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1533 account of the execution of a witch charged with burning the town of Schiltach in 1531.

A Witch Trial is a legal action taken against a person charged with witchcraft. In Europe these began in earnest in around 1450 and continued until approximately the mid-18th century. Although it now seems certain that the vast majority of the accused were innocent, during this period it was common for accusations of malicious, harmful, and Satanic witchcraft to be taken seriously, often resulting in loss of reputation, imprisonment, torture, and execution of the accused in Europe and to a lesser extent the European colonies. Scholarly estimates of the numbers of people executed for witchcraft during this period range around 40,000, with high estimates reaching as many as 100,000, with significantly more accused, but not executed. Witch trials were most common in Germany, the British Isles, France, and Italy; the phenomenon was far less pronounced in Scandinavia, Ireland, and Spain. The Salem witch trials of 1692 are the most famous example in colonial America, but not the only example. For more about the attempts to find accused witches, see witch hunt. Image File history File links Circle-question-red. ... Image File history File links Unbalanced_scales. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1115x1530, 870 KB) Flugblatt (Stefan Hamer, Nürnberg 1533) zum Teufel von Schiltach Source: Hexen und Hexenverfolgung im deutschen Südwesten. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1115x1530, 870 KB) Flugblatt (Stefan Hamer, Nürnberg 1533) zum Teufel von Schiltach Source: Hexen und Hexenverfolgung im deutschen Südwesten. ... Schiltach is a town in the district of Rottweil, in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. ... Witchcraft, in various historical, religious and mythical contexts, is the use of certain kinds of alleged supernatural or magical powers. ... European redirects here. ... Events March - French troops under Guy de Richemont besiege the English commander in France, Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, in Caen April 15 - Battle of Formigny. ... (17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ... Satanism Associated Organizations Church of Satan First Satanic Church Prominent Figures Anton LaVey | Blanche Barton | Peter H. Gilmore | Peggy Nadramia | Karla LaVey Associated Concepts Left-Hand Path | Moral Majority | Pentagonal Revisionism | Suitheism | Survival of the fittest | Objectivism | Might is Right Books and Publications The Satanic Bible | The Satanic Rituals | The... Witchcraft, in various historical, religious and mythical contexts, is the use of certain kinds of alleged supernatural or magical powers. ... The references in this article would be clearer with a different style of citation, footnoting or external linking. ... A prison is a place in which people are confined and deprived of a range of liberties. ... For other uses, see Torture (disambiguation). ... NB *See note on Irish Governments perception of the term British Isles directly below. ... Scandinavia is a region in Northern Europe. ... 1876 illustration of the courtroom; the central figure is usually identified as Mary Walcott The Salem Witch Trials, which began in 1692 (also known as the Salem witch hunt and the Salem witchcraft episode), resulted in a number of convictions and executions for witchcraft in both Salem Village and Salem... Events February 13 - Massacre of Glencoe March 1 - The Salem witch trials begin in Salem Village, Massachusetts Bay Colony with the charging of three women with witchcraft. ... A witch-hunt was traditionally a search for witches or evidence of witchcraft, which could lead to a witchcraft trial involving the accused person. ...

History

Early Trials

Though formal witch trials are distinct to Europe and the Americas during a specific historical period, the phenomenon of witch hunts is much more broadly known. Anthropologists who study this phenomenon note that accusations of evil magic against people living on the fringe of society predate Christianity and can be found on every inhabited continent. A witch-hunt was traditionally a search for witches or evidence of witchcraft, which could lead to a witchcraft trial involving the accused person. ... See Anthropology. ... Christianity is a monotheistic[1] religion centered on Jesus of Nazareth, and on his life and teachings as presented in the New Testament. ...

Some modern popular writers associate the witch trials with the much earlier struggles between Christianity and paganism. They cite incidents such as the destruction of the sacred oak at Dodona in 391 CE as akin to witch trials. Historians are clear though that the famous witch trials were wholly unrelated to this conflict. [1] Theatre of Pyrrhus in Dodona. ... Events All non-Christian temples in the Roman Empire are closed Quintus Aurelius Symmachus is urban prefect in Rome, and petitions Theodosius I to re-open the pagan temples. ...

One particular case that is often cited as an early witch trial is the death of Hypatia in 415 CE. Hypatia was one of the best-known philosophers in her time, as well as a pagan. Her murder in Alexandria at the hands of a Christian mob has been reported by popular writers as an early example of a witch trial. Hypatia could refer to: Hypatia of Alexandria (?370–415), a neo-Platonic philosopher, mathematician, and teacher. ... Events The Visigoths leave Gallia Narbonensis and relocate in Spain Wallia becomes king of the Visigoths. ... Alexandria Modern Alexandria. ...

It is not clear that Hypatia was ever accused of witchcraft, and her death was due to mob violence rather than any trial. Supporters of the idea that the mob thought of her as a witch point to the fact that the method of her death, being gouged to death with jagged potsherds is similar to the sentence the Emperor Constantine declared for workers of black magic. Constantine said such people should have their flesh torn from their bones with iron hooks. Head of Constantines colossal statue at Musei Capitolini Gaius Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus[1] (February 27, 272–May 22, 337), commonly known as Constantine I, Constantine the Great, or (among Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic[2] Christians) Saint Constantine, was a Roman Emperor, proclaimed Augustus by his troops on...

Also, an early source for her story, John of Nikiû, portrays Hypatia as a worker of evil magic and an enemy of the Christian church: John of Nikiû was a Coptic bishop of Nikiû/Pashati in the Egyptian Delta and appointed general administrator of the monsteries of Upper Egypt in 696. ...

"And in those days there appeared in Alexandria a female philosopher, a pagan named Hypatia, and she was devoted at all times to magic, astrolabes and instruments of music, and she beguiled many people through (her) Satanic wiles. And the governor of the city honored her exceedingly; for she had beguiled him through her magic. And he ceased attending church as had been his custom."

Despite this, there is no clear evidence that the charge of witchcraft was actually brought against Hypatia.

Middle Ages

During the early Middle Ages, witch trials were not an issue. The Council of Paderborn in 785 explicitly outlawed the very belief in witches, and Charlemagne later confirmed the law. The first medieval trials against witches date to the 13th century with the institution of the Inquisition, but they were a side issue, as the Church was concentrating on the persecution of heresy, and witchcraft, alleged or real, was treated as any other sort of heresy. Events Widukind and many other Saxons are baptized. ... Charlemagne, portrait by Albrecht Dürer. ... (12th century - 13th century - 14th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 13th century was that century which lasted from 1201 to 1300. ... The term Inquisition (Latin: Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis Sanctum Officium) is a special Chatolic ecclesiastical institutional for combating or suppressing heresy. ... Heresy, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, is a theological or religious opinion or doctrine maintained in opposition, or held to be contrary, to the Catholic or Orthodox doctrine of the Christian Church, or, by extension, to that of any church, creed, or religious system, considered as orthodox. ...

Early Modern

The European witchhunts only began on a large scale during the Early Modern period, starting around 1450. Rather than a theologically sanctioned campaign of the church, the phenomenon has all traits of mass hysteria. The classical attributes of a witch, flying on brooms, intercourse with the Devil, and meeting of demons and other witches at sabbaths, became canonical from around 1400. The idea of witch sabbaths fostered a classical conspiracy theory, with fantasies of an underground witch sect plotting to overthrow Christianity. The areas mainly affected by this were the Holy Roman Empire and adjacent parts, as well as Scotland. Reprints of the Malleus Maleficarum in 29 editions between 1487 and 1669 mark the peak of the European craze. This book had been condemned by the Catholic Church in 1490 but continued to be widely used by secular witch-hunting courts. Intellectuals spoke out against the trials from the late 16th century. Johannes Kepler in 1615 could only by the weight of his prestige keep his mother from being burnt as a witch. The 1692 Salem witch trials were a brief outburst of witch hysteria in the New world at a time when the practice was already waning in Europe. Winifred King was the last person tried for witchcraft in New England; Winifred's daughter Winifred Jr and mother Mary Hale were also tried for witchcraft.^{[citation needed]} The early modern period is a term used by historians to refer to the period in Western Europe and its first colonies, between the Middle Ages and modern society. ... Events March - French troops under Guy de Richemont besiege the English commander in France, Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, in Caen April 15 - Battle of Formigny. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Events Henry IV quells baron rebellion and executes The Earls of Kent, Huntingdon and Salisbury for their attempt to have Richard II of England restored as King Jean Froissart writes the Chronicles Medici family becomes powerful in Florence, Italy Births December 25 - John Sutton, 1st Baron Dudley, Lord Lieutenant of... A conspiracy theory attempts to explain the ultimate cause of an event (usually a political, social, or historical event) as a secret, and often deceptive, plot by a covert alliance of powerful people or organizations rather than as an overt activity or as natural occurrence. ... The Holy Roman Empire and from the 16th century on also The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation was a political conglomeration of lands in Central Europe in the Middle Ages and the early modern period. ... Motto: , traditionally rendered in Scots as Wha daur meddle wi me?[1] and in English as No one provokes me with impunity. ... Cover of the seventh Cologne edition of the Malleus Maleficarum, 1520 (from the University of Sydney Library). ... Events Tirant Lo Blanc by Joanot Martorell, Martí Joan De Galba is published. ... (15th century - 16th century - 17th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 16th century was that century which lasted from 1501 to 1600. ... Johannes Kepler Johannes Kepler (December 27, 1571 – November 15, 1630), a key figure in the scientific revolution, was a German mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, and an early writer of science fiction stories. ... Events February 13 - Massacre of Glencoe March 1 - The Salem witch trials begin in Salem Village, Massachusetts Bay Colony with the charging of three women with witchcraft. ... 1876 illustration of the courtroom; the central figure is usually identified as Mary Walcott The Salem Witch Trials, which began in 1692 (also known as the Salem witch hunt and the Salem witchcraft episode), resulted in a number of convictions and executions for witchcraft in both Salem Village and Salem...

During the Early Modern Period the concern over witchcraft reached the boiling point. Although there are debates of why the witch scares took place, there is a correlation between centralized government and acquittals in Witch trials. Most witch trials that resulted in convictions took place in rural areas. In these areas there was ~90% conviction (and execution) rate. Although most citizens during the time did believe in witchcraft as real, at the same time they were not ignorant to how personal interests could be involved in accusations. Another interesting aspect of witchcraft in the early modern period is how the highest concentration of trials took place on border areas, especially along the borders of France, Germany, and Italy, in what is modern day Switzerland. Some areas, such as Britain (with the exception of some notable trials in Scotland) and Spain saw few trials.^{[citation needed]} The early modern period is a term used by historians to refer to the period in Western Europe and its first colonies, between the Middle Ages and modern society. ... Motto: , traditionally rendered in Scots as Wha daur meddle wi me?[1] and in English as No one provokes me with impunity. ...

The period of witch trials came in waves and then subsided. There were early trials in the 15th and early 16th century, but then the witch scare went into decline, before becoming a big issue again and apexing in the 17th century. Some scholars argue that a fear of witchcraft started among intellectuals who believed in maleficium, that is bad deeds. What had previously been a belief that some people possessed supernatural abilities (which sometimes resulted in protecting the people), now became a sign of a pact between these people with supernatural abilities and the devil. Witchcraft became associated with wild Satanic ritual parties in which there was much naked dancing, orgy sex, and cannibalistic infanticide. Only after the trials had begun did the general population embrace the idea of witchcraft (as defined here). Satanism Associated Organizations Church of Satan First Satanic Church Prominent Figures Anton LaVey | Blanche Barton | Peter H. Gilmore | Peggy Nadramia | Karla LaVey Associated Concepts Left-Hand Path | Moral Majority | Pentagonal Revisionism | Suitheism | Survival of the fittest | Objectivism | Might is Right Books and Publications The Satanic Bible | The Satanic Rituals | The... Orgy. ...

18th century and later

During early 18th century, the practice subsided. The last execution for witchcraft in England took place in 1716, when Mary Hicks and her daughter Elizabeth were hanged. Jane Wenham was among the last subjects of a typical witch trial in England in 1712, but was pardoned after her conviction and set free. However as late as 1944, Helen Duncan was the last person to be convicted under the British Witchcraft Act, authorities fearing that by her alleged clairvoyant powers she could betray details of the D-Day preparations. She spent nine months in prison. The Act was repealed in 1951. // Events August 5 - In the Battle of Peterwardein 40. ... Title page of a book with Francis Hutchesons essay dismissing charges against Jane Wenham. ... // Events Treaty of Aargau signed between Catholic and Protestants. ... 1944 (MCMXLIV) was a leap year starting on Saturday (the link is to a full 1944 calendar). ... In England, a succession of Witchcraft Acts have governed witchcraft and provided penalties for its practice. ... Clairvoyance noun from late 17th century French [clair (clear) & voyant (seeing)] - is defined as a form of extra-sensory perception whereas a person perceives distant objects, persons, or events, including perceiving an image hidden behind opaque objects and the detection of types of energy not normally perceptible to humans (i. ... 1951 (MCMLI) was a common year starting on Monday; see its calendar. ...

Helena Curtens and Agnes Olmanns were the last women to be executed as witches in Germany, in 1738. In Austria, Maria Theresa outlawed witch-burning and torture in the late 18th century; the last capital trial took place in Salzburg in 1750. The last execution in Switzerland was that of Anna Göldi in 1782, at the time it was widely denounced as state-sponsored murder throughout Switzerland and Germany, and not technically a witch trial since explicit allegations of witchcraft were avoided in the official trial. Events February 4 - Court Jew Joseph Suss Oppenheimer is executed in Württenberg April 15 - Premiere in London of Serse, an Italian opera by George Frideric Handel. ... Maria Theresa, Queen of Hungary and Bohemia, Archduchess of Austria Maria Theresa (German: ; May 13, 1717–November 29, 1780) was Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary and Bohemia (1740–80). ... Anna Göldi (also Anna Göldin, ca. ... 1782 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ...

Number of executions

As mentioned earlier, estimates of the number of men, women, and children executed for participating in witchcraft vary wildly depending on the method used to generate the estimate. The total number of witch trials in Europe which are known for certain to have ended in executions is around 12,000.

Brian Levack, author of The Witch Hunt in Early Modern Europe, took the number of known European witch trials and multiplied it by the average rate of conviction and execution. This provided him with a figure of around 60,000 deaths.

Anne Lewellyn Barstow, author of Witchcraze, arrived at a number of approximately 100,000 deaths by attempting to adjust Levack's estimate to account for what she believed were unaccounted lost records, although historians have pointed out that Levack's estimate had already been adjusted for these.

Ronald Hutton, author of Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles and Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft, in his unpublished essay "Counting the Witch Hunt", counted local estimates, and in areas where estimates were unavailable attempted to extrapolate from nearby regions with similar demographics and attitudes towards witch hunting. He reached an estimate of 40,000 total executions, which appears to be emerging as the most widely accepted figure among academics. Ronald Hutton is Professor of History at the University of Bristol and is an occasional commentator on British television and radio on the history of paganism in the British Isles. ...

Proceedings

Authorities

Both civil and ecclesiastical authorities participated in witch trials. Trials occurred in Roman Catholic and Protestant countries. Catholic countries prosecuted witchcraft as a heresy, whereas Protestant countries considered it a violent crime; both viewed malicious witchcraft as necessarily involving the aid of Satan or demons. The Roman Catholic Church, most often spoken of simply as the Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with over one billion members. ... The Protestant Reformation, also referred to as the Protestant Revolution or Protestant Revolt, was a movement in the 16th century to reform the Catholic Church in Western Europe. ... Heresy, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, is a theological or religious opinion or doctrine maintained in opposition, or held to be contrary, to the Catholic or Orthodox doctrine of the Christian Church, or, by extension, to that of any church, creed, or religious system, considered as orthodox. ... Gustave Dorés depiction of Satan from John Miltons Paradise Lost Satan, from the Hebrew word for accuser (Standard Hebrew: , Satan Tiberian Hebrew ; Koine Greek: , Satanás; Aramaic: , ; Arabic: , , Slavic Сатана), is a term with its origins in the Abrahamic faiths which is traditionally applied to an angel. ... St. ...

Theology

The church construed witchcraft broadly, including in it divination, Paganism, Witch Medicine practiced by people who were not physicians, Alchemy, Satanism, Demonolatry, Atheism, blasphemy (against Christian beliefs), Protestantism (in Catholic countries), Catholicism (in Protestant countries), homosexuality and all type of sexual liberalism (allegedly induced by demons). This article is about the religious practice of divination. ... Paganism (from Latin paganus, meaning a country dweller or civilian) is a blanket term which has come to connote a broad set of spiritual or religious beliefs and practices of natural or polytheistic religions, as opposed to the Abrahamic monotheistic religions. ... For other uses, see Alchemy (disambiguation). ... Satanism Associated Organizations Church of Satan First Satanic Church Prominent Figures Anton LaVey | Blanche Barton | Peter H. Gilmore | Peggy Nadramia | Karla LaVey Associated Concepts Left-Hand Path | Moral Majority | Pentagonal Revisionism | Suitheism | Survival of the fittest | Objectivism | Might is Right Books and Publications The Satanic Bible | The Satanic Rituals | The... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The 18th-century French author Baron dHolbach was one of the first self-described atheists; he did not believe in the existence of any deities. ... Look up blasphemy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Protestantism is one of three main groups currently within Christianity. ... As a Christian ecclesiastical term, Catholic - from the Greek adjective , meaning general or universal[2] - is described in the Oxford Dictionary as follows: ~Church, (originally) whole body of Christians; ~, belonging to or in accord with (a) this, (b) the church before separation into Greek or Eastern and Latin or Western... Homosexuality refers to sexual and romantic attraction between two individuals of the same sex. ...

The Arrest

Often a mere suspicion or denouncement was sufficient grounds for arresting a person and investigating him or her as a witch. Ecclesiastical authorities encouraged denouncements, and there were special places in some churches to put a paper with the name of a person suspected of practising witchcraft. Many midwives were accused, at a time when infant mortality was high, of having killed children to offer them to the Devil. Single mothers were often accused of having been impregnated by demons (incubi). The fact of having a relative or friend accused was cause for suspicion and arrest. Midwifery is the term traditionally used to describe the art of assisting a woman through childbirth. ... The Devil is the name given to a supernatural entity who, in most Western religions, is the central embodiment of evil. ... In Western medieval legend, an incubus (plural incubi) is a demon in male form supposed to lie upon sleepers, especially women, in order to have sexual intercourse with them. ...

The Process

After the arrest the person was often submitted to torture. At the height of the witch craze, a voluntary confession was not accepted as valid, because it was believed that the only form to oblige the Devil (supposedly governing the heretic or witch) to say the truth was by means of torture; if torment was not used, then there was not valid cause to pass sentence. Extreme methods were used to torture accused witches. For other uses, see Torture (disambiguation). ...

Besides torture, certain "proofs" were taken as valid to establish that a person practiced witchcraft. Peter Binsfeld contributed to the establishment of many of these proofs, described in his book Commentarius de Maleficius (Comments on Witchcraft). The law of evidence governs the use of testimony (e. ... Peter Binsfeld ( 1545 - 1598 or 1603) was a Suffragan Bishop of Trier and a witch hunter who wrote the treatise De confessionibus maleficorum et sagarum, The Confession of Warlocks and Witches, translated into several languages (Trier, 1589). ...

• The diabolical mark. Usually, this was a mole or a birthmark. If no such mark was visible, the examiner would claim to have found an invisible mark.
• Diabolical pact. This was an alleged pact with Satan to perform evil acts in return for rewards.
• Denouncement by another witch. This was common, since the accused could often avoid execution by naming accomplices.
• Relationship with other convicted witch/witches
• Blasphemy
• Participation in Sabbaths
• To cause harm that could only be done by means of sorcery
• Possession of elements necessary for the practice of black magic
• To have one or more witches in the family
• To be afraid during the interrogatories
• Not to cry under torment (supposedly by means of the Devil's aid)
• To have had sexual relationships with a demon

Other tests were also performed on the accused. In Christian demonology, the diabolical mark was an indelible mark that especially Satan, or any other demon, made in the body of those who had made a pact with him. ... Melanocytic naevus A mole or melanocytic naevus is a small, dark spot on the skin. ... A birthmark, is a blemish on the skin formed before birth. ... According to Christian tradition on witchcraft the diabolical pact is a pact between a person and Satan or any other demon (or demons) in which the person offers (or sells) his/her soul in exchange for favours. ... Gustave Dorés depiction of Satan from John Miltons Paradise Lost Satan, from the Hebrew word for accuser (Standard Hebrew: , Satan Tiberian Hebrew ; Koine Greek: , Satanás; Aramaic: , ; Arabic: , , Slavic Сатана), is a term with its origins in the Abrahamic faiths which is traditionally applied to an angel. ... Francisco Goyas Los Caprichos: Linda maestra! (Nice mistress!) - witches heading to a Sabbath In Christian folklore, the Sabbath (also known as Witchs Sabbath) was a gathering supposed to have been celebrated by Satanists, witches and warlocks to honor the Devil, offend God, Jesus, the sacraments, the cross, and... Magic (also called magick to distinguish it from stage magic) is a supposed way of influencing the world through supernatural, mystical, or paranormal means. ... Black magic is the branch of magic that is used to perform evil acts or that draws on malevolent powers. ...

A common test was to tie the hands and feet of the person (and sometimes enclose the person in a bag) and throw him or her into a river or pool. It was held that if the person managed to float, this was due to the Devil's help. Such a person was thus found guilty of witchcraft. If the person could not float then he or she was considered innocent, but this acquittal came too late because the accused had by then drowned. In England the person that could float was often considered innocent.

Another test consisted in putting a blessed ring into a pot with boiling water, where the accused had to introduce the hand to extract it. The hand was bandaged and in three days the bandage opened. If no sign of burning was found, the person was considered innocent.

In England, witch-pricking was common. It was believed that the diabolical mark would neither bleed, hurt nor show a wound when stabbed by a needle. Since witch-finders were paid by commission, this became a lucrative scam. By a sleight-of-hand trick, an accomplished con artist could appear to drive the needle deep into the skin without penetrating the flesh. This is similar to the tricks used by modern practitioners of psychic surgery. In Christian demonology, the diabolical mark was an indelible mark that especially Satan, or any other demon, made in the body of those who had made a pact with him. ... Sleight of hand, also known as prestidigitation (quick fingers) or legerdemain (pronounced in French, from lightness of hand or deformation of le jeu de main i. ... A confidence trick, confidence game, or con for short, (also known as a scam) is an attempt to intentionally mislead a person or persons (known as the mark) usually with the goal of financial or other gain. ... Psychic surgery is allegedly a paranormal surgical procedure, practiced chiefly in the Philippines and Brazil. ...

There were other tests, all of which, like those mentioned above, made it nearly impossible for the accused to demonstrate his or her innocence, except perhaps by being killed.

In most cases the tribunals did not accord the accused a right to legal representation, and if someone offered his services as such he was often accused too, "because only a warlock could defend a witch or another warlock". Warlocks are, among historic Christian traditions, said to be the male equivalent of witches (usually in the pejorative sense of Europes Middle Ages), and were said to ride pitchforks instead of broomsticks. ... This article is part of the Witchcraft series. ...

Interrogations were an important part of the process. In England, the burden of proof rested upon the accuser, though the "evidence" presented often made it impossible for the accused to defend themselves. In Scotland the accused person had the right to a defender.

The Interrogations

Interrogations were considered essential for learning how witchcraft was practised and how the demons acted, but the questions were predetermined. These are some of the questions:^{[citation needed]}

• Why did you become a witch, since when, and how?
• What have you done as a witch?
• What was the name of your master demon?
• What type of oath did you make to him and how?
• Who was your incubus (succubus in case of men)?
• How is the phallus of your incubus (or the vagina of your succubus)?
• How is the Devil's phallus?
• How is the sperm of the demons?
• What type of sexual practices did you have with demons?
• Who else was present at the Sabbaths you attended?
• What did you eat there?
• How was the dance during the Sabbath?
• How were the ceremonies celebrated there?
• What harms have you caused to people and/or animals?
• Which herbs have you used to do that? What other elements?
• Do you change your shape into that of an animal?
• Why does the Devil knock at your door by night?
• What do you do to fly?
• Who are your accomplices?

And so on. These questions are based not on skepticism but on the presumed guilt of the accused. An oath (from Old Saxon eoth) is either a promise or a statement of fact calling upon something or someone that the oath maker considers sacred, usually a god, as a witness to the binding nature of the promise or the truth of the statement of fact. ... In Western medieval legend, an incubus (plural incubi) is a demon in male form supposed to lie upon sleepers, especially women, in order to have sexual intercourse with them. ... A bracket carved as a winged succubus on the outside of an English inn, suggesting that a brothel could have been found inside. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The vagina, (from Latin, literally sheath or scabbard ) is the tubular tract leading from the uterus to the exterior of the body in female placental mammals and marsupials, or to the cloaca in female birds, monotremes, and some reptiles. ... The signifier sperm can refer to: (mass noun, from Greek sperma = seed) a substance which consists of spermatozoa and which is a component of semen (mass noun) semen itself (informally, count noun with plural sperm or sperms) a single spermatozoon (= sperm cell) sperma ceti (Latin ceti, genitive of cetus = whale...

The famous Malleus Maleficarum, despite being banned by the Catholic Church as illegal and unethical, had a major influence on sectarian witch-hunting in Europe; its authors seemed to have been particularly interested on the demons' genitalia and the type of sexual relationships they could have with humans. Cover of the seventh Cologne edition of the Malleus Maleficarum, 1520 (from the University of Sydney Library). ... A sex organ, or primary sexual characteristic, narrowly defined, is any of those parts of the body (which are not always bodily organs according to the strict definition) which are involved in sexual reproduction and constitute the reproductive system in an complex organism; namely: Male: penis (notably the glans penis...

The Sentence

Punishments for witchcraft in 16th century Germany. Woodcut from Tengler's Laienspiegel, Mainz, 1508

Sometimes, if the accused could tolerate all torments without confessing, that person was considered innocent. Other tribunals considered that a person could accomplish this only with the aid of the Devil, so the accused was considered guilty anyway. In any case, there were very few people who could resist the severe torments used by the tribunals. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1032x1470, 506 KB) Woodcut showing punishments for witches from Tenglers Laienspiegel, Mainz, 1508. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1032x1470, 506 KB) Woodcut showing punishments for witches from Tenglers Laienspiegel, Mainz, 1508. ... (15th century - 16th century - 17th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 16th century was that century which lasted from 1501 to 1600. ... Mainz is a city in Germany and the capital of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate. ... 1508 was a leap year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

The confessions (true or invented to avoid more tortures) and the aforementioned proofs were taken as sufficient to pass sentence. Often, only the confession or one of the proofs was sufficient.

The sentence generally was death (as Exodus 22:18 states, "Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live"); at least one case resulted in a life imprisonment sentence.^{[citation needed]} There were other sentences, the most common to be chained for years to the oars of a ship, or excommunication. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

If sentenced to life in prison, a person was subjected to public humiliation and mockery as they were processed through the town, and then imprisoned in terrible conditions, with insufficient food and water, no possibility of any type of cleanliness (cleanliness of the body was thought to please demons^{[citation needed]}), and generally little or no light.

The most common death sentence was to be burnt at the stake while still alive. In England it was common to hang the person first and then burn the corpse, a practice adopted sometimes in other countries (in many cases the hanging was replaced by strangling). Drowning was sometimes used as a means of execution. England was also the only country in which the accused had the right to appeal the sentence. Burning of two sodomites at the stake outside Zürich, 1482 (Spiezer Schilling) Execution by burning has a long history as a method of punishment for crimes such as treason and for other unpopular acts such as heresy and the putative practice of witchcraft (burning, however, was actually less common... Suicide by hanging. ...

In some areas, if the condemned was pregnant her belly was opened with a knife, the foetus extracted and trod under foot (because "it was the offspring of a demon with the woman, or consecrated to the Devil by the witch"), and then she was killed. In others, the woman was allowed to give birth before being killed. Fetus at eight weeks For other uses, see Fetus (disambiguation). ...

Another sentence consisted of opening the belly of the person, extracting his/her intestines, and letting him die (this was often practiced on men). The intestine is the portion of the alimentary canal extending from the stomach to the anus and, in humans and other mammals, consists of two segments, the small intestine and the large intestine. ...

Gender issues

Women were the most socially active members in most households.^{[citation needed]} They were responsible for the sale of excess household production, the care of the health of the family, and for the purchasing of provisions from the village. The nature of this arrangement required that women be shrewd and businesslike.^{[citation needed]} This forced women into an already dangerous position, as it required them to risk offending or injuring the pride of fellow villagers on a regular basis through the course of business. Even if they were accused or suspected of witchcraft, this did not always mean that she would be charged and brought to trial. However she would need to start gathering strong defences in case she was called to trial.^{[citation needed]}

Some Related Quotes

• "Witchcraft is an art serving for the working of wonders, by the assistance of the devil, so far as God shall permit." —Sir Robert Filmer, 1653

• "A belief that there are such things as witches is so essential a part of the Catholic faith that obstinately to maintain the opposite opinion savours of heresy." —Jakob Sprenger and Heinrich Kramer, Malleus Maleficarum, c. 1486

• "I suffered terrible agony ... I said to Dr. Braun, 'God forgive you for thus misusing an innocent and honorable man.' ... When at last the executioner led me back to the cell, he said to me, 'Sir, I beg you, for God's sake, confess something, whether it be true or not.'" —Johannes Junius, letter from prison, 1628

• "One can but exclaim, O Christian religion, how long shalt thou be vexed with this direst of superstitions? and cry aloud, O Christian commonwealth, how long in thee shall the life of the innocent be imperilled?" —Anonymous Catholic confessor, 1592

James Sprenger was born in Basel between 1436 and 1438. ... Heinrich Kramer (also known under latinised name Heinrich Institor, 1430?-1505) was a churchman and inquisitor. ... Johannes Junius (1573- August 6, 1628) was the Burgomeister of Bamberg, famous today for his letter written to his daughter from jail while he awaited execution for witchcraft. ...

Protest against witch trials

There have been contemporary protesters against witch trials and against use of torture.

• Johann Weyer, De praestigiis daemonum et incantationibus ac veneficiis (1563)
• Cornelius Loos, De vera et falsa magia (1592)
• Anton Praetorius, Gründtlicher Bericht von Zauberey und Zauberern, 1602 (Thorough Report on Witchcraft and Witches)
• Adam Tanner, Disputationes (1617)
• Johann Grevius, Tribunal Reformatum (1622)
• Friedrich von Spee, Cautio Criminalis (1631)
• Johann Matthäus Meyfarth, Christliche Erinnerung (1635)
• Balthasar Bekker, Die Betooverde Wereld (1691–93)
• Christian Thomasius, De crimine magiae
• Hermann Adolph Meinders
• Hermann Löher, Hochnötige Unterthanige Wemütige Klage Der Frommen Unschültigen

Johann Weyer, aka Wier, Wierus, Piscinarius, first name also Johannes (born between February 24, 1515 and February 24, 1516 — died February 24, 1588) was a Dutch physician, occultist and demonologist, disciple and follower of Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa. ... Anton Praetorius (Lippstadt 1560 – 6 December 1613 near Heidelberg in Laudenbach/Bergstrasse), Protestant pastor and fighter against the persecution of witches (witchhunts, witchcraft trials) and against torture. ... Adam Tanner (April 14, 1572–May 25, 1632) was a Austrian Jesuit professor of mathematics and philosophy. ... Friedrich von Spee (born at Kaiserswerth on the Rhine on February 25, 1591, died at Trier on August 7, 1635) was a German Jesuit and poet, most noted as an opponent of trials for witchcraft. ... Balthasar Bekker (1634 - 1698), Dutch divine, was born in Friesland, and educated at Groningen, under Jacob Alting, and at Franeker. ... Christian Thomasius, portrait by Johann Christian Heinrich Sporleder. ...

See also

• Trial by ordeal
• Torsåker witch trials
• Salem witch trials

Trial by ordeal is a judicial practice by which the guilt or innocence of the accused is determined by subjecting them to a painful task. ... The Torsåker witch trials took place in 1675 in Torsåker, Sweden. ... 1876 illustration of the courtroom; the central figure is usually identified as Mary Walcott The Salem Witch Trials, which began in 1692 (also known as the Salem witch hunt and the Salem witchcraft episode), resulted in a number of convictions and executions for witchcraft in both Salem Village and Salem...

Sources

1. 'Many reasons why': witchcraft and the problem of multiple explanation, Robin Briggs, from Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe. Studies in Culture and Belief, ed. Jonathan Barry, Marianne Hester, and Gareth Roberts, Cambridge University Press, 1996.
2. The Demon-Haunted World by Carl Sagan, Random House 1996.

External links

• The Decline and End of Witch Trials in Europe by James Hannam
• Recent Developments in the Study of the Great European Witch Hunt by Jenny Gibbons
• Witch Trials Documentary Archive and Transcription Project