This article is about the military applications of white phosphorus. For more general information, see Phosphorus. Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the chemical element. ...

White phosphorus is a common allotrope of the chemical element phosphorus which has found extensive military application as a smoke-screening agent and for target marking. It is also used as an incendiary weapon [1]. It is commonly referred to in military jargon as "WP" or "white phos". The Vietnam War era slang Willie Pete, Whiskey Pete or Wiley P is still occasionally heard. Allotropy (Gr. ... Jump to: navigation, search A chemical element, often called simply element, is the class of atoms which contain the same number of protons. ... Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the chemical element. ... A U.S. Army Humvee laying a smoke screen A smoke-screen is a release of smoke in order to mask the movement or location of military units such as infantry, tanks or ships. ... An incendiary device is a device or weapon designed to create a fire. ... You may have reached this page trying to find the Jargon File A jargon is a type of slang which is used in conjunction with a specific activity, e. ... Jump to: navigation, search The Vietnam War or Second Indochina War was a conflict between the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRVN, or North Vietnam), allied with the National Liberation Front (NLF, or Viet Cong) against the Republic of Vietnam (RVN, or South Vietnam), and its allies—notably the United States...

Smoke-screening

Weight-for-weight, phosphorus is the most effective smoke-screening agent known, for two reasons: A U.S. Army Humvee laying a smoke screen A smoke-screen is a release of smoke in order to mask the movement or location of military units such as infantry, tanks or ships. ...

1. It actually absorbs most of the screening mass from the surrounding atmosphere; and
2. The smoke particles are actually an aerosol, a mist of liquid droplets which are close to the ideal range of sizes for Mie scattering of visible light. This effect has been likened to three dimensional textured privacy glass—the smoke cloud does not obstruct an image, but thoroughly scrambles it. It also absorbs infrared radiation.

When phosphorus burns in air, it first forms phosphorus pentoxide: Saturns atmosphere is made up of hydorgen, helium and methane ... Jump to: navigation, search Smoke from a wildfire Smoke is a suspension in air (aerosol) of small particles resulting from incomplete combustion of a fuel. ... http://visibleearth. ... Jump to: navigation, search Dramatic morning mist Mist is a phenomenon of a liquid in small droplets floating through air. ... The Mie theory also called Lorenz-Mie theory is a complete mathematical-physical theory of the scattering of electromagnetic radiation by spherical particles, developed by Gustav Mie in 1908. ... The optical spectrum (light or visible spectrum) is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the human eye. ... Jump to: navigation, search Dimension (from Latin measured out) is, in essence, the number of degrees of freedom available for movement in a space. ... P2O5 (alternately P4O10) (phosphorus pentoxide or phosphoric anhydride) is a dehydrating agent. ...

P₄ + 5 O₂ → 2 P₂O₅

However phosphorus pentoxide is extremely hygroscopic (actually, deliquescent) and quickly absorbs even minute traces of moisture to form liquid droplets of phosphoric acid: Jump to: navigation, search A hygroscopic substance is a substance that absorbs water readily from its surroundings. ... Deliquescent - Wikipedia /**/ @import /w/skins-1. ... Jump to: navigation, search R-phrases S-phrases , , Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ...

P₂O₅ + 3 H₂O → 2 H₃PO₄

Since an atom of phosphorus has an atomic mass of 31 but a molecule of phosphoric acid has a molecular mass of 98, the cloud is already 68% by mass derived from the atmosphere. (To put that another way, you have 3.2 kilograms of smoke for every kilogram of WP you started with.) But it can still absorb more; phosphoric acid itself is hygroscopic. Given time, the droplets will continue to absorb more water, growing larger and more dilute, until they reach equilibrium with the local water vapour pressure. In practice the droplets quickly reach a range of sizes very suitable for scattering visible light, and then start to dissipate due to wind or convection. The dilute phosphoric acid in the cloud may be mildly irritating to the eyes but with normal field concentrations and exposure it is not harmful; extended exposure can lead to damage of lungs and throat. The smoke may also contain traces of unburnt phosphorus. A respirator usually provides adequate protection. Jump to: navigation, search Properties For alternative meanings see atom (disambiguation). ... The atomic mass of an element (also known as the relative atomic mass or average atomic mass or atomic weight) is the average atomic mass of all the chemical elements isotopes as found in a particular environment, weighted by isotopic abundance. ... Jump to: navigation, search A molecule is the smallest particle of a pure chemical substance that still retains its chemical composition and properties. ... Jump to: navigation, search See also Avogadros number Atomic mass unit Dalton (unit) External links Learning by Simulations Calculation of Molecular Formulas from Molecular Masses Categories: Chemistry stubs | Mass | Chemical properties ... Jump to: navigation, search A hygroscopic substance is a substance that absorbs water readily from its surroundings. ... The vapor pressure is the pressure (if the vapor is mixed with other gases, the partial pressure) of a vapor. ... Jump to: navigation, search The lungs flank the heart and great vessels in the chest cavity. ... Anatomy In anatomy, the throat is the part of the neck anterior to the vertebral column. ... A respirator is a breathing aid often used by intensive care units for the mechanical ventilation patients with respiratory failure. ...

USS Alabama hit by a white phosphorus bomb in bombing tests by General Billy Mitchell, September 1921.

Because of the great weight efficiency of WP smoke, it is particularly suited for applications where weight is highly restricted, such as hand grenades and mortar bombs. An additional advantage for hand smoke grenades—which are more likely to be used in an emergency—is that the WP smoke cloud forms very quickly, in fact in a fraction of a second. Because WP is also pyrophoric, most munitions of this type have a simple burster charge to split open the casing and spray fragments of WP through the air, where they ignite spontaneously and leave a trail of rapidly thickening smoke behind each particle. The appearance of this cloud forming is easily recognised; one sees a shower of burning particles spraying outward, followed closely by distinctive streamers of white smoke, which rapidly coalesce into a fluffy, very pure white cloud (unless illuminated by a coloured light source). Image File history File links USS Alabama hit by a white phosphorus incendiary in September 1921. ... Image File history File links USS Alabama hit by a white phosphorus incendiary in September 1921. ... The second USS Alabama (BB-8) was an Illinois-class battleship in the United States Navy. ... Jump to: navigation, search Brigadier General Billy Mitchell, United States Army Air Service William L. (Billy) Mitchell (December 28, 1879–February 19, 1936) was an American general who is regarded as the father of the U.S. Air Force. ... Jump to: navigation, search 1921 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... Jump to: navigation, search A WWII-era pineapple fragmentation hand grenade A Hand Grenade is a hand-held bomb designed to be thrown by hand. ... Soldier Firing the M224 60-mm Mortar. ... Jump to: navigation, search A pyrophoric substance is a substance that ignites spontaneously, that is, its autoignition temperature is below room temperature. ...

Various disadvantages of WP are discussed below, but one which is particular to smoke-screening is "pillaring". Because the WP smoke is formed from fairly hot combustion, the gasses in the cloud are hot, and tend to rise. Consequently the smoke screen tends to rise off the ground relatively quickly and form aerial "pillars" of smoke which are of little use for screening. Tactically this may be counteracted by using WP to get a screen quickly, but then following up with emission type screening agents for a more persistent screen. Some countries have begun using red phosphorus instead. Red phosphorus ("RP") burns cooler than WP and eliminates a few other disadvantages as well, but offers exactly the same weight efficiency. Other approaches include WP soaked felt pads (which also burn slower, and pose a reduced risk of incendiarism) and PWP, or plasticised white phosphorus.

Incendiary

It is commonly believed that white phosphorus ignites spontaneously on contact with air at room temperature. This is not quite true; the autoignition temperature is actually about 30°C in humid air, and slightly higher in dry air. However at slightly lower temperatures WP will slowly surface oxidise, effectively smouldering, and will often warm up to the point where it will ignite. At any rate, the slightest degree of friction will easily ignite it, and it is practically guaranteed to be ignited by a burster charge, so for all intents and purposes it is pyrophoric. Room temperature, in laboratory reports, is taken to be roughly 21–23 degrees Celsius (70 degrees Fahrenheit), or 294–296 kelvins. ... The autoignition temperature of a substance is the lowest temperature at which it will spontaneously combust in a normal atmosphere, without an external source of ignition, such as a flame or spark. ... Jump to: navigation, search A pyrophoric substance is a substance that ignites spontaneously, that is, its autoignition temperature is below room temperature. ...

Because of this, WP has long had a secondary role as an incendiary, either directly or more usually as a "first fire" material. Contrary to another popular myth, it does not burn particularly fiercely, especially in comparison to other incendiaries like thermite. As an incendiary, it is most effective against highly flammable targets like very dry vegetation or petrol, oils and lubricants. However a WP fire does have the special difficulty that if extinguished with water, even to the point of being quite cold, it may reignite later when it dries out and exposes the WP to the air again. Jump to: navigation, search A thermite reaction (a type of aluminothermic reaction) is one in which aluminium metal is oxidized by an oxide of another metal, most commonly iron oxide. ... Gasoline, as it is known in North America, or petrol, in many Commonwealth countries (sometimes also called motor spirit) is a petroleum-derived liquid mixture consisting primarily of hydrocarbons, used as fuel in internal combustion engines. ... Jump to: navigation, search Oil is a generic term for organic liquids that are not miscible with water. ... A lubricant (colloquially, lube, although this usually refers to personal lubricants) is a substance (usually a liquid) introduced between two moving surfaces to reduce the friction and wear between them. ...

First aid and Toxicity

Burns to persons struck by particles of burning WP are usually much less extensive than napalm or metal incendiary burns, but are complicated by the toxicity of phosphorus, the release of phosphoric acid into the wounds, and the possibility of small particles continuing to smoulder for some time if undetected. Jump to: navigation, search A napalm airstrike during the Vietnam War Napalm is a flammable, gasoline-based weapon invented in 1942. ...

The most immediate concern is to exclude air from wounds so as to extinguish any remaining burning particles—while the first aider takes care not to touch the WP particles. Usually, this is mostly practicably achieved by cutting off contaminated clothing and dumping it in a fire resistant contaminated waste bin, and applying soaked compresses to the wounds. Ideally the compresses should be soaked in a mild sodium bicarbonate solution to neutralise phosphoric acid. If the patient is to be transported, sufficient water must be provided to keep the bandages wet at all times. Jump to: navigation, search Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), or sodium hydrogen carbonate, also known as baking soda and bicarbonate of soda, is a soluble white anhydrous or crystalline compound, with a slight alkaline taste resembling that of sodium carbonate. ... Neutralization is a chemical reaction in which an acid and a base react and produce salt and water. ...

As soon as practicable, remaining particles must be removed from the wounds. This is done by underwater debridement of burnt areas with tweezers or a blunt metal spatula. If available, irrigation with a fresh 1% solution of copper sulphate is advantageous as it reacts with any remaining phosphorus particles, coating them with a layer of copper phosphide. (This very dark material is easier to see, and also fluoresces under ultraviolet light, if available. Furthermore it provides a relatively inert coating.) Care must be taken to only irrigate briefly, however, and thoroughly rinse away the solution afterward, or there is a risk of copper poisoning through the wounds. If copper sulphate is not available, inspection of the wounds in a darkened room may reveal any missed pieces through phosphorescence. Copper (II) sulfate (CuSO4) is the most common copper salt, made by the action of sulfuric acid on the base copper oxide. ... Jump to: navigation, search Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength shorter than that of the visible region, but longer than that of soft X-rays. ...

Subsequently treat as for a burn, but seek expert medical advice to treat phosphorus poisoning. Avoid oily ointments until it is certain all phosphorus has been removed.

Afterward, ensure all particles of WP and contaminated clothing are decontaminated by incineration.

Chronic exposure to phosphorus over several months to years may lead to condition known as phossy-jaw. Phossy-jaw is a deadly occupational hazard for those who work with white phosphorus in an environment without proper safeguards. ...

Arms control status

Use of white phosphorus is not specifically banned by any treaty, however the 1980 Convention on Conventional Weapons (Protocol III) prohibits the use of incendiary weapons against civilian populations or by air attack against military forces that are located within concentrations of civilians. [2] The United States is among the nations that are parties to the convention but have not signed protocol III. Jump to: navigation, search The United Nations Convention on Conventional Weapons (CCW), concluded at Geneva on October 10, 1980, seeks to prohibit or restrict the use of certain conventional weapons which are considered excessively injurious or that have indiscriminate effects. ...

History

WP is believed to have been used by Fenian arsonists in the 19th century in the form of a solution of WP in carbon disulfide. When the carbon disulfide evaporated, the WP would burst into flames, and probably also ignite the highly flammable carbon disulfide fumes. This mixture was known as "Fenian fire" and allegedly was also used by Wobbly extremists in the early 20th century. Fenian is a term used since the 1860s for an Irish nationalist who espouses or is perceived to espouse violence against British rule, usually by people opposed to their aims. ... Arson is the crime of setting a fire with intent to cause damage. ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... Jump to: navigation, search Carbon disulfide (CS2) is a colorless liquid with a pleasant odor that is like the smell of chloroform. ... Jump to: navigation, search The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW or the Wobblies) is an international union headquartered in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA, having much in common with anarcho-syndicalist unions, but also many differences. ... (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999 in the...

Britain introduced her first factory built WP grenades in late 1916. However the phosphorus firm of Albright and Wilson suggested that the British government use a material similar to Fenian fire in several expedient incendiary weapons during the darkest hours of World War II. The only one actually fielded was the Grenade, No. 76 or Special Incendiary Phosphorus grenade, which consisted of a glass bottle filled with a mixture similar to Fenian fire, plus some latex (c.f. Molotov cocktail, Greek Fire). It came in two versions, one with a red cap intended to be thrown by hand, and a slightly stronger bottle with a green cap, intended to be launched from the Northover projector (a crude 2.5 inch blackpowder grenade launcher). Instructions on each crate of SIP grenades included the observations, inter alia: Jump to: navigation, search 1916 is a leap year starting on Saturday (link will take you to calendar) // Events January-February January 1 -The first successful blood transfusion using blood that had been stored and cooled. ... Jump to: navigation, search World War II was a truly global conflict with many facets: immense human suffering, fierce indoctrinations, and the use of new, extremely devastating weapons such as the atom bomb. ... No 76, Special Incendiary Phosphorus Nationality United Kingdom Date of design Service duration Type Incendiary Filling phosphorus, Detonation Impact Weight g Filling weight g Length mm Diameter mm Variants Number built ?? The No. ... Jump to: navigation, search The LaTeX logo, typeset with LaTeX LATEX is a document preparation system for the TeX typesetting program. ... Molotov cocktail is the generic name for a variety of crude incendiary weapons. ... Jump to: navigation, search Depiction of Greek Fire in the Madrid Skylitzes manuscript Greek Fire (also called Byzantine Fire, wildfire and liquid fire) was a weapon used by the Byzantine Empire, said to have been invented by a Syrian Christian refugee named Kallinikos (Callinicus) of Heliopolis (Syria), probably about 673. ... Jump to: navigation, search Mid-19th century tool for converting between different standards of the inch An inch is an Imperial and U.S. customary unit of length. ... Black powder is a type of gunpowder invented in the 9th Century and practically the only propellant and explosive known until the middle of the 19th Century. ... A grenade launcher is weapon that fires or launches a grenade to longer distances than a soldier could throw by hand. ...

Store bombs (preferably in cases) in cool places, under water if possible.

Stringent precautions must be taken to avoid cracking bombs during handling.

It was generally regarded as insanely dangerous to its own operators.

On 9 November, 2005 the Italian state-run broadcaster RAI released new evidence [3] that the United States had used incendiary white phosphorus in the November, 2004 assault on Fallujah, Iraq causing injuries and deaths to insurgents and civilians. It was also reported by U.S. Army artillery officers in the official 'Field Artillery Journal' that white phosphorous was used in so-called "shake-and-bake" tactics - firing WP shells into enemy positions to flush out Iraqi insurgents, followed by high-explosive rounds to kill the rebels. However, the government continues to officially deny its use. Jump to: navigation, search Rai may refer to: RAI (Radio Audizioni Italiane) Rai (An ethnolinguistic group of Nepal) Raï (A form of folk music, originated in Oran, Algeria, from Bedouin shepherds) Raí, Brazilian football (soccer) player Rai, a book by Kensaku Shimaki Rai, one of the characters from the fighting... U.S. soldiers from the 1st Cavalry Division prepare to enter and clear a building during fighting in Fallujah. ... Jump to: navigation, search Fallujah (Arabic: ; sometimes transliterated as Falluja and less commonly Fallouja, Falloujah, Faloojah, Faloojeh) is a city with a pre-war population of about 350,000 inhabitants in the Iraqi province of Al Anbar, located roughly 69km (43 miles) west of Baghdad on the Euphrates. ... An insurgency is an armed rebellion against a constituted authority, by any irregular armed force that rises up against an enforced or established authority, government, or administration. ...

“... some news accounts[4] have claimed that U.S. forces have used "outlawed" phosphorus shells in Fallujah. Phosphorus shells are not outlawed. U.S. forces have used them very sparingly in Fallujah, for illumination purposes. They were fired into the air to illuminate enemy positions at night, not at enemy fighters.“[5] However, photographic evidence and soldiers' testimonies of November 9th, 2004, document at least one friendly fire incident where a WP shell exploded near a group of US troops, leading to slight burn injuries in some. Conjectural evidence from footage of the fighting (like thick, white smoke emerging from burning buildings) suggests that the use of WP shells was much more widespread than admitted (home fires usually produce a large amount of dark, sooty smoke from incomplete combustion due to lack of oxygen). Jump to: navigation, search Fallujah (Arabic: ; sometimes transliterated as Falluja and less commonly Fallouja, Falloujah, Faloojah, Faloojeh) is a city with a pre-war population of about 350,000 inhabitants in the Iraqi province of Al Anbar, located roughly 69km (43 miles) west of Baghdad on the Euphrates. ... Jump to: navigation, search Fallujah (Arabic: ; sometimes transliterated as Falluja and less commonly Fallouja, Falloujah, Faloojah, Faloojeh) is a city with a pre-war population of about 350,000 inhabitants in the Iraqi province of Al Anbar, located roughly 69km (43 miles) west of Baghdad on the Euphrates. ... Friendly fire or non-hostile fire is United States military parlance for fire from friendly forces, as opposed to fire coming from enemy forces, which is known as enemy fire. In a friendly fire incident, forces or material assets of one side are attacked and damaged in error by those... Soot, also called lampblack or carbon black, is a dark powdery deposit of unburned fuel residues, usually composed mainly of amorphous carbon, that accumulates in chimneys, automobile mufflers and other surfaces exposed to smoke—especially from the combustion of carbon-rich organic fuels in the lack of sufficient oxygen. ... Jump to: navigation, search General Name, Symbol, Number oxygen, O, 8 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 16, 2, p Appearance colorless Atomic mass 15. ...

In March 2005, Field Artillery magazine carried an article by U.S. soldiers who fought in the battle. They wrote: "WP proved to be an effective and versatile munition. We used it for screening missions at two breeches and, later in the fight, as a potent psychological weapon against the insurgents in trench lines and spider holes when we could not get effects on them with HE. We fired 'shake and bake' missions at the insurgents, using WP to flush them out and HE to take them out."

The true amount and circumstances of WP use in this battle, and who was responsible for incidents in violation of the Geneva III protocol - if there indeed were any - must be considered unknown for the time being. The often-cited airdrops of smoking pellets, which are extensively documented and were part of the documentary most likely show illumination flares, which may contain a certain amount of WP, but cannot be used to intentionally cause harm to persons; although they of course can be used to set houses on fire, any major army has weaponry better suited for such a task which would be used instead if it be so desired. Flare Magazine Flare. ...

It was insinuated in the documentary that WP is a "chemical weapon". This is wrong if it is used as intended; however, detonating a WP shell in a confined area (like firing into a building) will indeed cause an effect comparable to the use of lung agent poison gases for those inside who do not or can not flee, with the additional consequence of setting the room(s) alight. Death will occur from lung edema, phosphoric acid poisoning or the resulting shock, or burns. Most victims would die from the second cause, as in a confined area it is hardly avoidable to inhale a considerable quantity of smoke, which will immediately dissolve to form concentrated phosphoric acid in the lungs and airways, leading to a condition similar to phosgene poisoning, but (due to the higher concentration of phosphorous oxide smoke) with a more rapid onset, death from shock or lung edema occurring after a short time. Early detection of chemical agents Sociopolitical climate of chemical warfare While the study of chemicals and their military uses was widespread in China, the use of toxic materials has historically been viewed with mixed emotions and some disdain in the West (especially when the enemy were doing it). ... Pulmonary edema is swelling and/or fluid accumulation in the lungs. ... Jump to: navigation, search R-phrases S-phrases , , Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ... Jump to: navigation, search In medicine, shock (hypoperfusion) is a life-threatening medical emergency characterized by inability of the body to supply enough oxygen to meet tissue requirements. ... Burns can refer to: Burn A Scottish clan: see Burns (clan) George Burns (actor) George H. Burns (baseball player) Ken Burns Robert Burns, a Scottish poet C. M. Burns, aka Mr. ... Phosgene (also known as carbonyl chloride, COCl2) is a highly toxic gas or refrigerated liquid that was used as a chemical weapon in World War I. It has no color, but is detectable in air by its odor, which resembles moldy hay. ...

References

• Fire Bombs in Iraq: Napalm By Any Other Name - Iraq Analysis Group. 2005.
• White Phosphorus at GlobalSecurity.org
• Phosphorus burns at eMedicine.com
• ATSDR public health statement: WP
• Rai News 24 Documentary on the alleged use of Chemical weapons including White Phosphorus in Fallujah
• Democracy Now coverage of the usage of white phosphorus in the November 2004 Fallujah campaign in Iraq
• Here is the RAI Documentary
• US State Department Statement on Illegal Weapon Use in Fallujah Allegations
• TF 2-2 IN FSE AAR: Indirect Fires in the Battle of Fallujah (PDF) Field Artillery Magazine