White phosphorus is a flare / smoke producing incendiary weapon,^[1] or smoke-screening agent, made from a common allotrope of the chemical element phosphorus. White Phosphorus (WP) bombs and shells are essentially incendiary devices, but can also be used as an offensive anti-personnel flame compound capable of causing serious burns or death^[2]. It is used in bombs, artillery shells, and mortar shells which burst into burning flakes of phosphorus upon impact. An incendiary device is a device or weapon designed to create a fire. ... A U.S. Army Humvee laying a smoke screen A smoke-screen is a release of smoke in order to mask the movement or location of military units such as infantry, tanks or ships. ... Allotropy (Gr. ... The periodic table of the chemical elements is a tabular method of displaying the chemical elements, first devised by English analytical chemist John Newlands in 1863. ... General Name, Symbol, Number phosphorus, P, 15 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 15, 3, p Appearance waxy white/ red/ black/ colorless Standard atomic weight 30. ... hey hey you no i rock at soccer cuz no i made the school team!! yay me aka katelyn ♥ Incendiary devices or incendiary bombs are bombs designed to start fires or destroy sensitive equipment using materials such as napalm, thermite, chlorine trifluoride, or white phosphorus. ... The Massive Ordnance Air Blast (MOAB) bomb produced in the United States. ...

White phosphorus weapons are controversial today because of its potential use against humans, for whom one-tenth of a gram is a deadly dose. In recent years, the US and Israel^[3] have admitted using WP against enemy targets. Particularly, its use by the US, given the public stance against chemical weapons, has resulted in considerable controversy (see White phosphorus use in Iraq). Initial field reports from Iraq casually referred to White Phosphorus use against humans^[4], but it was officially denied until November 2005^[5]. Subsequently however, the Pentagon admitted ^[6] to its use while claiming that its use for smoke signals is legal and does not violate chemical weapon conventions^[7]. However, a statement by a Pentagon spokesman says "It was used as an incendiary weapon against enemy combatants,"^[8] Early detection of chemical agents Sociopolitical climate of chemical warfare While the study of chemicals and their military uses was widespread in China, the use of toxic materials has historically been viewed with mixed emotions and some disdain in the West (especially when the enemy were doing it). ... There are at least four cases in which white phosphorus (WP) has reportedly been used as an antipersonnel weapon in Iraq: March 1988: According to an undated ANSA article quoted by the RAI documentary, White phosphorus was used by Saddam Hussein during the Halabja poison gas attack: (transl. ...

White Phosphorus is commonly referred to in military jargon as "WP". The Vietnam-era slang "Willy(ie) Pete" or "Willy(ie) Peter" is still occasionally heard. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Combatants Republic of Vietnam United States Republic of Korea Thailand Australia New Zealand The Philippines National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam Democratic Republic of Vietnam People’s Republic of China Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea Strength US 1,000,000 South Korea 300,000 Australia 48,000...

History

A USAF airman inspects 2.75 inch white phosphorus marking rockets in Osan Air Base, Republic of Korea, 1996.

WP is believed to have been first used by Fenian arsonists in the 19th century in the form of a solution of WP in carbon disulfide. When the carbon disulfide evaporated, the WP would burst into flames, and probably also ignite the highly flammable carbon disulfide fumes. This mixture was known as "Fenian fire" and allegedly was used by disgruntled itinerant workers in Australia to cause delayed destruction of shabby sleeping quarters. In 1916, during an intense ideological struggle over conscription for the First World War, the Sydney police warned four businesses of the threat of fire; two were the scenes of unsuccessful fires. The events came after a summer of many fires. Twelve members of the I.W.W., a radical union of workers who openly opposed conscription, were arrested and convicted on the basis of either having, or plotting to have incendiary materials, including phosphorus. At least eight of those arrested, and possibly nine, are believed to have been victims of a police frameup, according to a book by Ian Turner.^[9] Although most had received fifteen year sentences, ten of the men, who came to be called the Sydney Twelve, were released in 1920 after an inquiry; the other two were released shortly thereafter. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (2760x1860, 2263 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): White phosphorus (weapon) ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (2760x1860, 2263 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): White phosphorus (weapon) ... The United States Air Force (USAF) is the aerial warfare branch of the United States armed forces and one of the seven uniformed services. ... Osan Air Base, a base of the United States Air Force, is located 4. ... Fenian is a term used since the 1850s for Irish nationalists (who oppose British rule in Ireland). ... The Skyline Parkway Motel in Afton, Virginia after an arson fire on July 9, 2004. ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... Carbon disulfide is a colorless liquid with the formula CS2. ... “The Great War ” redirects here. ... The Sydney Opera House on Sydney Harbour Sydney (pronounced ) is the most populous city in Australia, with a metropolitan area population of over 4,200,000 people, and 151,920 in the City of Sydney. ... The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW or the Wobblies) is an international union currently headquartered in Cincinnati, Ohio, USA. At its peak in 1923 the organization claimed some 100,000 members in good standing, and could marshal the support of perhaps 300,000 workers. ... The Sydney Twelve were members of the Industrial Workers of the World arrested on September 23, 1916 in Sydney, Australia, and charged with treason under an archaic law known as the Treason Felony Act (1848), arson, sedition and forgery. ...

World War I and II

Britain's army introduced its first factory-built WP grenades in late 1916. In World War II, white phosphorus mortar bombs, shells, rockets and grenades were used extensively by American, Commonwealth, and to a lesser extent Japanese forces, in both smoke-generating and antipersonnel roles. In 1940, when the invasion of Britain seemed imminent, the phosphorus firm of Albright and Wilson suggested that the British government use a material similar to Fenian fire in several expedient incendiary weapons. The only one fielded was the Grenade, No. 76 or Special Incendiary Phosphorus grenade, which consisted of a glass bottle filled with a mixture similar to Fenian fire, plus some latex (c.f. Molotov cocktail, Greek fire). It came in two versions, one with a red cap intended to be thrown by hand, and a slightly stronger bottle with a green cap, intended to be launched from the Northover projector (a crude 2.5 inch blackpowder grenade launcher). Instructions on each crate of SIP grenades included the observations, inter alia: 1916 (MCMXVI) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar). ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... Albright and Wilson was founded in 1856 as a United Kingdom manufacturer of potassium chlorate and phosphorus for the match industry. ... No 76, Special Incendiary Phosphorus Nationality United Kingdom Date of design Service duration Type Incendiary Filling phosphorus, Detonation Impact Weight g Filling weight g Length mm Diameter mm Variants Number built ?? The No. ... The LaTeX logo, typeset with LaTeX LATEX, written as LaTeX in plain text, is a document markup language and document preparation system for the TeX typesetting program. ... Molotov cocktail is the generic name for a variety of crude incendiary weapons. ... Greek fire was a burning-liquid weapon used by the Byzantine Greeks, typically in naval battles to great effect as it could continue burning even on water. ... The simplest World War II British Home Guard weapon devised. ... An inch (plural: inches; symbol or abbreviation: in or, sometimes, ″ - a double prime) is the name of a unit of length in a number of different systems, including English units, Imperial units, and United States customary units. ... Black powder is a type of gunpowder invented in the 9th Century and practically the only propellant and explosive known until the middle of the 19th Century. ... A grenade launcher is weapon that fires or launches a grenade to longer distances than a soldier could throw by hand. ...

Store bombs (preferably in cases) in cool places, under water if possible.

Stringent precautions must be taken to avoid cracking bombs during handling.

It was generally regarded as overly dangerous to its own operators.

At the start of the Normandy campaign, 20% of American 81 mm mortar rounds were WP. At least five American Medal of Honor citations mention their recipients using white phosphorus grenades to clear enemy positions. In the 1944 liberation of Cherbourg alone, a single U.S. mortar battalion, the 87th, fired 11,899 white phosphorus rounds into the city. It has been suggested that Northern France Campaign (1944) be merged into this article or section. ...

The U.S. Army and Marines used WP shells in large 4.2-inch chemical mortars. WP was widely credited by Allied soldiers for breaking up German infantry attacks and creating havoc among enemy troop concentrations during the latter part of the war. The psychological impact of WP on the enemy was noted by many troop commanders in WWII, and captured 4.2-inch mortar crews were sometimes summarily executed by German forces in reprisal.

Incendiary bombs were used extensively by the German, British and US air forces against civilian populations and targets of military significance in civilian areas (Hamburg, Dresden, Area bombing etc). Late in the war, some of these bombs used white phosphorus (about 1-200 grams) in place of magnesium as the igniter for their flammable mixtures. The use of incendiary weapons against civilians was eventually banned (by signatory countries) in the 1980 United Nations Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons Protocol III. The USA has signed Articles I and II, but was not a signatory to Protocols III, IV, and V. Location Coordinates Time zone CET/CEST (UTC+1/+2) Administration Country NUTS Region DE6 First Mayor Ole von Beust (CDU) Governing party CDU Votes in Bundesrat 3 (from 69) Basic statistics Area  755 km² (292 sq mi) Population 1,754,317 (11/2006)[1]  - Density 2,324 /km² (6,018... Dresden (Sorbian: Drježdźany; etymologically from Old Sorbian Drežďany, meaning people of the riverside forest, Czech: ) is the capital city of the German Federal Free State of Saxony. ... Area bombardment is the policy of indiscriminate bombing of an enemys cities, for the purpose of destroying civilian morale. ...

Others

WP munitions were used extensively in Korea, Vietnam and later by Russian forces in Chechnya. According to GlobalSecurity.org, "In the December 1994 battle for Grozny in Chechnya, every fourth or fifth Russian artillery or mortar round fired was a smoke or white phosphorus round." Combatants United Nations:  Republic of Korea,  Australia,  Belgium,  Luxembourg,  Canada,  Colombia,  Ethiopia,  France,  Greece,  Luxembourg,  Netherlands,  New Zealand,  Philippines,  South Africa,  Thailand,  Turkey,  United Kingdom,  United States Medical staff:  Denmark,  Australia,  Italy,  Norway,  Sweden Communist states:  Democratic People’s Republic of Korea,  Peoples Republic of China,  Soviet Union Commanders... The Chechen Republic (IPA: ; Russian: , Chechenskaya Respublika; Chechen: , Noxçiyn Respublika), or, informally, Chechnya (; Russian: ; Chechen: , Noxçiyçö), sometimes referred to as Ichkeria, Chechnia, Chechenia or Noxçiyn, is a federal subject of Russia. ... GlobalSecurity. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

WP was used by the Argentine Army during the 1989 attack on La Tablada Regiment, in a violation of the Geneva Convention (according to a document presented by the human rights commission of the United Nations on January 12, 2001) ^[10]. The Argentine Army (Ejército Argentino, EA) is the land armed force branch of the Argentine military and the senior military service of the country. ... The 1989 attack on La Tablada was an assault on the military barracks located in La Tablada, in the province of Buenos Aires, Argentina. ... The foundation of the U.N. The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are to facilitate co-operation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress and human rights issues. ...

In Iraq, Saddam Hussein regime used white phosphorus along with other chemicals in the Halabja poison gas attack during the Iran-Iraq War in 1988. (ANSA news agency^[11]). According to a declassified Pentagon report from February 1991: Saddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti (28 April 1937 – 30 December 2006) was the fifth President of Iraq and Chairman of the Iraqi Revolutionary Command Council from 1979 until his overthrow by US forces in 2003. ... Photo said to have been taken in the aftermath of the attack. ... Combatants  Iran Iraq Commanders Ruhollah Khomeini, Abolhassan Banisadr, Ali Shamkhani, Mostafa Chamran† Saddam Hussein, Ali Hassan al-Majid Strength - 305,000 soldiers, - 500,000 Passdaran and Basij militia, - 900 tanks, - 1,000 armored vehicles, - 3,000 artillery pieces, - 65 aircraft, - 750 helicopters[1] - 190,000 soldiers, - 5,000 tanks, - 4... Year 1988 (MCMLXXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Friday (link displays 1988 Gregorian calendar). ... ANSA may refer to: Alliance of Norwegian Students Abroad Italian news agency ANSA [1] This is a disambiguation page — a list of articles associated with the same title. ...

Iraqi forces loyal to President Saddam may have possibly used white phosphorus chemical weapons against Kurdish rebels and the populace in Erbil and Dohuk. The WP chemical was delivered by artillery rounds and helicopter gunships.^[12]

Kurdish may refer to: The Kurdish people The Kurdish language This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... This article is about the province of Iraq. ... Dahuk (also referred to as Dohuk) is one of the governorates of Iraq. ...

2004 November Iraq War

Main article: White phosphorus use in Iraq

The possible use of white phosphorus for its chemical properties against humans has attracted considerable media attention, especially given that one of the US objectives was to flush out chemical weapons in Iraq. There are at least four cases in which white phosphorus (WP) has reportedly been used as an antipersonnel weapon in Iraq: March 1988: According to an undated ANSA article quoted by the RAI documentary, White phosphorus was used by Saddam Hussein during the Halabja poison gas attack: (transl. ...

Use of WP against enemy areas in Fallujah were reported as early as April 2004: This article is about the city of Fallujah in Iraq. ...

The boom kicked dust around the pit as they ran through the drill again and again, sending a mixture of burning white phosphorus and high explosives they call "shake 'n' bake" into a cluster of buildings where insurgents have been spotted all week.^[4]

However, an US official release of Dec 2004 denied any WP use:

U.S. forces have used [phosphorus shells] very sparingly in Fallujah, for illumination purposes. They were fired into the air to illuminate enemy positions at night, not at enemy fighters.^[13]

The specific aspect of use against humans was highlighted ^[14] after the documentary film Fallujah, The Hidden Massacre by Sigfrido Ranucci was aired on Italy's RaiNews24 and released on the internet^[11]. In the film, Giuliana Sgrena quotes city refugees testimonies from Fallujah about the use of guns and white phosphorus: Ex US soldier Jeff Englehart talking about the use of white phosphorus against Iraqi civilians in Fallujah. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Giuliana Sgrena Giuliana Sgrena (born December 20, 1948) is a well-known Italian journalist and author who works for the Italian communist newspaper Il Manifesto and the German weekly Die Zeit. ... This article is about the city of Fallujah in Iraq. ...

In particular, some women had tried to enter their homes, and they had found a certain dust spread all over the house. The Americans themselves had told them to clean the houses with detergents, because that dust was very dangerous. In fact, they had some effect on their bodies, leading some very strange things.

The film also shows US soldiers on film admitting to WP use against insurgents.

US officials continued to deny the use of white phosphorus for antipersonnel purposes; US ambassador to UK Robert Holmes Tuttle stated in November 2005, that US forces "do not use napalm or white phosphorus as weapons"^[7].

However, within a week of ambassador Tuttle's statement, on November 15, Pentagon spokesman Lieutenant-Colonel Barry Venable confirmed to the BBC that WP had been used as an antipersonnel weapon, and was quoted as stating clearly: "It has been used as an incendiary weapon against enemy combatants" ^{[8] [15]}. In particular, The British Broadcasting Corporation,which is usually known as the BBC, is the largest broadcasting corporation in the world in terms of audience numbers, employing 26,000 staff in the United Kingdom alone and with a budget of more than GB£4 billion. ...

Venable pointed out that WP was effective against enemy forces in covered positions that were protected from high explosives. "One technique is to fire a white phosphorus round into the position because the combined effects of the fire and smoke - and in some case the terror brought about by the explosion on the ground - will drive them out of the holes so that you can kill them with high explosives.^[6]

While WP use is legal for purposes such as signal flare, whether it constitutes a chemical weapon when used for antipersonnel purposes like the attack described above remains a grey area. Dressing the wounded during a gas attack by Austin O. Spare, 1918. ...

It turned out also that well before this controversy, in the March 2005 edition of the US Army magazine Field Artillery, a captain, a first lieutenant and a sergeant, had written of using white phosphorus as an "effective munition" for flushing out insurgents during the Falluja attack of November 2004: Field Artillery (or FA) is a bimonthly magazine on the subject of field artillery. ...

“WP proved to be an effective and versatile munition. We used it for screening missions at two breeches and, later in the fight, as a potent psychological weapon against the insurgents in trench lines and spider holes when we could not get effects on them with HE (High Explosive) Rounds. We fired ‘shake and bake’ missions at the insurgents, using WP to flush them out and HE to take them out.”^[16][13]

On November 30, 2005, General Peter Pace defended use of WP, declaring that WP munitions were a "legitimate tool of the military", used to illuminate targets and create smokescreens, and that there were better weapons for killing people: General Peter Pace (b. ...

it is well within the law of war to use those weapons as they're being used, for marking and for screening... A bullet goes through skin even faster than white phosphorus does"^[7].

2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict

During the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict, Israel stated that it had used phosphorus shells "against military targets in open ground" in south Lebanon. Israel stated that its use of the white phosphorus bombs was permitted under international conventions.^[17] President of Lebanon Émile Lahoud claimed that phosphorus shells were used against civilians in Lebanon. Several media sources had reported they had seen Lebanese civilians with injuries characteristic of phosphorus: Combatants Hezbollah Amal LCP  Israel Commanders Hassan Nasrallah (Secretary General of Hezbollah) Imad Mughniyeh (Commander of Hezbollahs armed wing)[5] Dan Halutz (CoS) Moshe Kaplinsky[12] Udi Adam (Regional) Strength 600-1,000 active fighters 3,000-10,000 reservists[6] 30,000 ground troops (plus IAF & ISC)[13... This page lists presidents of Lebanon. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

Dr. Hussein Hamud al-Shel, who works at Dar al-Amal hospital in Ba'albek, said that he had received three corpses "entirely shriveled with black-green skin," a phenomenon characteristic of phosphorus injuries.^[18]

Possibly legal use by UK in Afghanistan

An e-mail from British army Major Loden refers to white phosphorus use:

Harrier pilot 'couldn't identify the target', fired two phosphorus rockets that just missed our own compound... missing the enemy by 200 metres^[19]

Despite being drummed up by the media and blogs, it is not clear that the purpose of the mis-targeted bombs was not mere illumination.

Smoke-screening properties

USS Alabama hit by a white phosphorus bomb in bombing tests by General Billy Mitchell, September 1921.

Weight-for-weight, phosphorus is the most effective smoke-screening agent known, for two reasons: first, it absorbs most of the screening mass from the surrounding atmosphere and secondly, the smoke particles are actually an aerosol, a mist of liquid droplets which are close to the ideal range of sizes for Mie scattering of visible light. This effect has been likened to three dimensional textured privacy glass—the smoke cloud does not obstruct an image, but thoroughly scrambles it. It also absorbs infrared radiation. Image File history File links USS_Alabama_(BB-8)_1921. ... Image File history File links USS_Alabama_(BB-8)_1921. ... The second USS Alabama (BB-8) was an Illinois-class battleship in the United States Navy. ... For other people with the same name, see Billy Mitchell (disambiguation). ... Year 1921 (MCMXXI) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar). ... A U.S. Army Humvee laying a smoke screen A smoke-screen is a release of smoke in order to mask the movement or location of military units such as infantry, tanks or ships. ... Layers of Atmosphere - not to scale (NOAA)[3] Earths atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth and retained by the Earths gravity. ... Smoke from a wildfire Smoke is a suspension in air (aerosol) of small particles resulting from incomplete combustion of a fuel. ... Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM), aerosols or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. ... Dramatic morning mist Mist is a phenomenon of a liquid in small droplets floating through air. ... Mie theory, also called Lorenz-Mie theory or Lorenz-Mie-Debye theory, is a complete analytical solution of Maxwells equations for the scattering of electromagnetic radiation by spherical particles (also called Mie scattering). ... The optical spectrum (light or visible spectrum) is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the human eye. ... 2-dimensional renderings (ie. ...

When phosphorus burns in air, it first forms phosphorus pentoxide (which exists as tetraphosphorus decoxide except at very high temperatures): Phosphorus pentoxide, perhaps more accurately diphosphorus pentoxide, is so called because of its empirical formula P2O5, as should be expected of any element in oxidation number +5. ...

P₄ + 5 O₂ → P₄O₁₀

However phosphorus pentoxide is extremely hygroscopic and quickly absorbs even minute traces of moisture to form liquid droplets of phosphoric acid: A hygroscopic substance is a substance that absorbs water readily from its surroundings. ... Phosphoric acid, also known as orthophosphoric acid or phosphoric(V) acid, is an inorganic mineral acid having the chemical formula H3PO4. ...

P₄O₁₀ + 6 H₂O → 4 H₃PO₄ (also forms polyphosphoric acids such as pyrophosphoric acid, H₄P₂O₇)

Since an atom of phosphorus has an atomic mass of 31 but a molecule of phosphoric acid has a molecular mass of 98, the cloud is already 68% by mass derived from the atmosphere (i.e. you have 3.2 kilograms of smoke for every kilogram of WP you started with); however, it may absorb more because phosphoric acid and its variants are hygroscopic. Given time, the droplets will continue to absorb more water, growing larger and more dilute until they reach equilibrium with the local water vapour pressure. In practice, the droplets quickly reach a range of sizes suitable for scattering visible light and then start to dissipate from wind or convection. Polyphosphates are phosphate polymers linked between hydroxyl groups and hydrogen atoms. ... Pyrophosphoric acid, also known under the name diphosphoric acid, is a syrupy liquid or a needle-like crystaline solid. ... Properties In chemistry and physics, an atom (Greek ἄτομος or átomos meaning indivisible) is the smallest particle still characterizing a chemical element. ... The atomic mass (ma) is the mass of an atom at rest, most often expressed in unified atomic mass units. ... In science, a molecule is a group of atoms in a definite arrangement held together by chemical bonds. ... The molecular mass (abbreviated Mr) of a substance, formerly also called molecular weight and abbreviated as MW, is the mass of one molecule of that substance, relative to the unified atomic mass unit u (equal to 1/12 the mass of one atom of carbon-12). ... A hygroscopic substance is a substance that absorbs water readily from its surroundings. ... The vapor pressure is the pressure (if the vapor is mixed with other gases, the partial pressure) of a vapor. ...

Because of the great weight efficiency of WP smoke, it is particularly suited for applications where weight is highly restricted, such as hand grenades and mortar bombs. An additional advantage for hand smoke grenades—which are more likely to be used in an emergency—is that the WP smoke clouds form in a fraction of a second. Because WP is also pyrophoric, most munitions of this type have a simple burster charge to split open the casing and spray fragments of WP through the air, where they ignite spontaneously and leave a trail of rapidly thickening smoke behind each particle. The appearance of this cloud forming is easily recognised; one sees a shower of burning particles spraying outward, followed closely by distinctive streamers of white smoke, which rapidly coalesce into a fluffy, very pure white cloud (unless illuminated by a coloured light source). For the alcoholic beverage sold in New Orleans, see hand grenade (drink). ... Soldier Firing the M224 60-mm Mortar. ... A pyrophoric substance is a substance that ignites spontaneously, that is, its autoignition temperature is below room temperature. ...

Various disadvantages of WP are discussed below, but one which is particular to smoke-screening is "pillaring". Because the WP smoke is formed from fairly hot combustion, the gasses in the cloud are hot, and tend to rise. Consequently the smoke screen tends to rise off the ground relatively quickly and form aerial "pillars" of smoke which are of little use for screening. Tactically this may be counteracted by using WP to get a screen quickly, but then following up with emission type screening agents for a more persistent screen. Some countries have begun using red phosphorus instead. Red phosphorus ("RP") burns cooler than WP and eliminates a few other disadvantages as well, but offers exactly the same weight efficiency. Other approaches include WP soaked felt pads (which also burn more slowly, and pose a reduced risk of incendiarism) and PWP, or plasticised white phosphorus.

Effects on humans

White phosphorus can cause injuries and death in three ways: by burning deep into soft tissue, by being inhaled as a smoke and by being ingested. Extensive exposure in any way can be fatal.

Effects of exposure to WP weapons

Incandescent particles of WP cast off by a WP weapon's initial explosion can produce extensive, deep (second and third degree), painful burns. Phosphorus burns carry a greater risk of mortality than other forms of burns due to the absorption of phosphorus into the body through the burned area, resulting in liver, heart and kidney damage, and in some cases multi-organ failure.^[20] These weapons are particularly dangerous to exposed people because white phosphorus continues to burn unless deprived of oxygen or until it is completely consumed, in some cases burning right down to the bone. In some cases, burns may be limited to areas of exposed skin because the smaller WP particles do not burn completely through personal clothing before being consumed. According to GlobalSecurity.org, quoted by "The Guardian", "White phosphorus results in painful chemical burn injuries"^[21] . GlobalSecurity. ... The Guardian is a British newspaper owned by the Guardian Media Group. ...

Exposure and inhalation of smoke

Burning WP produces a hot, dense white smoke. Most forms of smoke are not hazardous in the kinds of concentrations produced by a battlefield smoke shell. However, exposure to heavy smoke concentrations of any kind for an extended period (particularly if near the source of emission) does have the potential to cause illness or even death.

WP smoke irritates the eyes and nose in moderate concentrations. With intense exposures, a very explosive cough may occur. However, no recorded casualties from the effects of WP smoke alone have occurred in combat operations and to date there are no confirmed deaths resulting from exposure to phosphorus smokes.^[21] The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry has set an acute inhalation Minimum Risk Level (MRL) for white phosphorus smoke of 0.02 mg/m³, the same as fuel oil fumes. (By contrast, the chemical weapon mustard gas is 30 times more potent: 0.0007 mg/m³.)^[22] Airborne exposure limit 0. ...

Oral ingestion

The accepted lethal dose when white phosphorus is ingested orally is 1 mg per kg of body weight, although the ingestion of as little as 15 mg has resulted in death.^[23] It may also cause liver, heart or kidney damage.^[24][25] There are reports of individuals with a history of oral ingestion who have passed phosphorus-laden stool ("smoking stool syndrome").^[23]

White Phosphorus as a Chemical Weapon

Given the deadly nature of White Phosphorus, its direct use against enemy soldiers is a practice that has been brought into question. The use of WP by the US and Israel have in particular highlighted the controversy over its possible use as a chemical weapon.

While the use of WP as a smoke signal or flare is uncontroversial, direct use against enemy soldiers is problematic. This is a result of blurred boundaries: "burning", a chemical reaction with oxygen, is the hallmark of incendiary weapons, while those due to "chemical effects" signify a chemical weapon. Due to this blurred boundary, many armies do not use WP in its anti-personnel role against areas which may have civilians. However, its use against combatants by nations such as US and Israel, (who are not signatories to certain UN conventions) have highlighted these ethical questions. Dressing the wounded during a gas attack by Austin O. Spare, 1918. ...

Military statements, both from the US and Israel appear to indicate that white phosphorus was aimed at "flushing out" enemy soldiers. Further, independent media reports from Iraq and Lebanon indicate that many civilians were killed with symptoms of white phosphorus poisoning^[3]. One report refers to a civilian corpse in Falluja: :I noticed something in the garden and it was a body but I couldn't really recognise it, and it looked really bad - it was a body with the colour green, and I have never seen this in all my life, and my work is dealing with dead bodies."^[26]

However, some of these claims may not be very reliable; e.g. the RAI film shows a number of civilian corpses, stating that these show signs of WP burns. However, this last position is debatable; seeing the movie, Chris Milroy, professor of forensic pathology at University of Sheffield, told George Monbiot: "nothing indicates to me that the bodies have been burnt". They had turned black and lost their skin "through decomposition"^[27]. The University of Sheffield is a research university, located in Sheffield in South Yorkshire, England. ... George Monbiot. ...

If WP is used as a weapon based on its toxic properties it may constitute a violation of several conventions, in spirit if not in letter (since WP is not explicitly listed as a banned substance). Such usage in civilian areas like Falluja is especially controversial, since use against civilian / mixed targets is banned in an UN convention (though neither US nor Israel are signatories). Clearly, the legal status of WP is a matter of deep concern, and this is discussed next.

Arms control status and military regulations

Article 1 of Protocol III of the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons defines an incendiary weapon as 'any weapon or munition which is primarily designed to set fire to objects or to cause burn injury to persons through the action of flame, heat, or combination thereof, produced by a chemical reaction of a substance delivered on the target'. The same protocol also prohibits the use of incendiary weapons against civilians or in civilian areas. The United Nations Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW), concluded at Geneva on October 10, 1980 and entered into force in December 1983, seeks to prohibit or restrict the use of certain conventional weapons which are considered excessively injurious or that have indiscriminate effects. ...

However, the use against military targets outside civilian areas is not explicitly banned by any treaty. There is a debate on whether white phosphorus should be considered a chemical weapon and thus be outlawed by the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) which went into effect in April of 1997. The convention is meant to prohibit weapons that are "dependent on the use of the toxic properties of chemicals as a method of warfare" (Article II, Definitions, 9, "Purposes not Prohibited" c.). Chemical Weapons Convention Opened for signature January 13, 1993 in Paris Entered into force April 29, 1997 Conditions for entry into force Ratification by 50 states and the convening of a Preparatory Commission Parties 181 (as of Oct. ...

The convention defines a "toxic chemical" as a chemical "which through its chemical action on life processes can cause death, temporary incapacitation or permanent harm to humans or animals".(CWC, II). An annex lists chemicals that fall under this definition.^[28], but WP is not listed, possibly because its primary function was not seen to be chemical. However, today, legal opinion may be shifting, according to some: "there is potential for white phosphorus to fall under the classification of a chemical weapon^[29]".

In a well-circulated 2005 interview to RAI, Peter Kaiser, spokesman for the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (an organization overseeing the CWC and reporting directly to the UN General Assembly), questioned whether the weapon should fall under the convention's provisions: This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) is not an agency of the United Nations. ...

No it's not forbidden by the CWC if it is used within the context of a military application which does not require or does not intend to use the toxic properties of white phosphorus. White phosphorus is normally used to produce smoke, to camouflage movement.

If that is the purpose for which the white phosphorus is used, then that is considered under the convention legitimate use.

If on the other hand the toxic properties of white phosphorus are specifically intended to be used as a weapon, that of course is prohibited, because the way the convention is structured or the way it is in fact applied, any chemicals used against humans or animals that cause harm or death through the toxic properties of the chemical are considered chemical weapons"^[5].

The CWC goes on, in its Protocol III, to prohibits the use of all air-delivered incendiary weapons against civilian populations, or for indiscriminate incendiary attacks against military forces co-located with civilians^[30]. However, that protocol also specifically excludes weapons whose incendiary effects are secondary, such as smoke grenades. This has often been read as excluding white phosphorus munitions from this protocol, as well. In any case, several countries, including the United States and Israel, are not signatories to Protocol III.^[31]

The legal position however, is not the only consideration in any war. For instance, concerning the US use of WP in Iraq, the British Liberal Democrat foreign affairs spokesman Sir Menzies Campbell, said

The use of this weapon may technically have been legal, but its effects are such that it will hand a propaganda victory to the insurgency. The denial of use followed by the admission will simply convince the doubters that there was something to hide^[32].

Military regulations

An OV-10 Bronco aircraft fires a white phosphorus smoke rocket to mark a ground target, 1984.

Within the US Army, there appear to be two somewhat conflicting advice on the use of WP against humans. According to the field manual on the Rule of Land Warfare, "The use of weapons which employ fire, such as tracer ammunition, flamethrowers, napalm and other incendiary agents, against targets requiring their use is not violative of international law."^[33] However, the ST 100-3 Battle Book, a student text published by the US Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth states that "It is against the law of land warfare to employ WP against personnel targets."^[34] At the same time, other field manuals discuss the use of white phosphorus against personnel^[35]. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (2830x1870, 2071 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): OV-10 Bronco List of United States Marine Corps aircraft squadrons White phosphorus (weapon) Da Nang International Airport... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (2830x1870, 2071 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): OV-10 Bronco List of United States Marine Corps aircraft squadrons White phosphorus (weapon) Da Nang International Airport... An OV-10 on static display at Hurlburt Field Air Park. ... In 1827, Colonel Henry Leavenworth established a post on the bluffs overlooking the western bank of the Missouri River to protect the fur trade, safeguard commerce on the Santa Fe Trail and maintain the peace among the inhabitants. ...

Guidelines on WP use in other armies are not adequately disseminated.

See also

• Phosphorus
• Mark 77 bomb
• Fallujah, The Hidden Massacre
• Weapons of the 2003 invasion and occupation of Iraq

General Name, Symbol, Number phosphorus, P, 15 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 15, 3, p Appearance waxy white/ red/ black/ colorless Standard atomic weight 30. ... A Mark 77 bomb being loaded on an F/A-18 Hornet, 1993. ... Ex US soldier Jeff Englehart talking about the use of white phosphorus against Iraqi civilians in Fallujah. ... This article covers the weapons used in the 2003 invasion and subsequent occupation of Iraq. ...

References

Haaretz (Hebrew: (help· info), The Land) is an Israeli newspaper, founded in 1919. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... is the 295th day of the year (296th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... October 24 is the 297th day of the year (298th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... shelby was here 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 100th day of the year (101st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 94th day of the year (95th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... November 16 is the 320th day of the year (321st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 45 days remaining. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 94th day of the year (95th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... November 15 is the 319th day of the year (320th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 94th day of the year (95th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 94th day of the year (95th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The foundation of the U.N. The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are to facilitate co-operation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress and human rights issues. ... ANSA may refer to: Alliance of Norwegian Students Abroad Italian news agency ANSA [1] This is a disambiguation page — a list of articles associated with the same title. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Página/12 is a left-wing newspaper based in Buenos Aires, Argentina founded in May 25, 1987 by journalist Jorge Lanata. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 94th day of the year (95th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... November 23 is the 327th day of the year (328th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 38 days remaining. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... April 7 is the 97th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (98th in leap years). ... shelby was here 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... December 9 is the 343rd day of the year (344th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 314th day of the year (315th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 94th day of the year (95th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... November 16 is the 320th day of the year (321st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 45 days remaining. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 94th day of the year (95th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Field Artillery (or FA) is a bimonthly magazine on the subject of field artillery. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 94th day of the year (95th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 314th day of the year (315th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The British Broadcasting Corporation,which is usually known as the BBC, is the largest broadcasting corporation in the world in terms of audience numbers, employing 26,000 staff in the United Kingdom alone and with a budget of more than GB£4 billion. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... October 24 is the 297th day of the year (298th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Haaretz (Hebrew: (help· info), The Land) is an Israeli newspaper, founded in 1919. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... is the 295th day of the year (296th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 94th day of the year (95th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... September 23 is the 266th day of the year (267th in leap years). ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... April 7 is the 97th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (98th in leap years). ... George Monbiot. ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... November 22 is the 326th day (327th on leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... April 7 is the 97th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (98th in leap years). ... The Times is a national newspaper published daily in the United Kingdom since 1785, and under its current name since 1788. ... 17 November is also the name of a Marxist group in Greece, coinciding with the anniversary of the Athens Polytechnic uprising. ...

External links

• The Legality of the Use of White Phosphorus by the United States Military During the 2004 Fallujah Assaults (Roman Reyhani)
• Globalsecurity.org on WP (including use during the Battle of Fallujah and during the December 1994 battle for Grozny during the First Chechen War)
• "Incendiary weapons: The big white lie", The Independent, November 17, 2005. 
• White phosphorus chemical backgrounder