The Wilmot Proviso was introduced on August 8, 1846 in the House of Representatives as a rider on a $2 million appropriations bill intended for the final negotiations to resolve the Mexican-American War. The intent of the proviso, submitted by Democratic Congressman David Wilmot, was to prevent the introduction of slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico. The proviso did not pass in this session or in any other session when it was reintroduced over the course of the next several years, but many consider it as the first event in the long slide to Civil War which would accelerate through the 1850s. is the 220th day of the year (221st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1846 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... The United States House of Representatives (or simply the House) is one of the two chambers of the United States Congress; the other is the Senate. ... Combatants United States Mexico Commanders Zachary Taylor Winfield Scott Stephen W. Kearney Antonio López de Santa Anna Mariano Arista Pedro de Ampudia José Mariá Flores Strength 78,790 soldiers 25,000–40,000 soldiers Casualties KIA: 1733 Total dead: 13,271 Wounded: 4,152 AWOL: 9,200+ 25,000... Federal courts Supreme Court Circuit Courts of Appeal District Courts Elections Presidential elections Midterm elections Political Parties Democratic Republican Third parties State & Local government Governors Legislatures (List) State Courts Local Government Other countries Atlas  Politics Portal      Further information: Politics of the United States#Organization of American political parties The Democratic... David Wilmot David Wilmot (January 20, 1814 – March 16, 1868) was a U.S. political figure. ... Slave redirects here. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. ... Combatants United States of America (Union) Confederate States of America (Confederacy) Commanders Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant Jefferson Davis, Robert E. Lee Strength 2,200,000 1,064,000 Casualties 110,000 killed in action, 360,000 total dead, 275,200 wounded 93,000 killed in action, 258,000 total...

David Wilmot

Image File history File links Size of this preview: 437 × 599 pixel Image in higher resolution (595 × 816 pixel, file size: 227 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) http://hdl. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 437 × 599 pixel Image in higher resolution (595 × 816 pixel, file size: 227 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) http://hdl. ... David Wilmot David Wilmot (January 20, 1814 – March 16, 1868) was a U.S. political figure. ...

Background

After an earlier attempt to acquire Texas by treaty had failed to receive the necessary two-thirds approval of the Senate, the United States annexed the Republic of Texas by a joint resolution of Congress that required simply a majority vote in each house of Congress. President John Tyler signed the bill on March 1, 1845 in the waning days of his presidency. As many expected, the annexation led to war with Mexico. When the war began to wind down, the political focus shifted to what territory, if any, would be acquired from Mexico. Key to this was the determination of the future status of slavery in any new territory Capital Washington-on-the-Brazos, Harrisburg, Galveston, Velasco, Columbia (1836) Houston (1837–1839) Austin (1839–1845) Language(s) English (de facto) Spanish, French, German and Native American languages regionally Government Republic President1  - 1836-1838 Sam Houston  - 1838-1841 Mirabeau B. Lamar  - 1841-1844 Sam Houston  - 1844-1845 Anson Jones Vice... Federal courts Supreme Court Chief Justice Associate Justices Elections Presidential elections Midterm elections Political Parties Democratic Republican Third parties State & Local government Governors Legislatures (List) State Courts Local Government Other countries Politics Portal      The United States Senate is one of the two chambers of the bicameral United States Congress, the... Capital Washington-on-the-Brazos, Harrisburg, Galveston, Velasco, Columbia (1836) Houston (1837–1839) Austin (1839–1845) Language(s) English (de facto) Spanish, French, German and Native American languages regionally Government Republic President1  - 1836-1838 Sam Houston  - 1838-1841 Mirabeau B. Lamar  - 1841-1844 Sam Houston  - 1844-1845 Anson Jones Vice... Type Bicameral Houses Senate House of Representatives President of the Senate President pro tempore Dick Cheney, (R) since January 20, 2001 Robert C. Byrd, (D) since January 4, 2007 Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi, (D) since January 4, 2007 Members 535 plus 4 Delegates and 1 Resident Commissioner Political... John Tyler, Jr. ...

Both major political parties had labored long to keep divisive slavery issues out of national politics. The Democrats had generally been successful in picturing those within their party attempting to push a purely sectional issue as extremists that were well outside the normal scope of traditional politics.^[1] However, midway through Polk’s term, Democratic dissatisfaction with the administration was growing within the Martin Van Buren, or Barnburner, wing of the Democratic Party over other issues. Many felt that Van Buren had been unfairly denied the party’s nomination in 1844 when southern delegates resurrected a convention rule, last used in 1832, requiring that the nominee had to receive two-thirds of the delegate votes. Many in the North were also upset with the Walker tariff which reduced the tariff rates; others were opposed to Polk’s veto of a popular river and harbor improvements bill, and still others were upset over the Oregon settlement with Great Britain where it appeared that Polk did not pursue the northern territory with the same vigor he used to acquire Texas. Polk was seen more and more as enforcing strict party loyalty primarily to serve southern interests. ^[2] Federal courts Supreme Court Circuit Courts of Appeal District Courts Elections Presidential elections Midterm elections Political Parties Democratic Republican Third parties State & Local government Governors Legislatures (List) State Courts Local Government Other countries Atlas  Politics Portal      Further information: Politics of the United States#Organization of American political parties The Democratic... James Knox Polk (November 2, 1795–June 15, 1849) was the eleventh President of the United States, serving from March 4, 1845 to March 4, 1849. ... Martin Van Buren (December 5, 1782 – July 24, 1862), nicknamed Old Kinderhook, was the eighth President of the United States from 1837 to 1841. ... The Barnburners were a liberal faction of the New York state United States Democratic Party in the mid 19th century. ... The 1846 Walker tariff was a United States Democratic Party-passed bill that reversed the high rates of tariffs imposed by the Whig-backed Black Tariff of 1842 under president John Tyler. ...

The Wilmot Proviso was seen as a stumbling block for Presidential candidates, such as Taylor

The Whigs faced a different scenario. The victory of James Polk (D) over Henry Clay (W) in the 1844 presidential election had caught the southern Whigs by surprise. The key element of this defeat, which carried over into the congressional and local races in 1845 and 1846 throughout the South, was the party’s failure to take a strong stand favoring Texas annexation. Southern Whigs were reluctant to repeat their mistakes on Texas, but, at the same time, Whigs from both sections realized that victory and territorial acquisition would again bring out the issue of slavery and the territories. In the South in particular there was already the realization, or perhaps fear, that the old economic issues that had defined the Second Party System were already dead. Their political goal was to avoid any sectional debate over slavery which would expose the sectional divisions within the party.^[3] Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1536x1113, 256 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Wilmot Proviso Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1536x1113, 256 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Wilmot Proviso Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to... Zachary Taylor (November 24, 1784 – July 9, 1850)[2] was an American military leader and the twelfth President of the United States. ... This article is about the U.S. President. ... Federal courts Supreme Court Circuit Courts of Appeal District Courts Elections Presidential elections Midterm elections Political Parties Democratic Republican Third parties State & Local government Governors Legislatures (List) State Courts Local Government Other countries Atlas  Politics Portal      Further information: Politics of the United States#Organization of American political parties The Democratic... Henry Clay, Sr. ... The Whig Party was a political party of the United States during the era of Jacksonian democracy. ... The Second Party System is the term historians give to the political system existing in the United States from about 1824 to 1854. ...

Introduction and debate on the proviso

On Saturday August 8, 1846 President Polk submitted to Congress a request for $2,000,000 in order to facilitate negotiations with Mexico over the final settlement of the war. The request came with no public warning after Polk had failed to arrange for approval of the bill with no Congressional debate. With Congress scheduled to adjourn that Monday, Democratic leadership arranged for the bill to be immediately considered in a special night session. Debate was to be limited to two hours with no individual speech to last more than ten minutes.^[4] James Knox Polk (November 2, 1795–June 15, 1849) was the eleventh President of the United States, serving from March 4, 1845 to March 4, 1849. ...

David Wilmot, a Democratic congressman from Pennsylvania, and a group of other Barnburner Democrats including Preston King of New York, Hannibal Hamlin of Maine, Gideon Welles of Connecticut, and Jacob Brinkerhoff^[5] of Ohio, had already been meeting in early August strategy meetings. Wilmot had a strong record of supporting the Polk administration and was close to many Southerners. With the likelihood that Wilmot would have no trouble gaining the floor in the House debate, he was chosen to present the amendment to the appropriations bill that would carry his name.^[6]Wilmot offered the following to the House in language modeled after the Northwest Ordinance of 1787: David Wilmot David Wilmot (January 20, 1814 – March 16, 1868) was a U.S. political figure. ... Federal courts Supreme Court Circuit Courts of Appeal District Courts Elections Presidential elections Midterm elections Political Parties Democratic Republican Third parties State & Local government Governors Legislatures (List) State Courts Local Government Other countries Atlas  Politics Portal      Further information: Politics of the United States#Organization of American political parties The Democratic... Capital Harrisburg Largest city Philadelphia Area  Ranked 33rd  - Total 46,055 sq mi (119,283 km²)  - Width 280 miles (455 km)  - Length 160 miles (255 km)  - % water 2. ... 1848 cartoon satirizing the Barnburners / Free Soil Party The Barnburners were a liberal faction of the New York state Democratic Party in the mid 19th century. ... Preston King (October 14, 1806-November 12, 1865) was a Representative and a Senator from New York; born in Ogdensburg, New York on October 14, 1806. ... “NY” redirects here. ... Hannibal Hamlin (August 27, 1809 – July 4, 1891) was an American politician from the U.S. state of Maine. ... Official language(s) None (English and French de facto) Capital Augusta Largest city Portland Area  Ranked 39th  - Total 33,414 sq mi (86,542 km²)  - Width 210 miles (338 km)  - Length 320 miles (515 km)  - % water 13. ... Gideon Welles (July 1, 1802–February 11, 1878) was the United States Secretary of the Navy from 1861 to 1869, including the entire duration of the American Civil War: his dedication to naval blockades was one of the key reasons for the Norths victory over the South. ... Official language(s) English Capital Hartford Largest city Bridgeport Largest metro area Hartford Area  Ranked 48th  - Total 5,543[2] sq mi (14,356 km²)  - Width 70 miles (113 km)  - Length 110 miles (177 km)  - % water 12. ... Jacob Brinkerhoff, (August 31, 1810 - July 19, 1880), jurist, Congressman, author of the Wilmot Proviso, was born in Niles, Cayuga County, New York, the son of Henry I. Brinkerhoff and Rachel Berier. ... Official language(s) None Capital Columbus Largest city Columbus Largest metro area Cleveland Area  Ranked 34th  - Total 44,825 sq mi (116,096 km²)  - Width 220 miles (355 km)  - Length 220 miles (355 km)  - % water 8. ... Northwest Territory (1787). ...

William W. Wick (D) of Indiana attempted to eliminate total restriction of slavery by proposing an amendment that the Missouri Compromise line of latitude 36°30' simply be extended west to the Pacific. This was voted down 89-54. The vote to add the proviso to the bill was then called, and it passed by 83-64. A last ditch effort by southerners to table the entire bill was defeated by 94-78, and then the entire bill was approved 85-80. Most ominously, these votes all fell overwhelmingly along sectional rather than party lines.^[7] William Watson Wick (February 23, 1796 - May 19, 1868) was a U.S. Representative from Indiana. ... Federal courts Supreme Court Circuit Courts of Appeal District Courts Elections Presidential elections Midterm elections Political Parties Democratic Republican Third parties State & Local government Governors Legislatures (List) State Courts Local Government Other countries Atlas  Politics Portal      Further information: Politics of the United States#Organization of American political parties The Democratic... Official language(s) English Capital Indianapolis Largest city Indianapolis Area  Ranked 38th  - Total 36,418 sq mi (94,321 km²)  - Width 140 miles (225 km)  - Length 270 miles (435 km)  - % water 1. ... The parallel 36°30 north is an imaginary circle of latitude that is 36. ... “Pacific” redirects here. ...

The Senate took up the bill late in its Monday session. Democrats hoped to reject the Wilmot Proviso and send the bill back to the House for a quick approval of the bill without the restrictions on slavery. Whig John Davis of Massachusetts attempted to forestall this effort by holding the floor until it would be too late to return the bill to the House, forcing the Senate to accept or reject the appropriation with the proviso intact. However before he could call the vote, due to an eight minute difference in the official House and Senate clocks, the House had adjourned and the Congress was officially out of session.^[8] John Davis (January 13, 1787 – April 19, 1854) was an American lawyer and politician. ...

The issue resurfaced at the end of the year when Polk, in his annual message to Congress, renewed his request with the amount needed increased to three million dollars. Polk argued that, while the original intent of the war had never been to acquire territory (a view hotly contested by his opponents), an honorable peace required territorial compensation to the United States.^[9]The Three Million Dollar Bill, as it was called, was the sole item of business in the House from February 8, 1847 until February 15. Preston King reintroduced the Wilmot Proviso, but this time the exclusion of slavery was expanded beyond merely the Mexican territory to include "any territory on the continent of America which shall hereafter be acquired". This time Representative Stephen Douglas (D) of Illinois reintroduced the proposal to simply extend the Missouri Compromise line to the west coast, and this was again defeated 109-82. The Three Million Bill with the proviso was then passed by the House 115-106. In the Senate, led by Thomas Hart Benton (D), the bill was passed without the proviso. When the bill was returned to the House the Senate bill prevailed; every Northern Whig still supported the proviso, but 22 northern Democrats voted with the South. ^[10] Stephen A. Douglas Stephen Arnold Douglas (April 23, 1813 - June 3, 1861), American politician from Illinois, was one of the Democratic Party nominees for President in 1860 (the other being John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky). ... Federal courts Supreme Court Circuit Courts of Appeal District Courts Elections Presidential elections Midterm elections Political Parties Democratic Republican Third parties State & Local government Governors Legislatures (List) State Courts Local Government Other countries Atlas  Politics Portal      Further information: Politics of the United States#Organization of American political parties The Democratic... The United States in 1820. ... Thomas Hart Benton (March 14, 1782–April 10, 1858), nicknamed Old Bullion, was an American Senator from Missouri and a staunch advocate of westward expansion of the United States. ... Federal courts Supreme Court Circuit Courts of Appeal District Courts Elections Presidential elections Midterm elections Political Parties Democratic Republican Third parties State & Local government Governors Legislatures (List) State Courts Local Government Other countries Atlas  Politics Portal      Further information: Politics of the United States#Organization of American political parties The Democratic...

In 1848 the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ending the war was submitted to the Senate for approval. Douglas, now in the Senate, was among those who joined with the South to defeat an effort to attach the Wilmot Proviso to the treaty.^[11] In the prior year's debate in the House Douglas had argued that all of the debate over slavery in the territories was premature; the time to deal with that issue was when the territory was actually organized by Congress. ^[12] Lewis Cass (D) in December 1847, in his famous letter to A. O. P. Nicholson in Tennessee, further defined the concept of popular sovereignty which would soon evolve as the mainstream Democratic alternative to the Wilmot Proviso: Lewis Cass (October 9, 1782 – June 17, 1866) was an American military officer and politician. ... Federal courts Supreme Court Circuit Courts of Appeal District Courts Elections Presidential elections Midterm elections Political Parties Democratic Republican Third parties State & Local government Governors Legislatures (List) State Courts Local Government Other countries Atlas  Politics Portal      Further information: Politics of the United States#Organization of American political parties The Democratic... Official language(s) English Capital Nashville Largest city Memphis Largest metro area Nashville Area  Ranked 36th  - Total 42,169 sq mi (109,247 km²)  - Width 120 miles (195 km)  - Length 440 miles (710 km)  - % water 2. ... Pooybuttpular sovereignty is the doctrine that the state is created by and therefore subject to the will of its people, who are the source of all political power. ...

Aftermath

With the approval of the treaty, the issue moved from one of abstraction to one involving practical matters. The nature of the Constitution, slavery, the value of free labor, political power, and ultimately political realignment were all invoved in the debate.^[14] Historian Michael Morrison argues that from 1820-1846 a combination of "racism and veneration of the Union" had prevented a direct northern attack on slavery.^[15] While the original southern response to the Wilmot Proviso was measured, it soon became clear to the South that this long postponed attack on slavery had finally occurred. Rather than simply the politics of the issue, historian William Freehling noted, "Most Southerners raged primarily because David Wilmot’s holier-than-thou stance was so insulting." ^[16]

In the North, the most immediate repercussions involved Martin Van Buren and the state of New York. The Barnburners were successfully opposed by their conservative opposition, the Hunkers, in their efforts to send a pro-proviso batch of delegates to the 1848 Democratic National Convention. The Barnburners held their own separate convention and sent their own slate of delegates to the convention in Baltimore. Both delegations were seated with the state's total votes split between them. When the convention rejected a pro-proviso plank^[17] and selected Lewis Cass as the nominee, the Barnburners again bolted and were the nucleus of forming the Free Soil Party.^[18] Historian Leonard Richards writes of these disaffected Democrats: Martin Van Buren (December 5, 1782 – July 24, 1862), nicknamed Old Kinderhook, was the eighth President of the United States from 1837 to 1841. ... “NY” redirects here. ... 1848 cartoon satirizing the Barnburners / Free Soil Party The Barnburners were a liberal faction of the New York state Democratic Party in the mid 19th century. ... 1848 cartoon satirizing the Barnburners / Free Soil Party The Barnburners were a liberal faction of the New York state Democratic Party in the mid 19th century. ... Lewis Cass (October 9, 1782 – June 17, 1866) was an American military officer and politician. ... The Free Soil Party was a short-lived political party in the United States active in the 1848 and 1852 presidential elections, and in some state elections. ...

Historian William Cooper presents the exactly opposite southern perspective:

In Alabama, with no available candidate sufficiently opposed to the proviso, William L. Yancey secured the adoption by the state Democratic convention of the so-called "Alabama Platform," which was endorsed by the legislatures of Alabama and Georgia and by Democratic state conventions in Florida and Virginia. The platform called for no Federal restrictions of slavery in the territories, no restrictions on slavery by territorial governments until the point where they were drafting a state constitution in order to petition Congress for statehood, opposition to any candidates supporting either the proviso or popular sovereignty, and positive federal legislation overruling Mexican anti-slavery laws in the Mexican Cession. However the same Democratic Convention that had refused to endorse the proviso also rejected incorporating the Yancey proposal into the national platform by a 216-36 vote. Unlike the Barnburner walkout, however, only Yancey and one other Alabama delegate left the convention. Yancey’s efforts to stir up a third party movement in the state failed. ^[21] This article is about the U.S. State. ... William Lowndes Yancey (August 10, 1814 - July 27, 1863), American political leader, son of Benjamin Cudworth Yancey, an able lawyer of South Carolina, of Welsh descent, was born near the Falls of the Ogeechee, Warren County, Georgia. ... Official language(s) English Capital Tallahassee Largest city Jacksonville Largest metro area Miami metropolitan area Area  Ranked 22nd  - Total 65,795[1] sq mi (170,304[1] km²)  - Width 361 miles (582 km)  - Length 447 miles (721 km)  - % water 17. ... This article is about the U.S. state. ...

Southerner Whigs looked hopefully to slaveholder and Mexican war hero General Zachary Taylor as the solution to the widening sectional divide even though he took no public stance on the Wilmot Proviso. However Taylor, once nominated and elected, showed that he had his own plans. Taylor hoped to create a new non-partisan coalition that would once again remove slavery from the national stage. He expected to be able to accomplish this by freezing slavery at its 1849 boundaries and by immediately bypassing the territory stage and creating two new states out of the Mexican Cession.^[22] Zachary Taylor (November 24, 1784 – July 9, 1850)[2] was an American military leader and the twelfth President of the United States. ...

The opening salvo in a new level of sectional conflict occurred on December 13, 1848 when John G. Palfrey (W) of Massachusetts introduced a bill to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia. Throughout 1849 in the South "the rhetoric of resistance to the North escalated and spread". The potentially secessionist Nashville Convention was scheduled for June 1850.^[23] When President Taylor in his December 1849 message to Congress urged the admission of California as a free state, a state of crisis was further aggravated. Historian Allan Nevins sums up the situation which had been created by the Wilmot Proviso: This article is about the U.S. Representative from Massachusetts. ... The Whig Party was a political party of the United States during the era of Jacksonian democracy. ... This article is about the U.S. State. ... ... The Nashville Convention was a political meeting held in Nashville, Tennessee, on June 3 – 11, 1850. ... Zachary Taylor (November 24, 1784 – July 9, 1850)[2] was an American military leader and the twelfth President of the United States. ... Official language(s) English Capital Sacramento Largest city Los Angeles Largest metro area Greater Los Angeles Area  Ranked 3rd  - Total 158,302 sq mi (410,000 km²)  - Width 250 miles (400 km)  - Length 770 miles (1,240 km)  - % water 4. ...

Combined with other slavery related issues, the Wilmot Proviso led to the Compromise of 1850, which helped buy another shaky decade of peace. Radical secessionists were temporarily at bay as the Nashville Convention failed to endorse secession. Moderates rallied around the Compromise as the final solution to the sectional issues involving slavery and the territories. At the same time, however, the language of the Georgia Platform, widely accepted throughout the South, made it clear that the South’s commitment to Union was not unqualified; they fully expected the North to adhere to their part of the agreement. Henry Clay takes the floor of the Old Senate Chamber; Millard Fillmore presides as Calhoun and Webster look on. ... The Georgia Platform was a statement executed by a Georgia Convention in response to the Compromise of 1850. ...

External links

• Wilmot Proviso

Notes

1. ^ Silbey pg. 123
2. ^ Morrison p.42. Johannsen pg. 202. Potter pg. 22-29
3. ^ Cooper pg. 225-229.
4. ^ Potter pg. 18-19
5. ^ Earle pg. 233 fn. 1. Brinkerhoff is claimed by some historians to have been the actual author of the proviso.
6. ^ Silbey pg. 124. Potter pg. 21. Richards pg. 150. Fire-eater William L. Yancey (D) in 1846 considered Wilmot as the one northerner that could be trusted. Walther pg. 91
7. ^ Morrison pg. 41. Potter pg. 22. Richards pg. 152
8. ^ Potter pg. 22-23
9. ^ Morrison pg. 53
10. ^ Richards pg. 152-153. Johannsen pg. 204. Silbey pg. 130-131
11. ^ Unlike appropriations bills that constitutionally were required to be initiated in the House, since a treaty was involved the debate this time would only involve the Senate.
12. ^ Johannsen pg. 216-217
13. ^ Johannsen pg. 227
14. ^ Holt pg. 50
15. ^ Morrison pg. 53
16. ^ Freehling pg 461
17. ^ http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showplatforms.php?platindex=D1848
18. ^ Richards pg. 154-155
19. ^ Richards pg. 159
20. ^ Cooper pg. 233-234
21. ^ Walther p. 102-117. Niven pg. 314 South Carolina had boycotted the entire convention, but a single South Carolinian was admitted by the convention as the state’s delegation and he made all nine of the state’s votes at the convention.
22. ^ Cooper pg. 243-245, 273-176
23. ^ Walther p. 118-122
24. ^ Nevins p. 12-13

William Lowndes Yancey (August 10, 1814 - July 27, 1863), American political leader, son of Benjamin Cudworth Yancey, an able lawyer of South Carolina, of Welsh descent, was born near the Falls of the Ogeechee, Warren County, Georgia. ... Federal courts Supreme Court Circuit Courts of Appeal District Courts Elections Presidential elections Midterm elections Political Parties Democratic Republican Third parties State & Local government Governors Legislatures (List) State Courts Local Government Other countries Atlas  Politics Portal      Further information: Politics of the United States#Organization of American political parties The Democratic...

References

• Berwanger, Eugene H. The Frontier Against Slavery: Western Anti-Negro Prejudice and the Slavery Extension Controversy. (1967) ISBN 0-252-07056-9.

• Cooper, William J. Jr. The South and the Politics of Slavery 1828-1856. (1978) ISBN 0-8071-0385.3.

• Earle, Jonathan H. Jacksonian Antislavery & the Politics of Free Soil, 1824-1854. (2004) ISBN 0-8078-2888-2.

• Foner, Eric. Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party Before the Civil War. (1970) ISBN0-19-509981-8.

• Freehling, William W. The Road to Disunion: Secessionists at Bay 1776-1854. (1990) ISBN 0-19-505814-3.

• Holt, Michael F. The Political Crisis of the 1850s. (1978) ISBN 0-393-95370-X.

• Johnansen, Robert W. Stephen A. Douglas. (1973) ISBN 0-252-06635-9.

• Levine, Bruce. Half Slave and Half Free: The Roots of Civil War. (1992).

• McKnight, Brian D., article on Wilmot Proviso in "Encyclopedia of the American Civil War", edited by David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler, 2000, ISBN 0-393-04758-X.

• Morrison, Michael A. Slavery and the American West: The Eclipse of Manifest Destiny and the Coming of the Civil War. (1997) ISBN0-8078-2319-8.

• Nevins, Allan. Ordeal of the Union: Fruits of Manifest Destiny 1847-1852. (1947) SBN 684-10424-5.

• Niven, John. John C. Calhoun and the Price of Union: A Biography. (1988) ISBN 0-8071-1451-0.

• Potter, David M. The Impending Crisis 1848-1861. (1976) ISBN 0-06-131929-5.

• Richards, Leonard L. The Slave Power and Southern Domination 1780-1860. (2000) ISBN 0-8071-2537-7.

• Silby, Joel H. Storm over Texas: The Annexation Controversy and the Road to the Civil War. (2005) ISBN 13:978-0-19-513944-0.

• Walther, Eric H. William Lowndes Yancey: The Coming of the Civil War. (2006) ISBN 13:978-0-7394-8030-4.