In the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), the western theater was the area of conflict west of the Appalachian Mountains, the region which became the Northwest Territory of the United States as well as the states of Kentucky and Tennessee. The western war was fought primarily between American Indians with their British allies in Detroit, and American settlers south and east of the Ohio River. Combatants United States France Spanish Empire Dutch Republic Oneida Tuscarora Polish volunteers Quebec volunteers Prussian volunteers Kingdom of Great Britain Iroquois Confederacy Hessian mercenaries Loyalists Commanders George Washington Nathanael Greene Gilbert de La Fayette Comte de Rochambeau Bernardo de Gálvez Tadeusz KoÅ›ciuszko Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben King George... Capture of FtSack The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... Carl D. Perkins Bridge in Portsmouth, Ohio with Ohio River and Scioto River tributary on right. ... The Great Lakes states of the U.S. are colored red in this map. ... Native Americans (also Indians, Aboriginal Peoples, American Indians, First Nations, Alaskan Natives, Amerindians, or Indigenous Peoples of America) are the indigenous inhabitants of The Americas prior to the European colonization, and their modern descendants. ... The overall Continental Army of the American Revolutionary War was organized into six departments for command and administrative purposes. ... Clark as painted by Matthew Harris Jouett in 1825 George Rogers Clark (November 19, 1752 – February 13, 1818) was the preeminent American military leader on the northwestern frontier during the American Revolutionary War. ... The Ohio Historical Societys marker at the Colonel Crawford Burn Site Monument in Wyandot County, Ohio. ... Temporary grave of an American machine-gunner during the Battle of Normandy. ... Henry Hamilton (c. ... Balian of Ibelin surrendering the city of Jerusalem to Saladin, from Les Passages faits Outremer par les Français contre les Turcs et autres Sarrasins et Maures outremarins, ca. ... Arent Schuyler DePeyster (27 June 1736 - 26 November 1822) was a British military officer best known for his term as commandant of the British controlled Fort Michilimackinac and Fort Detroit during the American Revolution. ... Blackfish (c. ... Temporary grave of an American machine-gunner during the Battle of Normandy. ... Statue of Hopocan (Captain Pipe) in Barberton, Ohio Captain Pipe (Hopocan) was a chief of the Delaware Lenape Indians and a member of the Wolf Clan. ... Combatants Kentucky settlers Shawnees and allies Commanders Daniel Boone, Richard Callaway, William Bailey Smith Blackfish, Antoine Dagneaux de Quindre, Moluntha Strength 135 settlers (30–40 gunmen) 444 Native Americans 12 Detroit militia Casualties 2 killed 4 wounded 37 killed unknown wounded The Siege of Boonesborough took place in September 1778... Combatants Illinois Regiment, Illinois militia Great Britain, Detroit militia, American Indians Commanders George Rogers Clark, Joseph Bowman, Leonard Helm Henry Hamilton #, Chevalier de Rocheblave #, Egushawa Strength 180 30 regulars, 60 Indians, 145 militia The Illinois campaign was a series of events in the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) in which... Fort Laurens was an American Revolutionary War fort in what is now the U.S. state of Ohio. ... The Battle of Saint Louis (Spanish San Luis) was an unsuccessful British-led attack on the Spanish town of St. ... Birds invasion of Kentucky during the American Revolutionary War was just one phase of an extensive series of operations planned by the British in 1780, whereby the entire West, from Canada to Florida, was to be swept clear of both Spaniards and colonists. ... Colonel Archibald Andrew Lochry (Lockrees/Lochry/Lockery/Loughry/Loughrey) (1733-1781) was a colonial American military officer whose command ended in disaster when he and nearly every member of his force were killed or captured by Mohawk forces led by George Girty (brother of Simon Girty) and under the command... The Long Run Massacre occurred on September 13, 1781 at the intersection of Floyds Fork creek with the Falls Trace, a trail, in what is now eastern Jefferson County, Kentucky. ... The Gnadenhütten massacre (8 March 1782) was a mass murder of nearly 100 Native Americans (mostly women and children) by American militiamen during the American Revolutionary War. ... Tragically, the American Colonel Crawford was horrifically killed after losing this intense battle against the Three Fires Confederation and their allies. ... Illustration of the women of Bryan Station getting water while Native Americans, who are about to besiege the settlement, watch. ... Combatants Kentucky militia (United States) Great Britain, American Indians Commanders John Todd † Stephen Trigg † Daniel Boone William Caldwell Alexander McKee Simon Girty Strength 182 militiamen 50 rangers 300 natives Casualties 72 killed, 11 captured about 11 killed The Battle of Blue Licks was fought on August 19, 1782, and was... Combatants United States France Spanish Empire Dutch Republic Oneida Tuscarora Polish volunteers Quebec volunteers Prussian volunteers Kingdom of Great Britain Iroquois Confederacy Hessian mercenaries Loyalists Commanders George Washington Nathanael Greene Gilbert de La Fayette Comte de Rochambeau Bernardo de Gálvez Tadeusz KoÅ›ciuszko Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben King George... Appalachians in North Carolina The Appalachian Mountains (French: les Appalaches) are a vast system of mountains in eastern North America. ... The Northwest Territory, also known as the Old Northwest and the Territory North West of the Ohio, was a governmental region within the early United States. ... Official language(s) English[1] Capital Frankfort Largest city Louisville Area  Ranked 37th  - Total 40,444 sq mi (104,749 km²)  - Width 140 miles (225 km)  - Length 379 miles (610 km)  - % water 1. ... Official language(s) English Capital Nashville Largest city Memphis Largest metro area Nashville Area  Ranked 36th  - Total 42,169 sq mi (109,247 km²)  - Width 120 miles (195 km)  - Length 440 miles (710 km)  - % water 2. ... Native Americans (also Indians, Aboriginal Peoples, American Indians, First Nations, Alaskan Natives, Amerindians, or Indigenous Peoples of America) are the indigenous inhabitants of The Americas prior to the European colonization, and their modern descendants. ... Nickname: Motto: Speramus Meliora; Resurget Cineribus (Latin for, We Hope For Better Things; It Shall Rise From the Ashes) Location in Wayne County, Michigan Coordinates: , Country United States State Michigan County Wayne County Founded 1701 Incorporation 1806 Government  - Type Strong Mayor-Council  - Mayor Kwame Kilpatrick (D) Area  - City  143. ... Cincinnati, Ohio is a well known city along the Ohio River, historically known for its riverboats. ...

Background

When the American Revolutionary War began in 1775, the Ohio River marked a tenuous border between the American colonies and the American Indians of the Ohio Country. This border had its origins in the Proclamation of 1763, which forbade British colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains. The British Crown had issued the Proclamation after the French and Indian War (1754–1763) in order to prevent conflict between Indians and colonists in the vast territory newly acquired from France. Settlers and land speculators in Britain and America objected to this restriction, however, and so British officials negotiated two treaties with American Indians in 1768—the Treaty of Fort Stanwix and the Treaty of Hard Labor—which opened up land for settlement south of the Ohio River. Thereafter, tensions between British officials and colonists over western land policy diminished.^[1] Cincinnati, Ohio is a well known city along the Ohio River, historically known for its riverboats. ... The Royal Proclamation of 1763 was issued October 7, 1763 by the British government in the name of King George III to prohibit settlement by British colonists beyond the Appalachian Mountains in the lands captured by Britain from France in the French and Indian War/Seven Years War and to... Appalachians in North Carolina The Appalachian Mountains (French: les Appalaches) are a vast system of mountains in eastern North America. ... Combatants France First Nations allies: * Algonquin * Lenape * Wyandot * Ojibwa * Ottawa * Shawnee Great Britain Iroquois Confederacy American Colonies Strength 3,900 regulars 7,900 militia 2,200 natives (1759) 50,000 regulars and militia (1759) The French and Indian War was the nine-year North American chapter of the Seven Years... Two different treaties between Native Americans and European-Americans were signed at Fort Stanwix, which was located near present-day Rome, New York. ...

Most of the Indians who actually lived and hunted in the Ohio Valley—Shawnees, Mingos, Delawares, and Wyandots—had not been consulted in the 1768 treaties. Angry with the Iroquois for selling their lands to the British, Shawnees began to organize a confederacy of western Indians with the intention of preventing the loss of their lands.^[2] British and Iroquois officials worked to diplomatically isolate the Shawnees from other Indian nations, however, and so when Dunmore's War broke out in 1774, Shawnees faced the Virginia militia with few allies. After Virginia's victory in the war, the Shawnees were compelled to accept the Ohio River boundary. Shawnee and Mingo leaders who did not agree with these terms renewed the struggle soon after the American Revolutionary War began in 1775. The Shawnee, or Shawano, are a people native to North America. ... The Mingo are an Iroquois group of Native Americans that migrated west to the Ohio Country in the mid-eighteenth century. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Huron redirects here. ... Languages Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, Tuscarora, English, French Religions Christianity, Longhouse religion The Iroquois Confederacy (also known as the League of Peace and Power; the Five Nations; the Six Nations; or the People of the Long house) is a group of First Nations/Native Americans that originally consisted of... Dunmores War (or Lord Dunmores War) was the result of several collisions that took place in the spring of 1774, on the Ohio River above the mouth of the Little Kanawha River, between Native American peoples (particularly Shawnee, Miami, and Wyandot) and parties of Anglo_American settlers who were...

1775 to 1776 — Neutrality and small raids

Initially, both the British and the Continental Congress sought to keep western American Indians out of the war. At Fort Pitt in October 1775, American and Indian leaders reaffirmed the boundary established by Dunmore's War the previous year. Without British support, Indian leaders such as Chief Blackfish (Shawnee) and Pluggy (Mingo) raided into Kentucky, hoping to drive the settlers out. Governor Patrick Henry of Virginia wanted to retaliate by attacking Pluggy's Town in the Ohio Country, but he canceled the expedition for fear that the militia would be unable to distinguish between neutral and hostile Indians, and thus make enemies of the neutral Delawares and Shawnees. Nevertheless, Shawnees and Delawares became increasingly divided over whether or not to take part in the war. While leaders such as White Eyes (Delaware) and Cornstalk (Shawnee) urged neutrality, Buckongahelas (Delaware) and Blue Jacket (Shawnee) decided to fight against the Americans. POOP HS;JHGF;JADHGJHASGHASJHGJSAHGJWJITHADHSGJHDASJLGFNKRA The Continental Congress was the first national government of the United States. ... Blackfish (c. ... Patrick Henry (May 29, 1736 – June 6, 1799) was a prominent figure in the American Revolution, known and remembered primarily for his stirring oratory. ... White Eyes (c. ... Cornstalk (1720?–November 10, 1777) was a prominent leader of the Shawnee people in the era of the American Revolution. ... Buckongahelas (1725?–May 1805) was a Delaware (Lenape) war leader who led his followers against the United States during the American Revolutionary War and again in the Northwest Indian War; in the latter war he helped win the most devastating military victory ever achieved by American Indians against the United... Blue Jacket or Weyapiersenwah (c. ...

In Kentucky, isolated settlers and hunters became the frequent target of attacks, compelling many to return to the East. By late spring of 1776, fewer than 200 colonists remained in Kentucky, primarily at the fortified settlements of Boonesborough, Harrodsburg, and Logan's Station.^[3] In December 1776, Pluggy was killed in an attack on McClellan's Station,^[4] which was located on the site of present Georgetown, Kentucky.^[5] Boonesborough, Kentucky is an unincorporated community of Kentucky located in the central part of the state along the Kentucky River. ... Harrodsburg is a city located in Mercer County, Kentucky. ... Benjamin Logan (c. ... Georgetown is a city in Scott County, Kentucky, United States. ...

1777 — Escalation

A modern replica of Fort Randolph, which Americans built along the Ohio River in 1776. Dunquat, the Wyandot "Half King", besieged the fort in May 1778.

In 1777, the British launched a major offensive from Canada. In order to provide a strategic diversion for operations in the Northeast, officials in Detroit began recruiting and arming Indian war parties to raid American settlements.^[6] Unknown numbers of American settlers in present Kentucky, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania were killed in these raids. The intensity of the conflict increased after enraged American militiamen murdered Cornstalk, the leading advocate of Shawnee neutrality, in November 1777. Despite the violence, many Ohio Indians still hoped to stay out of the war. This was a difficult task because they were located directly between the British in Detroit and the Americans along the Ohio River. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1536x1024, 532 KB) Reconstructed Fort Randolph, Point Pleasant, West Virginia, photographed 2005. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1536x1024, 532 KB) Reconstructed Fort Randolph, Point Pleasant, West Virginia, photographed 2005. ... Fort Randolph was an American Revolutionary War fort which stood at the confluence of the Ohio and Kanawha Rivers, where the present town of Point Pleasant, West Virginia, is now located. ... Commanders Horatio Gates John Burgoyne Template:Campaignbox American Revolutionary War: Campaign of 1777 The campaign of 1777 was a series of battles in 1777 during the American Revolutionary War for control of the Hudson River. ... Official language(s) English[1] Capital Frankfort Largest city Louisville Area  Ranked 37th  - Total 40,444 sq mi (104,749 km²)  - Width 140 miles (225 km)  - Length 379 miles (610 km)  - % water 1. ... Official language(s) English Capital Charleston Largest city Charleston Area  Ranked 41st  - Total 24,244 sq mi (62,809 km²)  - Width 130 miles (210 km)  - Length 240 miles (385 km)  - % water 0. ... Capital Harrisburg Largest city Philadelphia Area  Ranked 33rd  - Total 46,055 sq mi (119,283 km²)  - Width 280 miles (455 km)  - Length 160 miles (255 km)  - % water 2. ... Cornstalk (1720?–November 10, 1777) was a prominent leader of the Shawnee people in the era of the American Revolution. ...

1778 to 1779 — American advances

In the early years of the war, the Viginians had attempted to defend their western border with militiamen garrisoning three forts along the Ohio River—Fort Pitt, Fort Henry, and Fort Randolph. Defending such a long border proved to be futile, however, because American Indians simply bypassed the forts during their raids. In 1778, the Americans decided that offensive operations were necessary to secure their western border. A Plan of the New Fort at Pitts-Burgh, drawn by cartographer John Rocque and published in 1765. ... Fort Fincastle - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... Fort Randolph was an American Revolutionary War fort which stood at the confluence of the Ohio and Kanawha Rivers, where the present town of Point Pleasant, West Virginia, is now located. ...

Problems at Fort Pitt

The first American expedition into the Ohio Country was a debacle. In February 1778, General Edward Hand led 500 Pennsylvania militiamen from Fort Pitt on a surprise winter march towards Mingo towns on the Cuyahoga River, where the British stored military supplies which they distributed to Indian raiding parties. Adverse weather conditions prevented the expedition from reaching its objective, however. On the return march, some of Hand's men attacked peaceful Delaware Indians, killing one man and a few women and children, including relatives of the Delaware chief Captain Pipe. Because only non-combatants had been killed, the expedition became derisively known as the "squaw campaign".^[7] Edward Hand (December 31, 1744–September 3, 1802) was an American physician and soldier from Lancaster, Pennsylvania. ... The role of militia, also known as civilian military service and duty, in the United States is complex and has transformed over time. ... The Cuyahoga River (IPA pronunciation: , or kuy-a-HAW-ga, locally kie-uh-HOE-guh) is located in Northeast Ohio in the United States. ... Statue of Hopocan (Captain Pipe) in Barberton, Ohio Captain Pipe (Hopocan) was a chief of the Delaware Lenape Indians and a member of the Wolf Clan. ...

Besides unruly militia, Loyalist sentiment around Pittsburgh also contributed to Hand's problems. In March 1778, three men with close ties to the British and American Indians left Pittsburgh, defecting to the British and Indian side. They were Simon Girty, an interpreter who had guided the "squaw campaign", Matthew Elliot, a local trader, and Alexander McKee, an agent for the British Indian Department.^[8] All three would prove to be valuable British operatives in the war. Amid much criticism, and facing a congressional investigation for allowing the men to defect, Hand resigned in May 1778.^[9] [[ This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... Simon Girty (1741–February 18, 1818) was a British subject, born in what is now the United States, who served as a liaison between the British and their Native American allies during the American Revolution. ... Matthew Elliot (c. ...

Treaty making and fort building

Following the escalation of the war in 1777, Americans on the western frontier appealed to the Continental Congress for protection. After an investigation, a Congressional commission recommended in early 1778 that two regiments of the Continental Army be stationed in the West. Furthermore, because a defensive line of forts had little effect on Indian raids into the American settlements, the commissioners called for a fort to be built on the Indian side of the Ohio River, the first in a line of forts which would enable the Americans, it was hoped, to mount an expedition against Detroit. Illustration depicting uniforms and weapons used during the 1779 to 1783 period of the American Revolution by showing four soldiers standing in an informal group General George Washington, was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army on June 15, 1775. ...

In order to build a fort in the Ohio Country, the Americans sought the approval of the Delaware Indians. In September 1778, Americans negotiated the Treaty of Fort Pitt with the Delawares, which resulted in the building of Fort Laurens along the Tuscarawas River. American plans soon went awry, however. White Eyes, the Delaware leader who had negotiated the treaty, was apparently murdered in 1778 by American militiamen. His rival, Captain Pipe, eventually abandoned the American alliance and moved west to the Sandusky River, where he began receiving support from the British in Detroit.^[10] Furthermore, because of intense warfare in eastern Pennsylvania and upstate New York, Congress was unable to provide the manpower for operations against Detroit. Fort Laurens was abandoned in 1779. The Treaty of Fort Pitt, or the Treaty With the Delawares, was the first treaty signed by the new United States of America on September 17, 1778, with the Delaware Indians. ... Fort Laurens was an American Revolutionary War fort in what is now the U.S. state of Ohio. ... The Tuscarawas, colloquially the Tusk, is a medium-sized river in northeastern Ohio, an important tributary of the Muskingum. ... White Eyes (c. ... The Sandusky River is a tributary to Lake Erie in north-central Ohio in the United States. ...

Clark's Illinois campaign

In late 1778, George Rogers Clark, a young Virginia militia officer, launched a campaign to seize the sparsely garrisoned Illinois Country from the British. With a company of volunteers, Clark captured Kaskaskia, the chief post in the Illinois Country, on 4 July 1778, and later secured the submission of Vincennes. Vincennes was recaptured by General Henry Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit. In February 1779, Clark returned to Vincennes in a surprise winter march and captured Hamilton himself. Clark as painted by Matthew Harris Jouett in 1825 George Rogers Clark (November 19, 1752 – February 13, 1818) was the preeminent American military leader on the northwestern frontier during the American Revolutionary War. ... French settlements and forts in the Illinois Country in 1763, showing U.S. current state boundaries. ... Kaskaskia is a village located in Randolph County, Illinois. ... is the 185th day of the year (186th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1778 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... The city of Vincennes is the county seat of Knox County, Indiana. ... Henry Hamilton (c. ... Combatants Great Britain United States Commanders Henry Hamilton # George Rogers Clark Strength 80 British regulars, militia and French volunteers Native American raiding party-in skirmish with Clarks forces between 47 and 170 Casualties 1 killed+4 POW Killed {Native Americans}. 2 wounded & 1 POW (Native American}. British Garrison captured...

To American frontiersmen, Hamilton was known as "the Hair-buyer General" because, they believed, he encouraged Indians to kill and scalp American civilians. For this reason, Governor Thomas Jefferson brought Hamilton to Williamsburg, Virginia, to be tried as a war criminal. After British officials threatened to retaliate against American prisoners of war, Jefferson relented, and Hamilton was exchanged for an American prisoner in 1781.^[11] Thomas Jefferson (13 April 1743 N.S.–4 July 1826) was the third President of the United States (1801–09), the principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776), and one of the most influential Founding Fathers for his promotion of the ideals of Republicanism in the United States. ... Location in the Commonwealth of Virginia. ...

1780 — Major British and Indian offensive

Over the next several years of the war, both sides launched raids against each other, usually targeting settlements. In 1780, hundreds of Kentucky settlers were killed or captured in a British-Indian expedition into Kentucky.^[12] George Rogers Clark responded by leading an expedition in August 1780 which destroyed two Shawnee towns along the Mad River, but doing little damage to the Indian war effort.^[13] Birds invasion of Kentucky during the American Revolutionary War was just one phase of an extensive series of operations planned by the British in 1780, whereby the entire West, from Canada to Florida, was to be swept clear of both Spaniards and colonists. ... The Mad River flows nearly 60 miles from Logan County, Ohio to Downtown Dayton, Ohio, where it meets the Great Miami River. ...

1781

In late 1780, Clark traveled east to consult with Thomas Jefferson, the governor of Virginia, about an expedition in 1781. Jefferson devised a plan which called for Clark to lead 2,000 men against Detroit. Recruiting enough men was a problem, however. In time of war, most militiamen preferred to stay close to their homes rather than go on extended campaigns. Furthermore, Colonel Daniel Brodhead refused to detach the men because he was staging his own expedition against the Delawares, who had recently entered the war against the Americans.^[14] Brodhead marched into the Ohio Country and destroyed the Delaware Indian capital of Coshocton in April 1781, but this only made the Delawares more determined enemies and deprived Clark of badly needed men and supplies for the Detroit campaign.^[15] Most of the Delawares fled to the militant towns on the Sandusky River.^[16] Thomas Jefferson (13 April 1743 N.S.–4 July 1826) was the third President of the United States (1801–09), the principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776), and one of the most influential Founding Fathers for his promotion of the ideals of Republicanism in the United States. ... Daniel Brodhead IV (1736-1809) was an American military and political leader during the American Revolutionary War and early days of the republic. ... Coshocton may refer to: Coshocton, Ohio Coshocton County, Ohio This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... The Sandusky River is a tributary to Lake Erie in north-central Ohio in the United States. ...

When Clark finally left Fort Pitt in August 1781, he was accompanied by only 400 men. On 24 August 1781, a detachment of one hundred of his men was ambushed near the Ohio River by Indians led by Joseph Brant, a Mohawk leader temporarily in the west. Brant's victory ended Clark's efforts to move against Detroit. is the 236th day of the year (237th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1781 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... Colonel Archibald Andrew Lochry (Lockrees/Lochry/Lockery/Loughry/Loughrey) (1733-1781) was a colonial American military officer whose command ended in disaster when he and nearly every member of his force were killed or captured by Mohawk forces led by George Girty (brother of Simon Girty) and under the command... Joseph Brant, painted in London by leading court painter George Romney in 1776 Thayendanegea or Joseph Brant (sometimes spelled Brandt or Brand) (c. ...

Between the combatants on the Sandusky River and the Americans at Fort Pitt were several villages of Christian Delawares. The villages were administered by the Moravian missionaries David Zeisberger and John Heckewelder. Although non-combatants, the missionaries favored the American cause and kept American officials at Fort Pitt informed about hostile British and Indian activity. In response, in September 1781, Wyandots and Delawares from Sandusky forcibly removed the Christian Delawares and the missionaries to a new village (Captive Town) on the Sandusky River.^[17] The Christian Munsee were a group of Lenape native American Indians, primarily Munsee, who converted to Christianity, following the teachings of the Moravian missionaries. ... The Moravian Seal, as rendered by North Carolina artist Marie Nifong The Moravian churches form a modern, mainline Protestant denomination with a religious heritage that began in 15th-century Bohemia (now in the Czech Republic). ... David Zeisberger (11 April 1721 – 17 November 1808) was a Moravian clergyman and missionary among the Native Americans in the Thirteen Colonies, who established communities of converts in the valley of the Muskingum River in Ohio, and for a time, near modern Amherstburg, Ontario. ...

1782 — "The Year of Blood"

In March 1782, 160 Pennsylvania militiamen under Lieutenant Colonel David Williamson rode into the Ohio Country, hoping to find the Indian warriors who were responsible for ongoing raids against Pennsylvania settlers. Enraged by the gruesome murder by Indians of a white woman and her baby,^[18] Williamson's men detained about 100 Christian Delawares at the village of Gnadenhütten. The Christian Delawares had returned to Gnadenhütten from Captive Town in order to harvest the crops that they had been forced to leave behind. Accusing the Christian Indians of having aided Indian raiding parties, the Pennsylvanians killed the 100 Christian Indians—mostly women and children—with hammer blows to the head.^[19]

Colonel William Crawford of the Continental Army came out of retirement to lead 480 volunteer militiamen, mostly from Pennsylvania, deep into American Indian territory, with the intention of surprising the Indians. The Indians and their British allies from Detroit had learned about the expedition in advance, however, and brought about 440 men to the Sandusky to oppose the Americans. After a day of indecisive fighting, the Americans found themselves surrounded and attempted to retreat. The retreat turned into a route, but most of the Americans managed to find their way back to Pennsylvania. About 70 Americans were killed; Indian and British losses were minimal. The role of militia, also known as civilian military service and duty, in the United States is complex and has transformed over time. ... Capital Harrisburg Largest city Philadelphia Area  Ranked 33rd  - Total 46,055 sq mi (119,283 km²)  - Width 280 miles (455 km)  - Length 160 miles (255 km)  - % water 2. ... Nickname: Motto: Speramus Meliora; Resurget Cineribus (Latin for, We Hope For Better Things; It Shall Rise From the Ashes) Location in Wayne County, Michigan Coordinates: , Country United States State Michigan County Wayne County Founded 1701 Incorporation 1806 Government  - Type Strong Mayor-Council  - Mayor Kwame Kilpatrick (D) Area  - City  143. ...

During the retreat, Colonel Crawford and an unknown number of his men were captured. The Indians executed many of these captives in retaliation for the Gnadenhütten massacre earlier in the year, in which about 100 Indian civilians were murdered by Pennsylvania militiamen. Crawford's execution was particularly brutal: he was tortured for at least two hours before being burned at the stake. This 37 foot (11 m) monument to the Gnadenhutten massacre, located next to a reconstructed Moravian cabin in what was the center of the original village, was dedicated on June 5, 1872. ... Torture is defined by the United Nations Convention Against Torture as any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental, is intentionally inflicted on a person for such purposes as obtaining from him or a third person information or a confession, punishing him for an act he... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

The failure of the Crawford expedition caused alarm along the American frontier, as many Americans feared that the Indians would be emboldened by their victory and launch a new series of raids.^[20] Even more defeats for the Americans were yet to come, and so for Americans west of the Appalachian Mountains, 1782 became known as the "Bloody Year".^[21] On 13 July 1782, the Mingo leader Guyasuta led about 100 Indians and several British volunteers into Pennsylvania, destroying Hannastown and killing nine and capturing twelve settlers.^[22] It was the hardest blow dealt by Indians in Western Pennsylvania during the war.^[23] Appalachians in North Carolina The Appalachian Mountains (French: les Appalaches) are a vast system of mountains in eastern North America. ... is the 194th day of the year (195th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1782 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... Guyasuta (c. ... Hannastown, Pennsylvania is an unincorporated village located in Hempfield Township, Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania. ...

In Kentucky, the Americans went on the defensive while Caldwell, Elliott, and McKee with their Indian allies prepared a major offensive. Fort Estill was attacked by Wyandot Indians in March 1782. Colonel Benjamin Logan, commanding officer of the region, and stationed at Logan's Station, learned that the Wyandot warriors were in the area on warpath. The Indians, aided by the British in Detroit, had raided from Boonsborough past Estill's Station along the Kentucky River. Logan dispatched 15 men to Captain Estill at Estill's Station with orders to increase his force by 25 more men and reconnoiter the country to the north and east. Following orders, Captain Estill reached the Kentucky River a few miles below the mouth of Station Camp Creek and camped that night at Sweet Lick, now known as Estill Springs. On the day after they left Estill's Station, a body of Indians appeared there at dawn on the 20th of March, they raided the fort, scalped and killed a Miss Innes in sight of the fortification and took Monk, a slave of Captain Estill, and killed all the cattle. As soon as the Indians retreated, Samuel South and Peter Hackett, both young men, were dispatched to take the trail of the men and inform them of the news. The boys found them near the mouth of Drowning Creek and Red River early on the morning of March 21. Of the 40 men, approximately 20 had left families within the fort. They returned with the boys to Estill's Station. The remainder crossed the Kentucky river and found the Indian trail. Captain Estill organized a company of 25 men, followed the Indians, and suffered what is known as Estill's Defeat, later known as the Battle of Little Mountain (March 22, 1782) in Montgomery Co. Huron redirects here. ... Benjamin Logan (circa 1742-December 11, 1802 was an American military officer in the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War. ... // Peter Hackett was born in approximately 1763 or 1764 in the English colony of Virginia. ...

In July 1782, more than 1,000 Indians gathered at Wapatomica, but the expedition was called off after scouts reported that George Rogers Clark was preparing to invade the Ohio Country from Kentucky. The reports turned out to be false, but Caldwell still managed to lead 300 Indians into Kentucky and deliver a devastating blow at the Battle of Blue Licks in August. With peace negotiations between the United States and Great Britain making progress, Caldwell was ordered to cease further operations.^[24] Similarly, General Irvine had gotten permission for a Continental Army expedition into the Ohio Country, but this was cancelled. In November, George Rogers Clark delivered the final blow in the Ohio Country, destroying several Shawnee towns, but inflicting little damage on the inhabitants.^[25] Combatants Kentucky militia (United States) Great Britain, American Indians Commanders John Todd † Stephen Trigg † Daniel Boone William Caldwell Alexander McKee Simon Girty Strength 182 militiamen 50 rangers 300 natives Casualties 72 killed, 11 captured about 11 killed The Battle of Blue Licks was fought on August 19, 1782, and was...

Peace and legacy

News of the pending peace treaty arrived late in 1782. In the final treaty, the Ohio Country, the land that the British and Indians had successfully defended, had been signed away by Great Britain to the United States. Great Britain had not consulted the Indians in the peace process, and the Indians were nowhere mentioned in treaty's terms.^[26] For the Indians, the struggle would soon resume in the Northwest Indian War, though this time without their British allies.^[27] Combatants United States Western Lakes Confederacy Commanders Josiah Harmar Arthur St. ...

Notes

References

Published primary sources

• James, James Alton. George Rogers Clark papers. 2 vols.
• Kellogg, Louise P., ed. Frontier Advance on the Upper Ohio, 1778–1779. Madison: State Society of Wisconsin, 1916.
• ———. Frontier Retreat on the Upper Ohio, 1779–1781. Originally published Madison, Wisconsin, 1917. Reprinted Baltimore: Clearfield, 2003. ISBN 0-8063-5191-8.
• Thwaites, Reuben G. and Louise P. Kellogg, eds. Frontier Defense on the Upper Ohio 1777–1778. Orig pub. 1912, Kraus reprint, Millwood, NY 1977.
• ———. The Revolution on the Upper Ohio, 1775–1777. Originally published 1908, Kennikat reprint, Port Washington, NY 1970.

Articles

• Belue, Ted Franklin. "Crawford's Sandusky Expedition". The American Revolution, 1775–1783: An Encyclopedia 1: 416–420. Ed. Richard L. Blanco. New York: Garland, 1993. ISBN 0-8240-5623-X.
• Calloway, Colin G. "Captain Pipe." American National Biography. 4: 368–69. Ed. John A. Garraty and Mark C. Carnes. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-19-512783-8.
• Clifton, James A. "Dunquat." American National Biography. 7: 105–07. Ed. John A. Garraty and Mark C. Carnes. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-19-512786-2.
• Quaife, Milo Milton. "The Ohio Campaigns of 1782". Mississippi Valley Historical Review 17, no. 4 (March 1931): 515–529.

Books

• Bakeless, John. Background to Glory: The Life of George Rogers Clark. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1957. Bison Book printing, 1992; ISBN 0-8032-6105-5. Popular history which portrays Clark as a military genius who conquered the Old Northwest. The 1992 introduction by historian James P. Ronda reflects later doubts about this traditional view of Clark.
• Calloway, Colin G. The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities. Cambridge University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-521-47149-4 (hardback).
• Dowd, Gregory Evans. A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745–1815. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992. ISBN 0-8018-4609-9.
• Downes, Randolph C. Council Fires on the Upper Ohio: A Narrative of Indian Affairs in the Upper Ohio Valley until 1795. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1940. ISBN 0-8229-5201-7 (1989 reprint).
• Grenier, John. The First Way of War: American War Making on the Frontier, 1607–1814. Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-521-84566-1.
• Hurt, R. Douglas. The Ohio Frontier: Crucible of the Old Northwest, 1720–1830. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-253-33210-9 (hardcover); ISBN 0-253-21212-X (1998 paperback).
• Kenton, Edna. Simon Kenton: His Life and Period, 1755–1836. Originally published 1930; reprinted Salem, NH: Ayer, 1993.
• Nelson, Larry L. A Man of Distinction among Them: Alexander McKee and the Ohio Country Frontier, 1754–1799. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-87338-620-5 (hardcover).
• Nester, William. The Frontier War for American Independence. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2004. ISBN 0-8117-0077-1.
• Smith, Thomas H., ed. Ohio in the American Revolution: A Conference to Commemorate the 200th Anniversary of the Ft. Gower Resolves. Columbus: Ohio Historical Society, 1976.
• Sosin, Jack M. The Revolutionary Frontier, 1763–1783. New York: Holt, 1967.
• Van Every, Dale. A Company of Heroes: The American Frontier, 1775–1783. New York: Morrow, 1962. Popular history with emphasis on George Rogers Clark and Joseph Brant.

See Also

• Elizabethton, Tennessee (American Revolution)
• Overmountain Men