Whiteness studies (also known as "critical whiteness studies") is a controversial arena of academic inquiry focused on the cultural, historical and sociological aspects of people identified as white, and the social construction of whiteness as a social status. It emerged as a field of study within the academy, primarily in the United States and the UK, as early as 1983 (see the works of Marilyn Frye). However, W.E.B. Du Bois mentions the "public and psychological" privileges of "white" workers in his 1935 work Black Reconstruction. As of 2004, according to The Washington Post, at least 30 institutions in the United States including Princeton University, the University of California at Los Angeles, the University of New Mexico and University of Massachusetts Amherst offer, or have offered, courses in whiteness studies. Teaching and research around whiteness often overlap with research on post-colonial theory and orientalism taking place in the Arts and Humanities, Sociology, Literature, Communications, Cultural and Media and Studies faculties and departments, amongst others (e.g. Kent, Leeds). Also heavily engaged in whiteness studies are practitioners of anti-racist education, such as Betita Martinez and the Challenging White Supremacy workshop. “Whites” redirects here. ... Marilyn Frye is a philosophy professor and feminist theorist. ... This article or section needs additional references or sources to facilitate its verification. ... Black Reconstruction in America By W.E.B. Du Bois Black Reconstruction in America is a revisionist approach to looking at the reconstruction of the south after its defeat in the American civil war. ... Year 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Washington Post is the largest newspaper in Washington, D.C.. It is also one of the citys oldest papers, having been founded in 1877. ... Princeton University is a private coeducational research university located in Princeton, New Jersey. ... The University of California, Los Angeles, popularly known as UCLA, is a public, coeducational university situated in the neighborhood of Westwood within the city of Los Angeles. ... The University of New Mexico (UNM) is a public university in Albuquerque, New Mexico. ... The University of Massachusetts Amherst (otherwise known as UMass Amherst or UMass) is a research and land-grant university in Amherst, USA. The University of Massachusetts Amherst offers over 90 undergraduate and 65 graduate areas of study. ... Postcolonial theory is a literary theory or critical approach that deals with literature produced in countries that were once, or are now, colonies of other countries. ... For the book by Edward Said, see Orientalism (book). ... Elizabeth Betita Martínez (b. ... The Challenging White Supremacy (CWS) workshop is a San Francisco Bay Area-based collective and a curriculum for anti-racist education founded by Sharon Martinas and Mickey Ellinger in 1993. ...

The central tenet of whiteness studies is a reading of history and its effects on the present, inspired by postmodernism and social constructionism, in which the very concept of race is said to have been constructed by a white power structure^{[citation needed]} in order to justify discrimination against nonwhites. Since the 1800s, critics of the concept of race have questioned if human races even exist and pointed out that arbitrary amounts of categories are chosen, and that the idea of race is not about important differences within the human species. Postmodernism is a term applied to a wide-ranging set of developments in critical theory, philosophy, architecture, art, literature, and culture, which are generally characterized as either emerging from, in reaction to, or superseding, modernism. ... For the learning theory, see Social Constructivism (Learning Theory). ... For other uses, see Race (disambiguation). ...

Major areas of research include the nature of white identity and of white privilege, the historical process by which a white racial identity was created, the relation of culture to white identity, and possible processes of social change as they affect white identity. Many scientists have demonstrated that racial theories are based upon an arbitrary amount of categories and customs, and can overlook the problem of gradations between categories^{[citation needed]}. and such presumptions also inform work within the field of whiteness studies. White privilege is a sociological construct describing the advantages enjoyed by white persons beyond what is commonly experienced by the non-white people in those same social spaces (nation, community, workplace, etc. ... Customs is an authority or agency in a country responsible for collecting customs duties and for controlling the flow of animals and goods (including personal effects and hazardous items) in and out of a country. ...

History of whiteness

Whiteness studies draws on research over the last forty years into the definition of race, almost entirely within the American context (though see Bonnett, A. 2000 White Identities). This research emphasizes the social construction of white, Native, and black identities in interaction with the institutions of slavery, colonial settlement, citizenship, and industrial labor. Scholars such as Winthrop Jordan ^[1] have traced the evolution of the legally defined line between "blacks" and "whites" to colonial government efforts to prevent cross-racial revolts among unpaid laborers. For other uses, see Race (disambiguation). ... A social construction, social construct or social concept is an institutionalized entity or artifact in a social system invented or constructed by participants in a particular culture or society that exists because people agree to behave as if it exists, or agree to follow certain conventional rules, or behave as... Winthrop Donaldson Jordan (1931- ) is renowned writer of the racial history of the United States. ...

Macquarie University academic Joseph Pugliese ^[2] is among writers who have applied whiteness studies to an Australian context, discussing the ways that Indigenous Australians were marginalized in the wake of British colonization of Australia, as whiteness came to be defined as central to Australian identity. Pugliese discusses the 20th century White Australia policy as a conscious attempt to preserve the "purity" of whiteness in Australian society. ^{[citation needed]} Macquarie University is an Australian university located in Sydney. ... Languages Several hundred Indigenous Australian languages (many extinct or nearly so), Australian English, Australian Aboriginal English, Torres Strait Creole, Kriol Religions Primarily Christian, with minorities of other religions including various forms of Traditional belief systems based around the Dreamtime Related ethnic groups see List of Indigenous Australian group names Indigenous... This badge from 1906 shows the use of the expression White Australia at that time The White Australia policy is a generic term used to describe a collection of historical legislation and policies, intended to restrict non-white immigration to Australia, and to promote European immigration, from 1901 to 1973. ...

White privilege

Main article: White privilege

Writers such as Peggy McIntosh have sought to enumerate the social, political and cultural advantages accorded to "whites" in American society. They argue that these advantages seem invisible to most whites, but obvious to others. They often call for whites to acknowledge, renounce or betray these privileges by using them against racism. White Privilege is the concept that White people are inherently more deserving of consideration than non-white people. ... Peggy McIntosh is an American anti-racist activist, a speaker and the founder and co-director of the National S.E.E.D. Project on Inclusive Curriculum (Seeking Educational Equity and Diversity). ...

Schools of thought

Critical White Studies

Coming out of the legal studies field of Critical Race Theory, theorists of Critical Whiteness Studies seek to examine the construction and moral implications of whiteness. The field inherits from Critical Race Theory a focus on the legal and historical construction of white identity, the use of narratives (whether legal discourse, testimony or fiction) as a tool for exposing systems of racial power.^[3] This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

Race Traitor

One group of people involved in these discussions advocates a strategy they call race treason, and are grouped around articles appearing in the journal Race Traitor. The adherents' main argument is that whiteness (as a marker of a social status within the United States) is conferred upon people in exchange for an expectation of loyalty to what they consider an oppressive social order. This loyalty has taken a variety of forms over time: suppression of slave rebellions, participation in patrols for runaways, maintenance of race exclusionary unions, participation in riots, support for racist violence, and participation in acts of violence during the conquest of western North America. Like currency, the value of this privilege (for the powerful) depends on the reliability of "white skin" (or as physical anthropologists would deem this construct, the phenotype of historical North Atlantic Europeans) as a marker for social consent. With sufficient "counterfeit whites" resisting racism and capitalism, the writers in this tradition argue, the privilege will be withdrawn or will splinter, prompting an era of conflict and social redefinition. Without such a period, they argue, progress towards social justice is impossible, and thus "treason to whiteness is loyalty to humanity." Race Traitor is also a quarterly journal founded in 1992 by John Garvey and Noel Ignatiev. ...

In Race Traitor, the editors cite as the basis for their proposed actions a call by African American writers and activists--notably W.E.B. Du Bois and James Baldwin--for whites to break solidarity with American racism. Since that racism involves the awarding of various forms of white privilege, some have even argued that every white identity is drawn into that system of privilege. Only identities which seek to transcend or defy that privilege, they argue, are effectively anti-racist. This essential argument echoes Baldwin's declaration that, "As long as you think you are white, there's no hope for you," in an essay in which he acknowledges a variety of European cultures, a multiracial American culture, but no white culture per se which can be distinguished from the maintenance of racism. An African American (also Afro-American, Black American, or simply black) is a member of an ethnic group in the United States whose ancestors, usually in predominant part, were indigenous to Africa. ... This article or section needs additional references or sources to facilitate its verification. ... James Arthur Baldwin (August 2, 1924 – November 30, 1987) was an American novelist, short story writer, playwright, poet, and essayist, best known for his novel Go Tell It on the Mountain. ... Racism in the United States has been a major issue in America since the colonial era. ... White Privilege is the concept that White people are inherently more deserving of consideration than non-white people. ...

Race Traitor advocates have sought examples of race treason by whites in American history. One historical figure consistently valorized by Race Traitor (a publication favorable to the tenets of whiteness studies) is John Brown, a Northern abolitionist of European descent who battled slavery in western territories of the United States and led a failed but dramatic raid to free slaves and create an armed anti-slavery force at Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. Race Traitor is also a quarterly journal founded in 1992 by John Garvey and Noel Ignatiev. ... John Brown, ca. ... This article is about the abolition of slavery. ... Harpers Ferry is the name of several places in the United States of America: Harpers Ferry, Iowa Harpers Ferry, West Virginia There was also John Browns raid on the armory at Harpers Ferry, West Virginia as well as a Battle of Harpers Ferry in the American Civil War. ... Official language(s) English Capital Charleston Largest city Charleston Area  Ranked 41st  - Total 24,244 sq mi (62,809 km²)  - Width 130 miles (210 km)  - Length 240 miles (385 km)  - % water 0. ...

Visions of praxis cited by Race Traitor writers range from anti-racist unionism (such as DRUM in Detroit), collaboration in urban uprisings, and documenting and interfering with police abuse of people of color. Joel Olson has written about a theoretical vision in his book The Abolition of White Democracy. Bass drum made from wood, rope, and cowskin A drum is a musical instrument in the percussion group that can be large, technically classified as a membranophone. ...

Criticisms

Some^{[attribution needed]} have claimed that whiteness studies is an example of the pervasiveness of reverse discrimination in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.^{[citation needed]}
Reverse discrimination is a term that is used to describe policies or acts that are seen to benefit a historically socio-politically non-dominant group (typically minorities or women), at the expense of a historically socio-politically dominant group (typically men and majority races). ...

Conservative writer and activist David Horowitz draws a distinction between whiteness studies and other disciplines. "Black studies celebrates blackness, Chicano studies celebrates Chicanos, women's studies celebrates women, and white studies attacks white people as evil."^[4] Conservatism in the United States comprises a constellation of political ideologies including fiscal conservatism, free market or economic liberalism, social conservatism,[1] bioconservatism and religious conservatism,[2][3] as well as support for a strong military,[4] small government and promotion of states rights. ... For other persons named David Horowitz, see David Horowitz (disambiguation). ...

Whiteness and feminism

The study of whiteness was taken up by white feminist theorists responding to black feminisms' demands that 'White Women Listen!' (Hazel Carby, 1997) and the critique of the feminist 'sisterhood' as eliding social, cultural and racial differences. This was the subject of an interdisciplinary conference held at York University, in 1998, the proceedings of which were later published in White?Women by Raw Nerve Books [1].

References

The Washington Post is the largest newspaper in Washington, D.C.. It is also one of the citys oldest papers, having been founded in 1877. ... is the 171st day of the year (172nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Further reading

• Eric Arnesen (2001), "Whiteness and the Historian's Imagination," International Labor and Working-Class History 60: 3-32
• Allen, Theodore W. (1994), The Invention of the White Race: Volume One; Racial Oppression and Social Control, New York and London, Verso.
• Berger, Maurice (1999), "White Lies: Race and the Myths of Whiteness", New York, Farrar, Straus and Giroux
• Bonnett, Alastair (2000) White Identities: Historical and International Perspectives Harlow, Prentice Hall
• Carby, Hazel (1997), 'White Women Listen! Black Feminism and the Boundaries of Sisterhood', in Heidi Safia Mirza (ed.), Black British Feminism: A Reader, London and New York, Routledge.
• Connor, Rachel and Crofts, Charlotte (1998), 'Assuming White Identities: Racial and Gendered Looking Across the Literature / Media Divide', in Heloise Brown, Madi Gilkes, Ann Kaloski-Naylor (eds), White?Women, York: Raw Nerve Books.
• Davy, Kate (1997), 'Outing Whiteness: A Feminist Lesbian Project', in Mike Hill (ed.), Whiteness: A Critical Reader, New York and London, New York University Press.
• Hage, G (2003) White Nation: fantasies of White supremacy in a multicultural society, Annandale, NSW: Pluto Press
• Hill, Mike. (2004) After Whiteness: Unmaking an American Majority. New York: NYU Press.
• Hill, Mike. (1997) Whiteness: A Critical Reader. New York: NYU Press.
• Peter Kolchin, "Whiteness Studies: The New History of Race in America," Journal of American History 89 (2002) 154-73.
• Donaldson, Laura E. (1992), Decolonizing Feminisms: Race, Gender and Empire, London, Routledge.
• Dyer, Richard (1997), White, London, Routledge.
• Gaines, Jane (1986), 'White Privilege and Looking Relations: Race and Gender in Feminist Film Theory', Cultural Critique, 4, 59-79.
• Kaplan, E. Ann (1997), Looking For the Other: Feminism, Film and the Imperial Gaze, New York and London, Routledge.
• Lott, Eric (1997), 'The Whiteness of Film Noir', in Mike Hill (ed.), Whiteness: A Critical Reader (1997), New York and London, New York University Press, 81-101
• Nishikawa, Kinohi (2005), "White," The Greenwood Encyclopedia of African American Literature, ed. Hans Ostrom and J. David Macey, Jr. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1725-26.
• Roediger, David R. (1991), The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class, New York and London, Verso.
• Shohat, Ella (1991), 'Gender and the Culture of Empire: Towards a Feminist Ethnography of the Cinema', Quarterly Review of Film and Video, 13 (1-2): 45-84.
• Young, Robert. (1990) White Mythologies: Writing History and the West. London: Routledge.

Richard W. Dyer is an English academic specialising in cinema. ...

See also

• Casta
• Anti-racist mathematics
• Anti-racism
• Identity politics
• Ideological whiteness
• Media and ethnicity
• Postmodernism
• Race, for a discussion of the biological concept of race and its applicability to the human population
• Social criticism
• White (people)
• White privilege
• White trash

Look up Casta in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into anti-bias mathematics practice. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Identity politics is the political activity of various social movements for self-determination. ... Ideological Whiteness is a concept describing modes of social interaction that help an individual rise in the corporate system of institutionalized racism. ... Postmodernism is a term applied to a wide-ranging set of developments in critical theory, philosophy, architecture, art, literature, and culture, which are generally characterized as either emerging from, in reaction to, or superseding, modernism. ... For other uses, see Race (disambiguation). ... A cultural critic is a critic of a given culture, usually as a whole and typically on a radical basis; a social critic of a given society, but the overlap is large. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... White privilege is a sociological construct describing the advantages enjoyed by white persons beyond what is commonly experienced by the non-white people in those same social spaces (nation, community, workplace, etc. ... For other uses, see White trash (disambiguation). ...

External links

• Whiteness Studies: Deconstructing (the) Race, web site
• Abolish the White Race, Harvard Magazine
• Hue and Cry on "Whiteness Studies", Washington Post article
• Roediger, David R. The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (ISBN 0-86091-550-6) (Verso, 1991)
• Engles, Tim (editor) Towards a Bibliography of Critical Whiteness Studies Center on Democracy in a Multiracial Society, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign