilhjÃ¡lms StefÃ¡nssonar) (November 3, 1879 â€“ August 26, 1962) was a Canadian Arctic explorer and ethnologist. ... For other uses, see Eskimo (disambiguation). ... The Dietary Reference Intake is a system of nutrition recommendations from the Institute of Medicine of the USA National Academy (IOM). ...

From 1928 to 1933, the Hungarian research team of Joseph L Svirbely and Albert Szent-Györgyi and, independently, the American Charles Glen King, first isolated the anti-scorbutic factor, calling it "ascorbic acid" for its vitamin activity. Ascorbic acid turned out not to be an amine, or even to contain any nitrogen. For their accomplishment, Szent-Györgyi was awarded the 1937 Nobel Prize in Medicine.^[39] Albert Szent-GyÃ¶rgyi at the time of his appointment to the National Institutes of Health Albert Szent-GyÃ¶rgyi de NagyrÃ¡polt (September 16, 1893 â€“ October 22, 1986) was a Hungarian physiologist who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1937. ... Charles Glenn King (1896-1988) was born in Entiat, WA., and was a pioneer in the field of nutrition research. ... Emil Adolf von Behring was the first person to receive the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, for his work on the treatment of diphtheria. ...

Between 1933 and 1934, the British chemists Sir Walter Norman Haworth and Sir Edmund Hirst and, independently, the Polish chemist Tadeus Reichstein, succeeded in synthesizing the vitamin, making it the first to be artificially produced. This made possible the cheap mass-production of what was by then known as vitamin C. Only Haworth was awarded the 1937 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this work, but the "Reichstein process" retained Reichstein's name. Sir Walter Norman Haworth (March 19, 1883 – March 19, 1950) was a British chemist who is best known for his groundbreaking work on ascorbic acid (vitamin C). ... Sir Edmund Langley Hirst M.A., D.Sc. ... Tadeus Reichstein (July 20, 1897 - August 1, 1996) was a Polish Nobel Prize-winning chemist. ... This is a list of Nobel Prize laureates in Chemistry from 1901 to 2006. ...

In 1934 Hoffmann–La Roche became the first pharmaceutical company to mass-produce synthetic vitamin C, under the brand name of Redoxon. F. Hoffmannâ€“La Roche, Ltd. ... Redoxon is the brand name of the first artificially synthesised Vitamin C to be sold to the public. ...

In 1957 the American J.J. Burns showed that the reason some mammals were susceptible to scurvy was the inability of their liver to produce the active enzyme L-gulonolactone oxidase, which is the last of the chain of four enzymes which synthesize vitamin C.^[40]^[41] American biochemist Irwin Stone was the first to exploit vitamin C for its food preservative properties. He later developed the theory that humans possess a mutated form of the L-gulonolactone oxidase coding gene. The liver is the largest internal organ in the human body, and is an organ present in vertebrates and some other animals. ... Ribbon diagram of the enzyme TIM, surrounded by the space-filling model of the protein. ... The effect of riboflavin deficiency on the activity of L-gulonolactone oxidase [L-gulono-gamma-lactone: oxygen 2-oxidoreductase, EC 1. ... Dr. Irwin Stone (b. ...

Daily requirements

The North American Dietary Reference Intake recommends 90 milligrams per day and no more than 2 grams per day (2000 milligrams per day).^[42] Other related species sharing the same inability to produce vitamin C and requiring exogenous vitamin C consume 20 to 80 times this reference intake.^[43]^[44] There is continuing debate within the orthodox scientific community over the best dose schedule (the amount and frequency of intake) of vitamin C for maintaining optimal health in humans.^[45] It is generally agreed that a balanced diet without supplementation contains enough vitamin C to prevent scurvy in an average healthy adult, while those who are pregnant, smoke tobacco, or are under stress require slightly more.^[42] North American redirects here. ... The Dietary Reference Intake is a system of nutrition recommendations from the Institute of Medicine of the USA National Academy (IOM). ... To help compare different orders of magnitude, the following list describes various mass levels between 10âˆ’36 kg and 1053 kg. ...

High doses (thousands of milligrams) may result in diarrhea in healthy adults. Proponents of alternative medicine (specifically orthomolecular medicine)^[46] claim the onset of diarrhea to be an indication of where the body’s true vitamin C requirement lies, though this has yet to be clinically verified. In medicine, diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea (see spelling differences), refers to frequent loose or liquid bowel movements. ... Orthomolecular medicine and optimum nutrition are controversial medical and health approaches[1] that posit that many diseases and abnormalities result from various chemical imbalances or deficiencies and can be prevented, treated, or sometimes cured by achieving optimal levels of naturally occurring chemical substances, such as vitamins, dietary minerals, enzymes, antioxidants... In medicine, diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea (see spelling differences), refers to frequent loose or liquid bowel movements. ...

It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Daily values. ... The milligram (symbol mg) is an SI unit of mass. ... The milligram (symbol mg) is an SI unit of mass. ... The milligram (symbol mg) is an SI unit of mass. ... The milligram (symbol mg) is an SI unit of mass. ...

Government recommended intakes

Recommendations for vitamin C intake have been set by various national agencies:

The United States defined Tolerable Upper Intake Level for a 25-year-old male is 2,000 milligrams per day. The Food Standards Agency is a non-ministerial government department of the Government of the United Kingdom. ... WHO redirects here. ... President Harding and the National Academy of Sciences at the White House, Washington, DC, April 1921 The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) is a corporation in the United States whose members serve pro bono as advisers to the nation on science, engineering, and medicine. ... The Dietary Reference Intake is a system of nutrition recommendations from the Institute of Medicine of the USA National Academy (IOM). ...

Alternative recommendations on intakes

Some independent researchers have calculated the amount needed for an adult human to achieve similar blood serum levels as vitamin C synthesising mammals as follows:

The Linus Pauling Institute was established at Oregon State University in August 1996 under an agreement reached between OSU and the Linus Pauling Institute of Science and Medicine (located in California from 1973 to 1996). ... Roc Ordman (Full name Alfred B. Ordman) is an American biochemist and researcher into aging, life extention and the effects of free radicals on the body. ... In chemistry, radicals (often referred to as free radicals) are atomic or molecular species with unpaired electrons on an otherwise open shell configuration. ... The Vitamin C Foundation is a consortium of physicians and other practitioners, healthcare activists, and other concerned Individuals, as well as of health and nutrition oriented organizations and nutrient suppliers--all of whom are dedicated to promoting the extraordinary therapeutic value of vitamin C.[1] Official website ^ Vitamin C Foundation... Linus Carl Pauling (February 28, 1901 â€“ August 19, 1994) was an American scientist, peace activist, author and educator of German ancestry. ...

Vitamin C high dose arguments

There is a strong advocacy movement for large doses of vitamin C based on some in vitro and retrospective studies ^[53], though large, randomized clinical trials are still lacking. Many pro-vitamin C organizations promote usage levels well beyond the current Dietary Reference Intake. The movement is led by scientists and doctors such as Robert Cathcart, Ewan Cameron, Steve Hickey, Irwin Stone and the twice Nobel Prize laureate Linus Pauling and Dr Matthias Rath. Pauling's 1986 book How to Live Longer and Feel Better was a bestseller and advocated taking many grams per day orally. There is some scientific literature critical of governmental agency dose recommendations.^[45]^[54] The biological halflife for vitamin C is fairly short, about 30 minutes in blood plasma, a fact which high dose advocates say that mainstream researchers have failed to take into account. Researchers at the National Institutes of Health decided upon the current RDA based upon tests conducted 12 hours (24 half lives) after consumption. Mainstream medicine remains skeptical of these claims. It has been suggested that Dynamic Flow be merged into this article or section. ... In nutrition and CAM, megavitamin therapy makes use of large amounts of vitamins, often many times greater than the recommended dietary allowance (RDA), to treat many types of diseases. ... Orthomolecular medicine and optimum nutrition are controversial medical and health approaches[1] that posit that many diseases and abnormalities result from various chemical imbalances or deficiencies and can be prevented, treated, or sometimes cured by achieving optimal levels of naturally occurring chemical substances, such as vitamins, dietary minerals, enzymes, antioxidants... In vitro (Latin: within the glass) refers to the technique of performing a given experiment in a test tube, or, generally, in a controlled environment outside a living organism. ... Retrospective (from Latin retrospectare, look back) generally means to take a look back at events that already have taken place. ... The Dietary Reference Intake is a system of nutrition recommendations from the Institute of Medicine of the USA National Academy (IOM). ... Ewan Cameron (July 31, 1922 - March 21, 1991) was a medical doctor born in Glasgow, Scotland who worked with Linus Pauling on Vitamin C research. ... Dr. Irwin Stone (b. ... The Nobel Prize (Swedish: ) was established in Alfred Nobels will in 1895, and it was first awarded in Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature, and Peace in 1901. ... Linus Carl Pauling (February 28, 1901 â€“ August 19, 1994) was an American scientist, peace activist, author and educator of German ancestry. ... Matthias Rath, M.D. (born 1955 in Stuttgart, Germany) is a controversial German physician. ... The biological half life of a substance is the time required for half of that substance to be removed from an organism by either a physcial or a chemical process. ... National Institutes of Health Building 50 at NIH Clinical Center - Building 10 The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is an agency of the United States Ministry of Health and Human Services and is the primary agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical and health-related research. ...

Genetic rationales for high doses

Four gene products are necessary to manufacture vitamin C from glucose. The loss of activity of the gene for the last step, Pseudogene ΨGULO (GLO) the terminal enzyme responsible for manufacture of vitamin C, has occurred separately in the history of several species. The loss of this enzyme activity is responsible of inability of guinea pigs to enzymatically synthesize vitamin C, but this event happened independently of the loss in the haplorrhini suborder of primates, including humans. The remains of this non-functional gene with many mutations, is however still present in the genome of the guinea pigs and in primates, including humans.^[55]^[56] GLO activity has also been lost in all major families of bats, regardless of diet.^[57] In addition, the function of GLO appears to have been lost several times, and possibly re-acquired, in several lines of passerine birds, where ability to make vitamin C varies from species to species. ^[58] The effect of riboflavin deficiency on the activity of L-gulonolactone oxidase [L-gulono-gamma-lactone: oxygen 2-oxidoreductase, EC 1. ... For other uses, see Guinea pig (disambiguation). ... Families Tarsiidae Cebidae Aotidae Pitheciidae Atelidae Cercopithecidae Hylobatidae Hominidae The haplorrhines, the dry-nosed primates (the Greek name means simple-nosed), are members of the Haplorrhini clade: the prosimian tarsiers and all of the true simians (the monkeys and the apes, including humans). ... Families Many, see text A passerine is a bird of the giant order Passeriformes. ...

Loss of GLO activity in the primate order supposedly occurred about 63 million years ago, at about the time it split into the suborders haplorrhini (which lost the enzyme activity) and the more primitive strepsirrhini (which retained it). The haplorrhini ("simple nosed") primates, which cannot make vitamin C enzymatically, include the tarsiers and the simians (apes, monkeys and humans). The suborder strepsirrhini (bent or wet-nosed prosimians) which are still able to make vitamin C enzymatically, include lorises, galagos, pottos, and to some extent, lemurs. ^[59] Families 15, See classification A primate is any member of the biological order Primates, the group that contains all the species commonly related to the lemurs, monkeys, and apes, with the latter category including humans. ... Families Tarsiidae Cebidae Aotidae Pitheciidae Atelidae Cercopithecidae Hylobatidae Hominidae The haplorrhines, the dry-nosed primates (the Greek name means simple-nosed), are members of the Haplorrhini clade: the prosimian tarsiers and all of the true simians (the monkeys and the apes, including humans). ... Families Cheirogaleidae Lemuridae Lepilemuridae Indridae Daubentoniidae (Aye-aye) Lorisidae Galagidae The Strepsirrhini clade is one of the two suborders of primates. ... Prosimians are the most primitive extant primates; they represent forms that were ancestral to monkeys, apes and humans. ... Genera Loris Nycticebus For other uses, see Loris (disambiguation). ... For the desktop presence framework, see Galago (software). ... Binomial name (Statius MÃ¼ller, 1766) For other uses, see Potto (disambiguation). ... Superfamilies and Families Cheirogaleoidea Cheirogaleidae Lemuroidea Lemuridae Lepilemuridae Indriidae Lemurs make up the infraorder Lemuriformes and are members of a group of primates known as prosimians. ...

Stone^[60] and Pauling^[44] calculated, based on the diet of our primate cousins^[43] (similar to what our common descendants are likely to have consumed when the gene mutated), that the optimum daily requirement of vitamin C is around 2,300 milligrams for a human requiring 2,500 kcal a day. A group of organisms is said to have common descent if they have a common ancestor. ... The calorie is a unit of energy, in particular heat. ...

The established RDA has been criticized by Pauling to be one that will prevent acute scurvy, and is not necessarily the dosage for optimal health.^[52] In medicine, an acute disease is a disease with either or both of: a rapid onset; a short course (as opposed to a chronic course). ... Scurvy (N.Lat. ...

Therapeutic uses

Since its discovery vitamin C has been considered by some enthusiastic proponents a "universal panacea", although this led to suspicions by others of it being over-hyped.^[61] Other proponents of high dose vitamin C consider that if it is given "in the right form, with the proper technique, in frequent enough doses, in high enough doses, along with certain additional agents and for a long enough period of time,"^[62] it can prevent and, in many cases, cure, a wide range of common and/or lethal diseases, notably the common cold and heart disease,^[63] although the NIH considers there to be "fair scientific evidence against this use."^[64] Some proponents issued controversial statements involving it being a cure for AIDS,^[65] bird flu, and SARS.^[66]^[67]^[68] It has been suggested that Dynamic Flow be merged into this article or section. ... In nutrition and CAM, megavitamin therapy makes use of large amounts of vitamins, often many times greater than the recommended dietary allowance (RDA), to treat many types of diseases. ... Orthomolecular medicine and optimum nutrition are controversial medical and health approaches[1] that posit that many diseases and abnormalities result from various chemical imbalances or deficiencies and can be prevented, treated, or sometimes cured by achieving optimal levels of naturally occurring chemical substances, such as vitamins, dietary minerals, enzymes, antioxidants... The panacea (IPA ), named after the Greek goddess of healing, Panacea, was supposed to be a remedy that would cure all diseases and prolong life indefinitely. ... Acute viral nasopharyngitis, or acute coryza, usually known as the common cold, is a highly contagious, viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory system, primarily caused by picornaviruses or coronaviruses. ... Heart disease is an umbrella term for a number of different diseases which affect the heart and as of 2007 it is the leading cause of death in the United States,[1] and England and Wales. ... For other uses, see AIDS (disambiguation). ... Influenza A virus subtype H5N1, also known as A(H5N1) or simply H5N1, is a subtype of the Influenza A virus which can cause illness in humans and many other animal species. ... Sars may refer to any of the following: Severe acute respiratory syndrome, commonly abbreviated as SARS Michael Sars, a Norwegian biologist, father of Georg Sars Georg Sars, a Norwegian biologist, son of Michael Sars Special Administrative Regions, commonly abbreviated as SARs Sars, Perm Krai, an urban settlement in Perm Krai...

Probably the most controversial issue, the putative role of ascorbate in the management of AIDS, is still unresolved, more than 16 years after a study published in the Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences (USA) showing that non toxic doses of ascorbate suppress HIV replication in vitro.^[69] Other studies expanded on those results, but still, no large scale trials have yet been conducted.^[70]^[71]^[72] The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, usually referred to as PNAS, is the official journal of the United States National Academy of Sciences. ... Species Human immunodeficiency virus 1 Human immunodeficiency virus 2 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS, a condition in humans in which the immune system begins to fail, leading to life-threatening opportunistic infections). ...

In an animal model of lead intoxication, vitamin C demonstrated "protective effects" on lead-induced nerve and muscle abnormalities^[73] In smokers, blood lead levels declined by an average of 81% when supplemented with 1000 mg of vitamin C, while 200 mg were ineffective, suggesting that vitamin C supplements may be an "economical and convenient" approach to reduce lead levels in the blood.^[74] The Journal of the American Medical Association published a study which concluded, based on an analysis of blood lead levels in the subjects of the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, that the independent, inverse relationship between lead levels and vitamin C in the blood, if causal, would "have public health implications for control of lead toxicity".^[75] A dietary supplement is intended to supply nutrients, (vitamins, minerals, fatty acids or amino acids) that are missing or not consumed in sufficient quantity in a persons diet. ... JAMA, published continuously since in 1883, is an international peer-reviewed general medical journal published 48 times per year. ...

Vitamin C has limited popularity as a treatment for autism spectrum symptoms. A 1993 study of 18 children with ASD found some symptoms reduced after treatment with vitamin C,^[76] but these results have not been replicated.^[77] Small clinical trials have found that vitamin C might improve the sperm count, sperm motility, and sperm morphology in infertile men^[78], or improve immune function related to the prevention and treatment of age-associated diseases.^[79] However, to date, no large clinical trials have verified these findings. The autism spectrum, also called autism spectrum disorders (ASD) or autism spectrum conditions (ASC), with the word autistic sometimes replacing autism, is a spectrum of psychological conditions characterized by widespread abnormalities of social interactions and communication, as well as severely restricted interests and highly repetitive behavior. ... The sperm count is a measure of fertility in a man. ... Age-associated diseases are diseases that increase in frequency and intensity as the age of an organism increases. ...

A preliminary study published in the Annals of Surgery found that the early administration of antioxidant supplementation using α-tocopherol and ascorbic acid reduces the incidence of organ failure and shortens ICU length of stay in this cohort of critically ill surgical patients.^[80] More research on this topic is pending.

Dehydroascorbic acid, the main form of oxidized Vitamin C in the body, was shown to reduce neurological deficits and mortality following stroke, due to its ability to cross the blood-brain barrier, while "the antioxidant ascorbic acid (AA) or vitamin C does not penetrate the blood-brain barrier".^[81] In this study published by the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences in 2001, the authors concluded that such "a pharmacological strategy to increase cerebral levels of ascorbate in stroke has tremendous potential to represent the timely translation of basic research into a relevant therapy for thromboembolic stroke in humans". No such "relevant therapies" are available yet and no clinical trials have been planned. For other uses, see Stroke (disambiguation). ... The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, usually referred to as PNAS, is the official journal of the United States National Academy of Sciences. ...

In January 2007 the US Food and Drug Administration approved a Phase I toxicity trial to determine the safe dosage of intravenous vitamin C as a possible cancer treatment for "patients who have exhausted all other conventional treatment options."^[82] Additional studies over several years would be needed to demonstrate whether it is effective.^[83] FDA redirects here. ...

In February 2007, an uncontrolled study of 39 terminal cancer patients showed that, on subjective questionnaires, patients reported an improvement in health, cancer symptoms, and daily function after administration of high-dose intravenous vitamin C.^[84] The authors concluded that "Although there is still controversy regarding anticancer effects of vitamin C, the use of vitamin C is considered a safe and effective therapy to improve the quality of life of terminal cancer patients".

Vitamin C has been shown to lower IOP in glaucoma patients when taken in massive amounts according to the September 2007 issue of GLEAMS.

Testing for ascorbate levels in the body

Simple tests use DCPIP to measure the levels of vitamin C in the urine and in serum or blood plasma. However these reflect recent dietary intake rather than the level of vitamin C in body stores.^[6] Reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography is used for determining the storage levels of vitamin C within lymphocytes and tissue. This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... This article is about the urine of animals generally. ... Look up Serum in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Blood plasma is the liquid component of blood, in which the blood cells are suspended. ... High-performance liquid chromatography (or High pressure liquid chromatography, HPLC) is a form of column chromatography used frequently in biochemistry and analytical chemistry to separate, identify, and quantify compounds. ... A scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of a single human lymphocyte. ... Biological tissue is a group of cells that perform a similar function. ...

It has been observed that while serum or blood plasma levels follow the circadian rhythm or short term dietary changes, those within tissues themselves are more stable and give a better view of the availability of ascorbate within the organism. However, very few hospital laboratories are adequately equipped and trained to carry out such detailed analyses, and require samples to be analyzed in specialized laboratories.^[85]^[86] A circadian rhythm is an approximate daily periodicity, a roughly-24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioral processes of living beings, including plants, animals, fungi and cyanobacteria. ...

Adverse effects

Common side-effects

Relatively large doses of vitamin C may cause indigestion, particularly when taken on an empty stomach. Indigestion is a condition that is frequently caused by eating too fast, especially by eating high-fat foods quickly. ...

When taken in large doses, vitamin C causes diarrhea in healthy subjects. In one trial, doses up to 6 grams of ascorbic acid were given to 29 infants, 93 children of preschool and school age, and 20 adults for more than 1400 days. With the higher doses, toxic manifestations were observed in five adults and four infants. The signs and symptoms in adults were nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, flushing of the face, headache, fatigue and disturbed sleep. The main toxic reactions in the infants were skin rashes.^[87] On the other hand, Cathcart has demonstrated that sick patients, with influenza and cancer for example, do not suffer any adverse effects whatsoever until the dosage is raised to fairly high levels such as 100 grams or higher.^[88] In medicine, diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea (see spelling differences), refers to frequent loose or liquid bowel movements. ...

Possible side-effects

As vitamin C enhances iron absorption^[89], iron poisoning can become an issue to people with rare iron overload disorders, such as haemochromatosis. A genetic condition that results in inadequate levels of the enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD), can cause sufferers to develop hemolytic anemia after ingesting specific oxidizing substances, such as very large dosages of vitamin C.^[90] Iron poisoning is caused by an excess of iron in the blood. ... In medicine, iron overload disorders are diseases caused by the accumulation of iron in the body. ... Haemochromatosis, also spelled hemochromatosis, is a hereditary disease characterized by improper dietary iron metabolism (making it an iron overload disorder), which causes the accumulation of iron in a number of body tissues. ... RNA expression pattern Orthologs Human Mouse Entrez Ensembl Uniprot Refseq Location Pubmed search Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) is an enzyme in the pentose phosphate pathway (see image), a metabolic pathway that supplies reducing energy to cells (most notably erythrocytes) by maintaining the level of the co-enzyme nicotinamide adenine... Hemolytic anemia is anemia due to hemolysis, the abnormal breakdown of red blood cells either in the blood vessels (intravascular hemolysis) or elsewhere in the body (extravascular). ...

For decades, large doses of vitamin C have been speculated to trigger oxalate formation and increase absorption of dietary oxalate, possibly causing kidney stones.^[91] However, this speculation may not be justified since there is no clear relationship between excess ascorbic acid intake and kidney stone formation. ^[92] An oxalate (called also: ethanedioate) is a salt or ester of oxalic acid. ... â€œBladder stoneâ€ redirects here. ... This article deals with the molecular aspects of ascorbic acid. ... â€œBladder stoneâ€ redirects here. ...

In a study conducted on rats, during the first month of pregnancy, high doses of vitamin C may suppress the production of progesterone from the corpus luteum.^[93] Progesterone, necessary for the maintenance of a pregnancy, is produced by the corpus luteum for the first few weeks, until the placenta is developed enough to produce its own source. By blocking this function of the corpus luteum, high doses of vitamin C (1000+ mg) are theorized to induce an early miscarriage. Progesterone is a C-21 steroid hormone involved in the female menstrual cycle, pregnancy (supports gestation) and embryogenesis of humans and other species. ... The corpus luteum (Latin for yellow body) is a small, temporary endocrine structure in animals. ...

In a group of spontaneously aborting women at the end of the first trimester, the mean values of vitamin C were significantly higher in the aborting group. However, the authors do state: 'This could not be interpreted as an evidence of causal association.'^[94]

However, in a previous study of 79 women with threatened, previous spontaneous, or habitual abortion, Javert and Stander (1943) had 91% success with 33 patients who received vitamin C together with bioflavinoids and vitamin K (only three abortions), whereas all of the 46 patients who did not receive the vitamins aborted. ^[95]

Chance of overdose

As discussed previously, vitamin C exhibits remarkably low toxicity. The LD₅₀ (the dose that will kill 50% of a population) in rats is generally accepted to be 11.9 grams per kilogram of body weight when taken orally.^[36] The LD₅₀ in humans remains unknown, owing to medical ethics that preclude experiments which would put patients at risk of harm. However, as with all substances tested in this way, the LD₅₀ is taken as a guide to its toxicity in humans and no data to contradict this has been found. An LD50 test being administered In toxicology, the LD50 or colloquially semilethal dose of a particular substance is a measure of how much constitutes a lethal dose. ... Medical ethics is primarily a field of applied ethics, the study of moral values and judgments as they apply to medicine. ...

Linus Pauling claims that there is no lethal dose of vitamin C.^{[citation needed]} No one has ever died from taking vitamin C.

Natural and artificial dietary sources

The richest natural sources are fruits and vegetables, and of those, the camu camu fruit and the Kakadu plum contain the highest concentration of the vitamin. It is also present in some cuts of meat, especially liver. Vitamin C is the most widely taken nutritional supplement and is available in a variety of forms, including tablets, drink mixes, crystals in capsules or naked crystals. Rose hips (Rosa canina) - photo User:MPF File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Rose hips (Rosa canina) - photo User:MPF File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Dog Rose showing the bright red hips The rose hip, also called the rose haw, is the pomeaceous fruit of the rose plant. ... Binomial name Myrciaria dubia (H.B.K.) Mc Vaugh. ... Binomial name Terminalia ferdinandiana Exell The billygoat plum (Terminalia ferdinandiana), also called the Kakadu plum or murunga, is the name of an Australian fruit and the tree which bears it. ... In the United States, a dietary supplement is defined under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994 as a product taken by the mouth that contains a dietary ingredient that is intended as a supplement to the diet. ...

Vitamin C is absorbed by the intestines using a sodium-ion dependent channel. It is transported through the intestine via both glucose-sensitive and glucose-insensitive mechanisms. The presence of large quantities of sugar either in the intestines or in the blood can slow absorption.^[96]

Plant sources

While plants are generally a good source of vitamin C, the amount in foods of plant origin depends on: the precise variety of the plant, the soil condition, the climate in which it grew, the length of time since it was picked, the storage conditions, and the method of preparation.^[97]

The following table is approximate and shows the relative abundance in different raw plant sources.^[98]^[99]^[100] As some plants were analyzed fresh while others were dried (thus, artifactually increasing concentration of individual constituents like vitamin C), the data are subject to potential variation and difficulties for comparison. The amount is given in milligrams per 100 grams of fruit or vegetable and is a rounded average from multiple authoritative sources:

Binomial name L. This article is about the fruit. ... For other uses, see Strawberry (disambiguation). ... Binomial name (L.) Osbeck[1] Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ... This article is about the fruit. ... For other uses, see Melon (disambiguation). ... Cauliflower within Brassica oleracea, in the family Brassicaceae. ... Binomial name L. Allium sativum L., commonly known as garlic, is a species in the onion family Alliaceae. ... Binomial name Macfad. ... Cultivated raspberries The raspberry (plural, raspberries) is the edible fruit of a number of species of the genus Rubus. ... Binomial name Citrus reticulata Blanco For other uses, see Tangerine (disambiguation). ... Binomial name The Mandarin orange or mandarin (ç“¯æŸ‘) is a small citrus tree (Citrus reticulata) with fruit resembling the orange. ... The fruit of Passiflora edulis Passion fruit (Portuguese: Maracuj ) comes from passion flower vines, plants of the genus Passiflora, native to tropical and sub-tropical America. ... Binomial name Spinacia oleracea L. Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ... Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ... Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ... Species About 35 species, including: Mangifera altissima Mangifera applanata Mangifera caesia Mangifera camptosperma Mangifera casturi Mangifera decandra Mangifera foetida Mangifera gedebe Mangifera griffithii Mangifera indica Mangifera kemanga Mangifera laurina Mangifera longipes Mangifera macrocarpa Mangifera mekongensis Mangifera odorata Mangifera pajang Mangifera pentandra Mangifera persiciformis Mangifera quadrifida Mangifera siamensis Mangifera similis Mangifera... For other uses, see Potato (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Melon (disambiguation). ... â€œCranberriesâ€ redirects here. ... For other uses, see Tomato (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Blueberry (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Pineapple (disambiguation). ... Species See text Pawpaw (Asimina) is a genus of eight or nine species of small trees with large leaves and fruit, native to eastern North America. ... This article is about the fruits of the genus Vitis. ... Binomial name Prunus armeniaca L. For other uses, see Apricot (disambiguation). ... Species See text. ... For the political designation, see Eco-socialism. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... This article is about the cultivated vegetable. ... Binomial name Mill. ... Species - Southern Crab - Siberian Crabapple - Sweet Crabapple - Apple - Japanese Crabapple - Oregon Crab - Chinese Crabapple - Prairie Crab - Asian Wild Apple - European Wild Apple Malus, the apples, is a genus of about 30-35 species of small deciduous trees or shrubs in the family Rosaceae, including most importantly the domesticated Orchard or... For other uses, see Cherry (disambiguation). ... Binomial name (L.) Batsch Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ... This article is about the fruit. ... This article is about the fruit. ... A beet (called beetroot in the United Kingdom and its former colonies, as well as table beet, garden beet, blood turnip or red beet) is a plant of the genus Beta of which both the leaves and root are edible. ... Species About 30 species; see text For other uses, see Pear (disambiguation). ... Binomial name L. Lettuce and chicory output in 2005 Vit. ... This article is about the fruit. ... Aubergine redirects here. ... Species About 800, including: Ficus altissima Ficus americana Ficus aurea Ficus benghalensis- Indian Banyan Ficus benjamina- Weeping Fig Ficus broadwayi Ficus carica- Common Fig Ficus citrifolia Ficus coronata Ficus drupacea Ficus elastica Ficus godeffroyi Ficus grenadensis Ficus hartii Ficus lyrata Ficus macbrideii Ficus macrophylla- Moreton Bay Fig Ficus microcarpa- Chinese... For other uses, see Bilberry (disambiguation). ... Binomial name E. Mey The horned melon, also called melano, African horned cucumber or melon, jelly melon, hedged gourd, English tomato, or kiwano, is a vine of African origin, grown for its fruit, which looks like an oval melon with horns, and is very decorative. ... Species Mespilus canescens Mespilus germanica Common-Medlar flowers Medlar fruit, cv. ...

Animal sources

The overwhelming majority of species of animals and plants synthesise their own vitamin C, making some, but not all, animal products, sources of dietary vitamin C. Image File history File links Goat. ... Image File history File links Goat. ...

Vitamin C is most present in the liver and least present in the muscle. Since muscle provides the majority of meat consumed in the western human diet, animal products are not a reliable source of the vitamin. Vitamin C is present in mother's milk and, in lower amounts, in raw cow's milk, with pasteurized milk containing only trace amounts.^[101] All excess Vitamin C is disposed of through the urinary system. Suckling redirects here. ... A glass of cows milk. ... Pasteurization is the process of heating food for the purpose of killing harmful organisms such as bacteria, viruses, protozoa, molds, and yeasts. ...

The following table shows the relative abundance of vitamin C in various foods of animal origin, given in milligram of vitamin C per 100 grams of food:

For the anatomical feature, see calf muscle. ... The liver is the largest internal organ in the human body, and is an organ present in vertebrates and some other animals. ... For other uses, see Beef (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Oyster (disambiguation). ... COD may refer to many different topics, including: Cash on delivery Completion of discharge, shipping College of DuPage, a public Junior College with campuses in the suburbs of Chicago Call of Duty (series), a series of computer games Canadian Oxford Dictionary Carrier onboard delivery Catastrophic optical damage, a failure mode... This article is about fish eggs. ... For other uses, see Pork (disambiguation). ... Sheep redirects here. ... For other uses, see Brain (disambiguation). ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... The heart and lungs, from an older edition of Grays Anatomy. ... For other uses, see Tongue (disambiguation). ... Suckling redirects here. ...

Food preparation

Vitamin C chemically decomposes under certain conditions, many of which may occur during the cooking of food. Normally, boiling water at 100°C is not hot enough to cause any significant destruction of the nutrient, which only decomposes at 190°C, ^[36] despite popular opinion. However, pressure cooking, roasting, frying and grilling food is more likely to reach the decomposition temperature of vitamin C. Longer cooking times also add to this effect, as will copper food vessels, which catalyse the decomposition.^[36] Chemical decomposition or analysis is the fragmentation of a chemical compound into elements or smaller compounds. ... â€œPressure cookerâ€ redirects here. ... Food cooking on a charcoal grill Grilling is a form of cooking that involves direct heat. ... The Decomposition Temperature of a substance is the temperature at which the substance decomposes into smaller substances or into its constituent atoms. ... In chemistry and biology, catalysis (in Greek meaning to annul) is the acceleration of the rate of a chemical reaction by means of a substance, called a catalyst, that is itself unchanged chemically by the overall reaction. ...

Another cause of vitamin C being lost from food is leaching, where the water-soluble vitamin dissolves into the cooking water, which is later poured away and not consumed. However, vitamin C doesn't leach in all vegetables at the same rate; research shows broccoli seems to retain more than any other.^[102] Research has also shown that fresh-cut fruits don't lose significant nutrients when stored in the refrigerator for a few days.^[103] Leaching may refer to: Leaching (agriculture) Leaching (chemical science) Leaching (metallurgy) Dump leaching Heap leaching Tank leaching Leaching (pedology) Bioleaching Parboiling, also known as leaching Categories: ... Broccoli is a plant of the Cabbage family, Brassicaceae (formerly Cruciferae). ...

Vitamin C supplements

Vitamin C is the most widely taken dietary supplement.^[104] It is available in many forms including caplets, tablets, capsules, drink mix packets, in multi-vitamin formulations, in multiple antioxidant formulations, and crystalline powder. Timed release versions are available, as are formulations containing bioflavonoids such as quercetin, hesperidin and rutin. Tablet and capsule sizes range from 25 mg to 1500 mg. Vitamin C (as ascorbic acid) crystals are typically available in bottles containing 300 g to 1 kg of powder (a teaspoon of vitamin C crystals equals 5,000 mg). Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1944x2592, 3165 KB) I, the creator of this work, hereby grant the permission to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1944x2592, 3165 KB) I, the creator of this work, hereby grant the permission to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1. ... Redoxon is the brand name of the first artificially synthesised Vitamin C to be sold to the public. ... Hoffmann-La Roche, Ltd. ... A bioflavonoid is any one of a group of biologically active substances found in plants. ...

Artificial modes of synthesis

Vitamin C is produced from glucose by two main routes. The Reichstein process, developed in the 1930s, uses a single pre-fermentation followed by a purely chemical route. The modern two-step fermentation process, originally developed in China in the 1960s, uses additional fermentation to replace part of the later chemical stages. Both processes yield approximately 60% vitamin C from the glucose feed.^[105] Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. ... Tadeusz Reichstein (July 20, 1897 â€“ August 1, 1996) was a Polish-born Swiss Nobel Prize-winning chemist. ... For other uses, see Fermentation. ...

Research is underway at the Scottish Crop Research Institute in the interest of creating a strain of yeast that can synthesise vitamin C in a single fermentation step from galactose, a technology expected to reduce manufacturing costs considerably.^[30] The Scottish Crop Research Institute or SCRI is a research institution dedicated to research in crop science. ... Galactose (also called brain sugar) is a type of sugar found in dairy products, in sugar beets and other gums and mucilages. ...

World production of synthesised vitamin C is currently estimated at approximately 110,000 tonnes annually. Main producers today are BASF/Takeda, DSM, Merck and the China Pharmaceutical Group Ltd. of the People's Republic of China. China is slowly becoming the major world supplier as its prices undercut those of the US and European manufacturers.^[106] This article is about the German chemical company. ... DSM (in full Koninklijke DSM N.V., or Royal DSM N.V.) is a multinational chemicals company. ... Merck KGaA is a German based pharmaceutical company. ...

See also

C. Alan B. Clemetson MD, F.R.C.O.G., F.R.C.S.(C), F.A.C.O.G. (31 October 1923 â€“ 30 August 2006) was a medical doctor, scientist and researcher. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Evolution of dietary antioxidants. ...

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A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... University of Helsinki is not to be confused with Helsinki University of Technology. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 52nd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 213th day of the year (214th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 215th day of the year (216th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 142nd day of the year (143rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 167th day of the year (168th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... For other uses, see Guardian. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 134th day of the year (135th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 52nd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 52nd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... This article is being considered for deletion in accordance with Wikipedias deletion policy. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 96th day of the year (97th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 214th day of the year (215th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 103rd day of the year (104th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 66th day of the year (67th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 66th day of the year (67th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 66th day of the year (67th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 66th day of the year (67th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Washington State University (WSU) is a major public research university in Pullman, Washington. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 59th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 56th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 51st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 293rd day of the year (294th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 51st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Contents

Biological significance

Function

Biosynthesis

Deficiency

History of human understanding

Discovery of ascorbic acid

Daily requirements

Government recommended intakes

Alternative recommendations on intakes

Vitamin C high dose arguments

Genetic rationales for high doses

Therapeutic uses

Testing for ascorbate levels in the body

Adverse effects

Common side-effects

Possible side-effects

Chance of overdose

Natural and artificial dietary sources

Plant sources

Animal sources

Food preparation

Vitamin C supplements

Artificial modes of synthesis

See also

References

Further reading

External links

Contents

Biological significance GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");

Function

Biosynthesis

Deficiency

History of human understanding

Discovery of ascorbic acid

Daily requirements

Government recommended intakes

Alternative recommendations on intakes

Vitamin C high dose arguments

Genetic rationales for high doses

Therapeutic uses

Testing for ascorbate levels in the body

Adverse effects

Common side-effects

Possible side-effects

Chance of overdose

Natural and artificial dietary sources

Plant sources

Animal sources

Food preparation

Vitamin C supplements

Artificial modes of synthesis

See also

References

Further reading

External links

Biological significance