Feminism is a body of This page needs attention and peer review. Please remove this note when it is improved. Social theory is a distinction applied to the work considered outside of the mainstream of sociology Arguably, sociology before 1900 in the mainstream bears more resemblance to social theory than the mainstream. Among sociologists who... social theory and Politics is the process and method of decision-making for groups of human beings. Although it is generally applied to governments, politics is also observed in all human group interactions including corporate, academic, and religious. Political science is the study of political behavior and examines the acquisition and application of... political movement primarily based on and motivated by the experiences of Image of a woman on the Pioneer plaque sent to outer space. A woman is a female human being (specifically an adult, a female child is a girl), as contrasted to a man, an adult male (as a child, boy). The terms woman (irregular plural: women) and girl are used... women. While generally providing a critique of The adjective social implies that the verb or noun to which it is applied is somehow more communicative, cooperative, and moderated by contact with human beings, than if it were omitted. That is, it implies that larger society has played some role in defining the idea or the principle. For... social relations, many proponents of feminism also focus on analyzing gender inequality and the promotion of women's rights, interests, and issues.

Feminist theory aims to understand the nature of gender inequality and focuses on gender politics, power relations and sexuality. Feminist political activism campaigns on issues such as Reproductive rights refer to rights in the areas of abortion, birth control, and family planning. It is a controversial term, typically used in a context supportive of the choices of pregnant women. In relation to abortion, supporters of reproductive rights consider it misleading to say that a political leader supports... reproductive rights, Domestic violence, by barest definition, is violence within a home. Beyond this, the term has a range of definitions, some more and some less formal, which are frequently used with little awareness that a range of definitions exists. Definitions The UK Home Office In its annual UK Crime Survey [1... domestic violence, Parental leave is the right to take time off work, paid or unpaid, to care for your child or make arrangements for your childs welfare. Often, the term parental leave includes maternity, paternity and adoption leave. In most western countries parental leave is available if you have worked for... maternity leave, Equal pay for women is an issue involving pay inequality between men and women. It is often introduced into domestic politics in many first world countries as an economic problem that needs governmental intervention via regulation. Many consider the amount of pay disparity between men and women to be an... equal pay, Sexual harassment is harassment of a sexual nature, typically in the workplace or other setting where raising objections or refusing may have negative consequences. In American employment law, it is any unwelcome sexual advance or conduct on the job, having the effect of making the workplace intimidating, hostile or offensive... sexual harassment, To discriminate is to make a distinction. There are several meanings of the word, including statistical discrimination, or the actions of a circuit called a discriminator. This article addresses the most common colloquial sense of the word, invidious discrimination. That is, irrational social, racial, religious, sexual, ethnic and age-related... discrimination and For the domesticated crop plant called rape, see rapeseed. For responding to rape as a medical emergency, see sexual assault. For the former administrative division of Sussex, see Rape (district). Rape is a crime wherein the victim is forced into sexual activity against his or her will. Effectively, it co... sexual violence. Themes explored in feminism include To discriminate is to make a distinction. There are several meanings of the word, including statistical discrimination, or the actions of a circuit called a discriminator. This article addresses the most common colloquial sense of the word, invidious discrimination. That is, irrational social, racial, religious, sexual, ethnic and age-related... discrimination, In modern usage, a stereotype is a simplified mental picture of an individual or group of people who share a certain characteristic (or stereotypical) qualities. The term is often used in a negative sense, and stereotypes are seen by many as undesirable beliefs which can be altered through education and... stereotyping, Objectification refers to the way in which one person treats another person as an object and not as a human being. This is commonly used to refer to the way some men regard media portrayals of women. External links Sexual Suggestiveness in Online Ads: Effects of Objectification on Opposite Genders... objectification, Sexual objectification is, in some circumstances, the fetishistic act of regarding a person as an object for erotic purposes. Allen Jones sculptures Hat Stand and Table Sculpture, made in 1969, which show semi-naked women in the roles of furniture, are clear examples of the depiction of the fantasy of... sexual objectification, Oppression is the arbitrary and cruel exercise of power. While the term is usually used to describe wrongful acts of government, oppression is rarely limited solely to government action. Oppression is most commonly felt and expressed by a widespread, if unconscious, assumption that a certain class of people are inferior... oppression and A patriarch (from Greek: patria means father; arché means rule, beginning, origin) is a male head of an extended family exercising autocratic authority, or, by extension, a member of the ruling class or government of a society controlled by senior men. The word patriarch also denotes any of certain high... patriarchy. While generally providing a critique of The adjective social implies that the verb or noun to which it is applied is somehow more communicative, cooperative, and moderated by contact with human beings, than if it were omitted. That is, it implies that larger society has played some role in defining the idea or the principle. For... social relations, many proponents of feminism also focus on analyzing gender inequality and the promotion of women's rights, interests, and issues.

Modern feminist theory has been extensively criticized as being predominantly, but not exclusively, associated with western middle class academia. Feminist activism, however, is a grass roots movement which crosses class and race boundaries. It is culturally specific and addresses the issues relevant to the women of that society, for example Female circumcision (including excision) loosely refers to a number of procedures performed on the female genitalia and which are generally of a cultural, rather than medical, nature. Although occasionally practiced by some doctors in the United States until the 1970s, in recent years it is only common in parts... female circumcision in Sudan, or the A glass ceiling is an unofficial barrier to an upper management or such prominent position within a company or other organization which certain groups, particularly women, are perceived to be unable to cross. The term refers to the removal of formal barriers to career advancement when it is nevertheless believed... glass ceiling in developed economies. Some issues, such as rape, incest, and mothering, are universal.

Origins

Main article: Suffrage parade in New York City on May 6, 1912 The history of feminism reaches far back before the 18th century, but the seeds of modern feminism were planted during the late part of that century. The earliest works on the so-called woman question criticised the restrictive role of... History of feminism.

Early Feminists. May be Public Domain, but Im not sure. The copyright status of this work is difficult or impossible to determine. The individual who uploaded this work and first used it in an article, and subsequent persons who place it into articles, assert that if this image is...

Early Feminists. May be Public Domain, but Im not sure. The copyright status of this work is difficult or impossible to determine. The individual who uploaded this work and first used it in an article, and subsequent persons who place it into articles, assert that if this image is...

First International Convention of Women in Aerial photo (looking NW) of the Washington Monument and the White House in Washington, DC. Washington, D.C., officially the District of Columbia (also known as D.C.; Washington; the Nations Capital; the District; and, historically, the Federal City) is the capital city and administrative district of the United... Washington D.C. Susan Brownell Anthony Susan Brownell Anthony, (February 15, 1820 – March 13, 1906) was an American civil rights leader who, along with Elizabeth Cady Stanton, led the effort to grant women the right to vote in the United States. She was born in Adams, Massachusetts, the daughter of Quakers. Soon... Susan B. Anthony is third from the left, front row.

Feminism began during The Age of Enlightenment (or The Enlightenment for short) was an intellectual movement in 18th-century Europe. The goal of the Enlightenment was to establish an authoritative ethics, aesthetics, and knowledge based on an enlightened rationality. The movements leaders viewed themselves as a courageous, elite body of intellectuals who... The Enlightenment with such thinkers as The Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (May 26, 1689 - August 21, 1762), was an English woman of letters. She was the eldest daughter of Evelyn Pierrepont, later Duke of Kingston, and was baptized at Covent Garden. Her mother, who died while her daughter was still a child, was a daughter of... Lady Mary Wortley Montagu and the Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas Caritat, marquis de Condorcet (September 17, 1743 - March 28, 1794) was a French philosopher, mathematician, and early political scientist who devised the concept of a Condorcet method. Ahead of his time in many respects as an 18th century thinker, he advocated a liberal economy, free and... Marquis de Condorcet championing women's education. The first scientific society for women was founded in Middleberg, a city in the south of the This article is about the Dutch United Provinces. There was also a nation called the United Provinces of Central America. The United Provinces (Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Nederlanden/Provinciën, Republic of the Seven United Netherlands/Provinces — 1581–1795) was a European republic which is now known as... Dutch republic, in Events January 1st The first issue of the Daily Universal Register, later known as The Times, is published in London. January 7 - Frenchman Jean-Pierre Blanchard and American John Jeffries travel from Dover, England to Calais, France in a hydrogen gas balloon, becoming the first to cross the English Channel... 1785. Journals for women which focused on issues like science became popular during this period as well. Mary Wollstonecraft (April 27, 1759 - September 10, 1797) was the author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman and mother of Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley. Her husband William Godwin was one of the most prominent atheists of his day and a forefather of the anarchist movement. A little bit more... Mary Wollstonecraft's Written in 1792, Mary Wollstonecrafts A Vindication of the Rights of Woman is one of the earliest works on the woman question and influenced the earliest feminists in England and America in the 19th century. The full text is freely available at various sites on-line. External links http... A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1792 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). Events January 25 - The London Corresponding Society is founded. February 20 - The Postal Service Act, establishing the United States Post Office Department, is signed by President George Washington. March 16 - King of Sweden Gustav III Shot in the... 1792) is one of the first works that can unambiguously be called feminist.

Feminism became an organized movement in the Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. In the sense of the Common Era... 19th century as people increasingly came to believe that women were being treated unfairly. The feminist movement was rooted in the progressive movement and especially in the Reform movement is a kind of social movement that aims to make a change in certain aspects of the society rather than fundamental changes. It is opposed to radical social movement such as revolutionary movement or reactionary movement. United States Reform Movements of the 1840s Art -- The Hudson River School... reform movement of the Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. In the sense of the Common Era... 19th century. The organized movement was dated from the first women's rights convention at The Seneca Falls Convention, held in Seneca Falls, New York on July 19 - July 20, 1848, was the first womens rights convention held in the United States, and as a result is often called the birthplace of the feminist movement. During the event the Bloomers were introduced for the... Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848 is a leap year starting on Saturday (link will take you to calendar). Events Monument for the leaders of the 1848 Matale rebellion, Sri Lanka The Revolution of 1848 (qv.), a series of widespread but failed struggles for more liberal governments, from Brazil to Hungary. January 24 - California gold... 1848. In 1869, John Stuart Mill (May 20, 1806 - May 8, 1873), aka JS Mill, an English philosopher and political economist, was the most influential liberal thinker of the 19th century. He was an advocate of utilitarianism, the ethical theory first proposed by his godfather Jeremy Bentham. Biography John Stuart Mill was born... John Stuart Mill published The Subjection of Women to demonstrate that "the legal subordination of one sex to the other is wrong...and...one of the chief hindrances to human improvement."

Many countries began to grant women the Suffrage is the civil right to vote, or the exercise of that right. In that context it is also called political franchise. Universal suffrage is the extension of voting privileges to all adults, without distinction to race, sex, belief or social status. It is usually considered the hallmark of modern... vote in the early years of the (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999... 20th century, especially in the final years of the Ypres, 1917, in the vicinity of the Battle of Passchendaele. Battle aftermath. Remains of the Chateau Wood World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, the War of the Nations, and the War to End All Wars, was a world conflict occurring from 1914 to... First World War and the first years after the war. The reasons for this varied, but included a desire to recognise the contributions of women during the war, and were also influenced by rhetoric used by both sides at the time to justify their war efforts. For example, since Wilson's The USAs President Woodrow Wilson delivered a speech to Congress on January 8, 1918, outlining Fourteen Points for reconstructing a new Europe following World War I. While many of the points were specific, others were more general, including freedom of the seas, abolishing secret treaties, disarmament, restored sovereignty of... Fourteen Points recognised self determination as a vital component of society, the hypocrisy of denying half the population of modern nations the vote became difficult for men to ignore. (See: The international movement for womens suffrage, led by suffragists (commonly called suffragettes), was a social, economic and political reform movement aimed at extending the suffrage (i.e. the right to vote) to women, advocating equal suffrage (abolition of graded votes) rather than universal suffrage (abolition of discrimination due to... Women's suffrage)

Feminism in many forms

Feminism is not a single ideology. Over-time several sub-types of Feminist ideology have developed. Early feminists and primary feminist movements are often called the First-wave feminism refers to the feminist movement in the nineteenth century and early twentieth century, which primarily focused on gaining the right of womens suffrage. The term was not used during the time of the movement; the term was coined retroactively after second-wave feminism began to be... first-wave feminists, and feminists after about 1960 was a leap year starting on Friday (link will take you to calendar). Events January-February January - State of emergency is lifted in Kenya - Mau Mau Rebellion is officially over January 1 - Independence of Cameroon January 9 - Aswan High Dam construction begins in Egypt January 14 - Ralph Chubb, the... 1960 the Second-wave feminism refers to a period of feminist thought that originated around the 1960s and was mainly concerned with independence and greater political action to improve womens rights. Second-wave feminism was most concerned with items such as economic equality between the genders and addressing the rights of... second-wave feminists. More recently, a new generation of feminists have started Third-wave feminism is a feminist movement that arguably began in the early 1990s. Unlike second-wave feminism, which largely focused on the inclusion of women in traditionally male-dominated areas, third-wave feminism seeks to challenge and expand common definitions of gender and sexuality. Traits of third-wave feminism... third-wave feminism. Whether this will be a lasting evolution remains to be seen as the second-wave has by no means ended nor has it ceded to the third-wave feminists. Moreover, some commentators have asserted that the silent majority of modern feminists have more in common ideologically with the first-wave feminists than the second-wave. For example, many of the ideas arising from Radical feminism views womens oppression as a fundamental element in human society and seeks to challenge that standard by broadly rejecting standard gender roles. The traditional Radical feminist standpoint may be expressed as viewing the division in all societies as that between men and women and stating that men... Radical feminism and Gender feminsim is a phrase coined by Christina Hoff Sommers in her book Who Stole Feminism (Simon & Schuster, 1994) to describe the mainstream of the contemporary feminist movement, which she felt was unduely gynocentric. She contrasted this term with equity feminism. Categories: Female-related stubs | Feminist theory ... Gender feminism (prominent second-wave movements) have yet to gain traction within the broader community and outside of Gender Studies departments within the academy.

For example, Radical feminism views womens oppression as a fundamental element in human society and seeks to challenge that standard by broadly rejecting standard gender roles. The traditional Radical feminist standpoint may be expressed as viewing the division in all societies as that between men and women and stating that men... Radical feminism argues for the existence of an oppressive A patriarch (from Greek: patria means father; arché means rule, beginning, origin) is a male head of an extended family exercising autocratic authority, or, by extension, a member of the ruling class or government of a society controlled by senior men. The word patriarch also denotes any of certain high... patriarchy that is the root cause of the most serious social problems. Violence and oppression of women, because they are women, is more fundamental than oppressions related to class, ethnicity, religion, etc. Radical feminisms have been very vocal and active in influncing attitudes and state-wide school curiculum standards. Thus, it is not unusual for feminism to be equated with the ideas proposed by Radical feminism. Some find that the prioritization of oppression and the universalization of the idea of "Woman," which was part of traditional Radical feminist thinking, too generic, and that women in other countries would never experience the same experience of being "woman" than women in Western countries did.

Some radical feminists advocate Political separatism is a movement to obtain sovereignty and split a territory or group of people (usually a people with a distinctive national consciousness) from one another (or one nation from another; a colony from the metropolis). The term is often not accepted by actual separatist groups themselves as they... separatism—a complete separation of male and female in society and culture—while others question not only the relationship between men and women, but the very meaning of "man" and "woman" as well (see Queer theory is a theory about sex and gender within the larger field of Queer studies. It proposes that ones sexual identity and ones gender identity are partly or wholly socially constructed, and therefore individuals cannot really be described using broad terms like homosexual or woman. It challenges... Queer theory). Some argue that A bagpiper in military uniform. In many parts of the West, wearing a kilt may be unacceptable as part of a male gender role, but this is not so in Scotland. Gender role is a term used in the social sciences and humanities to denote a set of behavioral norms... gender roles, In sociology, gender identity describes the gender with which a person identifies (i.e, whether one perceives oneself to be a man, a woman, or describes oneself to oneself in some less conventional way), but also can be used to refer to the gender that other people attribute to the... gender identity, and sexuality are themselves Social constructionism is a school of thought introduced into sociology by Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann with their 1966 book on The Social Construction of Reality. The interest of social constructionism is to discover the ways social reality and social phenomena are constructed. The sociological method of social constructionism... social constructs (see also Heteronormativity is a term used in the discussion of gender and society, mostly, but not exclusively within the field of critical theory. It is used to describe, and, frequently, to criticize how many social institutions and social policies are seen to reinforce certain beliefs. These include the belief that human... heteronormativity). For these feminists, feminism is a primary means to human liberation (i.e., the liberation of men as well as women, and men and women from other social problems).

Other feminists believe that there may be social problems separate from or prior to patriarchy (e.g., racism or class divisions); they see feminism as one movement of liberation among many, each affecting the others.

• Egalitarianism is the moral doctrine that equality ought to prevail among some group along some dimension. One can best understand various types of egalitarianism by asking Who is supposed to be equal? and In what respect are they supposed to be equal? The English word is derived from the French... Egalitarian forms: equity feminism Individualist feminism, or ifeminism, advocates the equal treatment of men and women as individuals under just law. The core principle of individualist feminism is that all human beings have a moral and legal claim to their own persons and property, not to any sort of affirmative action policies or privileges... individualist feminism (also known as Individualist feminism, or ifeminism, advocates the equal treatment of men and women as individuals under just law. The core principle of individualist feminism is that all human beings have a moral and legal claim to their own persons and property, not to any sort of affirmative action policies or privileges... libertarian feminism) Liberal feminism is a form of feminism that argues that equality for women can be achieved through legal means and social reform, and that men as a group need not be challenged. Liberal feminism is a somewhat conservative form of feminism by today’s standards, although it is rooted... liberal feminism
• Gynocentrism (Greek γυνο, gyno-, woman, χεντρον, kentron, center) is the practice, often consciously adopted, of placing female human beings or the female point of view at the center of ones view of the world and its culture and history. The... Gynoccentric forms: cultural feminism Gender feminsim is a phrase coined by Christina Hoff Sommers in her book Who Stole Feminism (Simon & Schuster, 1994) to describe the mainstream of the contemporary feminist movement, which she felt was unduely gynocentric. She contrasted this term with equity feminism. Categories: Female-related stubs | Feminist theory ... gender feminism Pop feminism a variety of feminism related to misandry. Its proponents believe in the moral or other superiority of the female gender and cite it to promote social attitudes that favour a matriarchal society, where women enjoy superior rights and men are marginalised. Some groups believe that pop feminism has... pop feminism Radical feminism views womens oppression as a fundamental element in human society and seeks to challenge that standard by broadly rejecting standard gender roles. The traditional Radical feminist standpoint may be expressed as viewing the division in all societies as that between men and women and stating that men... radical feminism
• Belief in oppression by men: Anarchism is a generic term describing various political philosophies and social movements that advocate the elimination of hierarchy and imposed authority. These philosophies use anarchy to mean a society based on voluntary cooperation of free individuals. Philosophical anarchist thought does not advocate chaos or anomie — it intends anarchy to... anarcha-feminism French feminism (which is a phrase mostly used in English-speaking countries) refers to the work of a group of feminists in France from the 1970s to the early 1990s. French feminism, compared to Anglophone feminism, is distinguished by an approach which is at once more philosophical and more literary... French feminism Marxist feminism is a sub-type of feminist theory which focuses on the dismantaling of capitalism as a way to liberate women and states that capitalism, which gives rise to economic inequality, dependence, political confusion and ultimately unhealthy social relations between men and women, is the root of womens... Marxist feminism Radical feminism views womens oppression as a fundamental element in human society and seeks to challenge that standard by broadly rejecting standard gender roles. The traditional Radical feminist standpoint may be expressed as viewing the division in all societies as that between men and women and stating that men... radical feminism A request has been made on Wikipedia for this article to be deleted in accordance with the deletion policy. This request is being discussed to form a consensus whether this is, or could be, an article appropriate for Wikipedia. Please see this pages entry on the votes for deletion... socialist feminism
• Differences are solely cultural, not biological: Amazon feminism is dedicated to the image of the female hero in fiction and in fact, as it is expressed in art and literature in the physiques and feats of female athletes, martial artists, and other powerfully built women, and in gender-related and sexual orientations. Amazon feminism is concerned... Amazon feminism psychoanalytical feminism
• Segregationalist: Lesbian feminism is a feminist ideology, popular in the 1970s and 1980s, that advocated the view that feminism and lesbianism were linked. It was not only the fact that women had sex with other women, but were not dependant on men and withdrew from men was argued to provide the... lesbian feminism ( Lesbian separatism refers to a range of extreme positions within the feminist and gay liberation movements. In a moderate form, it advocates that lesbians should form separate, self-sufficient communities devoid of men, and which should have as little contact with wider society (and men in particular) as possible. In... Lesbian separatism) separatist feminism
• anti-Western: Third-World Feminism is also known and understood as Postcolonial Feminism. Third-World feminists would argue that as a result of capitalisation, women in the Third World would be oppressed by some other factors than patriarchy. For example, third-world women would undergo some experiments during the process of testing... third-world feminism Postcolonial Feminism criticises Western forms of feminism, notably radical feminism and its universalization of female experience. These feminists argue that since the assumption of a global experience as a woman is an assumption that is a white middle-class experience as a woman where gender oppression is the primary one... post-colonial feminism
• pro-sex feminism (also known as sexually liberal feminism, sex-positive feminism)

Subtypes of feminism

• Amazon feminism is dedicated to the image of the female hero in fiction and in fact, as it is expressed in art and literature in the physiques and feats of female athletes, martial artists, and other powerfully built women, and in gender-related and sexual orientations. Amazon feminism is concerned... Amazon feminism
• This article describes a political philosophy that opposes the state, capitalism, and all forms of social hierarchy. For other uses, see anarchism (disambiguation). Anarchism is a term which encompasses a variety of political philosophies, social movements, and political ideologies that advocate the elimination of all forms of imposed authority, including... Anarcha-Feminism
• cultural feminism
• Ecofeminism is a biocentric environmental movement with cultural and social concerns. The movement acknowledges a relationship between the oppression of women and the degradation of nature. Ecofeminist theorists consider the interconnections between sexism, the domination of nature, racism and other social inequalities. See also Deep ecology List of ecofeminist authors... ecofeminism
• equity feminism
• existentialist feminism
• Individualist feminism, or ifeminism, advocates the equal treatment of men and women as individuals under just law. The core principle of individualist feminism is that all human beings have a moral and legal claim to their own persons and property, not to any sort of affirmative action policies or privileges... individualist feminism (also known as libertarian feminism)
• French feminism (which is a phrase mostly used in English-speaking countries) refers to the work of a group of feminists in France from the 1970s to the early 1990s. French feminism, compared to Anglophone feminism, is distinguished by an approach which is at once more philosophical and more literary... French feminism
• Gender feminsim is a phrase coined by Christina Hoff Sommers in her book Who Stole Feminism (Simon & Schuster, 1994) to describe the mainstream of the contemporary feminist movement, which she felt was unduely gynocentric. She contrasted this term with equity feminism. Categories: Female-related stubs | Feminist theory ... gender feminism
• Lesbian feminism is a feminist ideology, popular in the 1970s and 1980s, that advocated the view that feminism and lesbianism were linked. It was not only the fact that women had sex with other women, but were not dependant on men and withdrew from men was argued to provide the... lesbian feminism
• Liberal feminism is a form of feminism that argues that equality for women can be achieved through legal means and social reform, and that men as a group need not be challenged. Liberal feminism is a somewhat conservative form of feminism by today’s standards, although it is rooted... liberal feminism
• male feminism or men's feminism
• Marxist feminism is a sub-type of feminist theory which focuses on the dismantaling of capitalism as a way to liberate women and states that capitalism, which gives rise to economic inequality, dependence, political confusion and ultimately unhealthy social relations between men and women, is the root of womens... Marxist feminism (also known as socialist feminism)
• material feminism
• multi-cultural feminism
• Pop feminism a variety of feminism related to misandry. Its proponents believe in the moral or other superiority of the female gender and cite it to promote social attitudes that favour a matriarchal society, where women enjoy superior rights and men are marginalised. Some groups believe that pop feminism has... pop feminism
• Postcolonial Feminism criticises Western forms of feminism, notably radical feminism and its universalization of female experience. These feminists argue that since the assumption of a global experience as a woman is an assumption that is a white middle-class experience as a woman where gender oppression is the primary one... post-colonial feminism
• postmodern feminism which includes Queer theory is a theory about sex and gender within the larger field of Queer studies. It proposes that ones sexual identity and ones gender identity are partly or wholly socially constructed, and therefore individuals cannot really be described using broad terms like homosexual or woman. It challenges... queer theory
• pro-sex feminism (also known as sexually liberal feminism, sex-positive feminism)
• psychoanalytical feminism
• Radical feminism views womens oppression as a fundamental element in human society and seeks to challenge that standard by broadly rejecting standard gender roles. The traditional Radical feminist standpoint may be expressed as viewing the division in all societies as that between men and women and stating that men... radical feminism
• separatist feminism
• social construct feminism
• A request has been made on Wikipedia for this article to be deleted in accordance with the deletion policy. This request is being discussed to form a consensus whether this is, or could be, an article appropriate for Wikipedia. Please see this pages entry on the votes for deletion... socialist feminism
• Spiritual feminism is a branch of feminism that focuses on: Goddess, or the Divine Feminine womens religions women in religious leadership religious thought from a feminist perspective the religious and spiritual needs of women See Also God and gender Categories: Stub ... spiritual feminism
• standpoint feminism
• Third-World Feminism is also known and understood as Postcolonial Feminism. Third-World feminists would argue that as a result of capitalisation, women in the Third World would be oppressed by some other factors than patriarchy. For example, third-world women would undergo some experiments during the process of testing... third-world feminism
• Transfeminism is a form of feminism that includes transgender and transexual rights and issues, especially those of transwomen. Categories: Substubs | Feminism ... transfeminism
• Defined by feminist author, Alice Walker, Womanism is a commonly used term that was coined to mean specifically African American Feminism, but it has developed into a more encompassing version of feminism that crosses lines of race and class. Walker first used the term in context in her collection of... womanism
• Certain actions, approaches and people can also be described as proto-feminist or ... post-feminist.

Although many leaders of feminism have been women, not all feminists are women. Some feminists argue that men should not take positions of leadership in the movement, because men, having been socialized to aggressively seek positions of power or direct the agendas within a leadership hierarchy, would apply this tendency to feminist organizations; or that women, having been socialized to defer to men, would be hindered in developing or expressing their own self-leadership in working too closely with men. However, most feminists do accept and seek the support of men. Compare A pro-feminist supports the views and goals of feminism. The term is rarely used, except by some writers who apply it to male supporters of feminism, believing that the feminist movement has to be sexually exclusive and who thus reserve the term feminist for women only. Some people regard... pro-feminist, Humanism is a system of thought that defines a socio-political doctrine (-ism) whose bounds exceed those of locally developed cultures, to include all of humanity and all issues common to human beings. Because doctrines of cultural distinction and exclusivity are often phrased in terms of religion, secular humanism grew... humanism, Masculism is considered by some to describe the belief that the male and female genders should be considered complementary and interdependent by necessity. However, such a definition is neither inclusive of all masculists, nor does it exclude many who are not masculist. Several noted feminists believe sexual complementarity is a... masculism.

Relationship to other movements

Most feminists take a holistic approach to politics, believing the saying of Martin Luther King Jr. The Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr., Ph.D. (January 15, 1929–April 4, 1968) was a Nobel Laureate, Baptist minister, and African American civil rights activist. He is one of the most significant leaders in U.S. history and in the modern history of nonviolence... Martin Luther King Jr., "A threat to justice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere". In that belief, some feminists usually support other movements such as the Civil Rights Movement in the United States, political, legal, and social struggle to gain full citizenship rights for African American and to achieve racial equality. The civil rights movement was first and foremost a challenge to segregation, the system of laws and customs separating blacks and whites that whites used... civil rights movement, the The gay rights movement is a collection of loosely aligned civil rights groups, human rights groups, support groups and political activists seeking acceptance, tolerance and equality for non-heterosexual, (homosexual, bisexual), and transgender people - despite the fact that it is typically referred to as the gay rights movement, members also... gay rights movement and, more recently The Fathers rights movement is a loose network of interest groups, primarily in western countries, established to campaign for equal treatment by the courts in family law issues such as child custody after divorce, child support, and paternity determinations. History The Fathers Rights movement has existed since the 1970s. No... Fathers' rights. At the same time many black feminists such as The title given to this article is incorrect due to technical limitations. The correct title is bell hooks. bell hooks, born September 25, 1952, is a U.S. Black feminist social critic best known for her critique of, and strategy against, what she terms white supremacist capitalist patriarchy. She is... bell hooks criticise the movement for being dominated by white women. Feminist claims about the disadvantages women face in Western society are often less relevant to the lives of black women. This idea is the key in Postcolonial Feminism criticises Western forms of feminism, notably radical feminism and its universalization of female experience. These feminists argue that since the assumption of a global experience as a woman is an assumption that is a white middle-class experience as a woman where gender oppression is the primary one... postcolonial feminism. Many black feminist women prefer the term Defined by feminist author, Alice Walker, Womanism is a commonly used term that was coined to mean specifically African American Feminism, but it has developed into a more encompassing version of feminism that crosses lines of race and class. Walker first used the term in context in her collection of... womanism for their views.

However, feminists are sometimes wary of the A transsexual (sometimes transexual) person establishes a permanent identity with the opposite gender to their assigned (usually at birth) sex. Transsexual men and women make or desire to make a transition from their birth sex to that of the opposite sex, with some type of medical alteration (gender reassignment therapy... transsexual movement because they challenge the distinctions between men and women. Transsexual women are excluded from some "women-only" gatherings and events and are rejected by some feminists who say that no one born male can truly understand the oppression women face. This is criticized as Transphobia (by analogy with homophobia) can entail any of an irrational fear, hatred of, discrimination against, or disapproval and refusal to accept transsexual and transgender people. Transphobia can have consequences as severe as homophobia for the targeted person; also, many transpeople experience homophobia as well, from people who erroneously associate... transphobic by transsexual women who assert that the discrimination and various struggles (such as that for legal recognitions) that they face due to asserting their gender identity, more than makes up for any they may have "missed out on" growing up, and that discrimination against gender-variant people is another face of Heterosexism (or heterocentrism or heterosexualism (Corsini, 2002)) is the assumption that everyone or a particular person is heterosexual. It can be distinguished from homophobia in that it doesnt necessarily imply hostility towards other sexual orientations, merely a failure to account for their existence. In queer theory and gender studies... heterosexism and A patriarch (from Greek: patria means father; arché means rule, beginning, origin) is a male head of an extended family exercising autocratic authority, or, by extension, a member of the ruling class or government of a society controlled by senior men. The word patriarch also denotes any of certain high... patriarchy. See Transfeminism is a form of feminism that includes transgender and transexual rights and issues, especially those of transwomen. Categories: Substubs | Feminism ... transfeminism and Gender studies is a theoretical work in the social sciences or humanities that focuses on issues of sex and gender in language and society, and often addresses related issues including racial and ethnic oppression, postcolonial societies, and globalization. Work in gender studies is often associated with work in feminist theory... gender studies.

Effect of Feminism in the West

Feminism has effected many changes in Western society, including The international movement for womens suffrage, led by suffragists (commonly called suffragettes), was a social, economic and political reform movement aimed at extending the suffrage (i.e. the right to vote) to women, advocating equal suffrage (abolition of graded votes) rather than universal suffrage (abolition of discrimination due to... women's suffrage; broad employment for women at more equitable wages ("equal pay for equal work"); the right to initiate Divorce or dissolution of marriage is the ending of a marriage, which can be contrasted with an annulment which is a declaration that a marriage is void, though the effects of marriage may be recognized in such unions, such as spousal support, child custody and distribution of property. Divorce is... divorce proceedings and "no fault" divorce; the right of women to control their own bodies and medical decisions, including obtaining birth control devices and safe Abortion, in its most common usage, refers to the voluntary or induced termination of a pregnancy, generally through the use of surgical procedures or drugs. Medically, the term also refers to the early expulsion of a fetus or embryo by natural causes (spontaneous abortion or miscarriage), which ends one in... abortions; and many others. Some feminists would argue that there is still much to be done on these fronts, while third-wave feminists would disagree and claim that the battle has basically "been won". As Western society has become increasingly accepting of feminist principles, some of these are no longer seen as specifically feminist, because they have been adopted by all or most people. Some beliefs that were radical for their time are now mainstream political thought. Almost no one in Western societies today questions the right of women to vote, choose her own marital partner if any, or to own land, concepts that seemed quite strange only 100 years ago.

Effect on Language

Feminists are often proponents of using Gender-neutral language (gender-generic, gender-inclusive, non-sexist, or sex-neutral language) is language that attempts to refer neither to males nor females when discussing an abstract or hypothetical person whose sex cannot otherwise be determined, as opposed to more traditional language forms, which may use male or female... non-sexist language, using " For alternative uses, see Ms Ms. (pronounced /məz/ or /mɪz/) is a title used with the last name or full name of a woman. Unlike the more traditional titles Miss and Mrs., it does not bear any reference to the womans marital status, as Mr... Ms." to refer to both married and unmarried women, for example, or the ironic use of the term "herstory" instead of "history". Feminists are also often proponents of using gender-inclusive language, such as "humanity" instead of "mankind", or "he or she" in place of "he" where the gender is unknown. Feminists in most cases advance their desired use of language either to promote an equal and respectful treatment of women or to affect the tone of political discourse. This can be seen as a move to change language which has been viewed by some feminists as imbued with sexism - providing for example the case in the The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. It is the third most common first language (native speakers), with around 402 million people in 2002. English has lingua franca status in many parts of the world, due to the military, economic, scientific, political and cultural influence... English language the word for the general pronoun is "he" or "his" (The child should have his paper and pencils), which is the same as the masculine pronoun (The boy and his truck). These feminists purport that language then directly affects perception of reality (compare In linguistics, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (SWH) states that there is a systematic relationship between the grammatical categories of the language a person speaks and how that person both understands the world and behaves in it. This controversial hypothesis is named after the linguist and anthropologist Edward Sapir and his... Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis). However, to take a postcolonial analysis of this point, many languages other than English may not have such a gendered pronoun instance and thus changing language may not be as important to some feminists as others. Yet, English is becoming more and more universal, and the issue of language may be seen to be of growing importance.

Effect on heterosexual relationships

The feminist movements have certainly affected the nature of heterosexual relationships in Western and other societies affected by feminism. While these effects have generally been seen as positive, there have been some consequences that can be catalogued as negative from the traditional point of view on morals.

In some of these relationships, there has been a change in the power relationship between men and women. In these circumstances, women and men have had to adapt to relatively new situations, sometimes causing confusions about role and identity. Women can now avail themselves more to new opportunities, but some have suffered with the demands of trying to live up to the so-called "superwomen" identity, and have struggled to 'have it all', i.e. manage to happily balance a career and family. In response to the family issue, many Socialist feminists blame this on the lack of state-provided childcare facilities. Instead of the onus of childcare resting solely on the female, men have started to assume for responsibilitiy for managing family matters.

There have been changes also in attitudes towards sexual morality and behaviour with the onset of second wave feminism and " Oral contraceptives are contraceptives which are taken orally and inhibit the bodys fertility by chemical means. Female oral contraceptives have been on the market since the early 1960s. Male oral contraceptives remain a subject of research and development, and are not available widely (if at all) to the public... the Pill": women are then more in control of their body, and are able to experience sex with more freedom than was previously socially accepted for them. This The sexual revolution was a substantial change in sexual morality and sexual behaviour throughout the West and other wealthy countries in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Introduction Some historians argue that the sexual revolution was not a complete break from earlier Western sexual attitudes but rather a liberalization after... sexual revolution that women were then able to experience was seen as positive (especially by Sex-positive feminism, also known as pro-sex feminism, is a movement formed in the 1980s in response to efforts by some in the feminist movement, including Catharine MacKinnon and Andrea Dworkin, to censor pornography and otherwise restrict various forms of sexual expression that they felt were oppressive to women... sex-positive feminists) as it enabled women and men to experience sex in a free and equal manner. However, some feminists felt that the results of the sexual revolution only was beneficial to men. Whether Marriage is a relationship that plays a key role in the definition of many families. Precise definitions vary historically and between and within cultures, but it has been an important concept as a socially sanctioned bond between people who (usually) are in a sexual relationship. Globally, societies that sanction polygyny... Marriage is an institution that oppresses women and men, or not, has generated discussion. Those that do view it as oppressive sometimes opt for Cohabitation is a situation in a semi_presidential system of government, in which the President and Prime Minister are of different political parties. See: Cohabitation (government) Cohabitation can also refer to a couple living together (usually in a sexual relationship, and especially without being married). See also concubinage. This is a... cohabitation or more recently to live indepently reverting to Casual sex refers to the phenomenon of what is regarded as promiscuous sexual activity, i.e. an instance of a non-formalised sexual encounter outside of the predominant sexual norm. The degree of discrimination (no-saying) appropriate to human sexual behaviour is socially regulated according to culturally specific norms. In... casual sex to fulfill their sexual needs.

Effect on religion

Feminism has had a great effect on many aspects of Religion, sometimes used interchangeably with faith, is commonly defined as belief concerning the supernatural, sacred, or divine, and the practices and institutions associated with such belief. In its broadest sense some have defined it as the sum total of answers given to explain humankinds relationship with the universe. Religion... religion. In liberal branches of Protestantism is a general grouping of denominations within Christianity. It generally refers to those that separated from the Catholic Church in the Reformation, their offshoots, and those that share similar doctrines or ideologies. It is commonly considered one of the three major branches of Christianity, along with Catholicism and Eastern... Protestant Christianity, women are now ordained as Clergy is the generic term used to describe the formal religious leadership within a given religion. The term comes from Greek κληρος (fortune, or metaphorically, heritage). Depending on the religion, clergy usually take care of the ritual aspects of the religious life, teach or otherwise... clergy, and in Reform Judaism (also known as Progressive Judaism while in the U.K. Reform Judaism and Liberal Judaism together make up Progressive Judaism) is a branch of Judaism characterized by: The belief that an individuals personal autonomy overrides traditional Jewish law and custom. The individual decides which Jewish practices, if... Reform, Conservative Judaism (or Masorti Judaism) is a denomination of Judaism characterized by: A positive attitude toward modern culture The belief that traditional rabbinic modes of study, and modern scholarship and critical text study, are both valid ways to learn about and from Jewish religious texts. A commitment to following traditional... Conservative and Reconstructionist Judaism is a denomination of Judaism characterized by: The belief that an individuals personal autonomy generally overrides traditional Jewish law and custom, yet also holding that ones practices must take into account communal consensus. This leads to a somewhat more traditional set of observances than seen in... Reconstructionist For a discussion of Jews as an ethnicity or ethnic group see the article on Jew. The Star of David, a common symbol of Jews and Judaism Judaism is the religion and culture of the Jewish people and one of the first recorded monotheistic faiths. It is also one of... Judaism, women are now ordained as See Semicha for article about ordination of rabbis. Rabbi ( Classical Hebrew רִבִּי ribbī; modern Ashkenazi and Israeli רַבִּי rabbī) in Judaism, commonly refers to the spiritual leader of a Jewish synagogue. The term means teacher, or more literally... rabbis and The word Cantor can mean more than one thing: Cantor is another name for a Hazzan, a member of the Jewish clergy Cantor is the title of a member of a student society who is the main singer at a cantus Famous people named Cantor include: Eddie Cantor, singer &... cantors. Within these For other uses of the term Christian, see Christian (disambiguation). Christianity is an Abrahamic religion based on the life, teachings, death by crucifixion, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth as described in the New Testament. Although Christians are monotheistic, the one God is thought, by most Christians, to exist in... Christian and For a discussion of Jews as an ethnicity or ethnic group see the article on Jew. The Star of David, a common symbol of Jews and Judaism Judaism is the religion and culture of the Jewish people and one of the first recorded monotheistic faiths. It is also one of... Jewish groups, women have gradually become more nearly equal to men by obtaining positions of power; their perspectives are now sought out in developing new statements of belief. These trends, however, have been resisted within Islam ( Arabic al-islām الإسلام,  listen?) the submission to God is a monotheistic faith and the worlds second-largest religion. Etymology In Arabic, Islām means submission and is described as a Dīn, meaning way of life... Islam and The Roman Catholic Church, most often spoken of simply as the Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with over one billion members. Members generally prefer the term Catholic Church, but this term has multiple meanings (see Catholicism); the term Roman Catholic Church is used in this article to avoid... Roman Catholicism. All the mainstream denominations of Islam forbid A Muslim is a believer in or follower of Islam. The word Muslim means one who submits and implies complete submission to the will of God ( Allah). Muslims believe that nature is itself Islamic, since it follows natural laws placed by God. Thus, a Muslim strives to surrender to God... Muslim women from being recognized as religious clergy and scholars in the same way that Muslim men are accepted. In modern times there have been a number of liberal movements within Islam (sometimes called in Arabic: الإسلام الإجتهادية or interpretation-based Islam, also الإسلام المت... Liberal movements within Islam have nonetheless persisted in trying to bring about feminist reforms in Muslim societies. The Roman Catholic Church, most often spoken of simply as the Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with over one billion members. Members generally prefer the term Catholic Church, but this term has multiple meanings (see Catholicism); the term Roman Catholic Church is used in this article to avoid... Roman Catholicism has historically excluded women from entering the main Church hierarchy and does not allow women to hold any positions as Clergy is the generic term used to describe the formal religious leadership within a given religion. The term comes from Greek κληρος (fortune, or metaphorically, heritage). Depending on the religion, clergy usually take care of the ritual aspects of the religious life, teach or otherwise... clergy except as nuns.

Feminism also has had an important role in embracing new forms of religion. Neopaganism (sometimes Neo-Paganism, meaning New Paganism) is a heterogeneous group of religions which attempt to revive ancient, mainly European pre-Christian religions. As such it is considered a subcategory of Paganism. The term is used by academics and many adherents to denote those Pagan traditions which are largely modern... Neopagan religions especially tend to emphasise the importance of A goddess, a female deity, contrasts with male deities, known as gods. A great many cultures have their own goddesses, sometimes alone, but more often as part of a larger pantheon that includes both of the conventional genders and in some cases even hermaphroditic deities. The Goddess can provide a... Goddess spirtuality, and question what they regard as traditonal religion's hostility to women and the sacred feminine. In particular Dianic Wicca, also known as Womens Spirituality, Feminist Spirituality, Feminist Witchcraft, and Feminist Wicca. Beliefs and practices Dianic Wicca, Dianic Witchcraft, and Feminist Dianic Witchcraft are all common titles for the Neopagan Feminist Dianic tradition. Dianic Wicca can be very similar to traditional Wicca in practice (see section below... Dianic Wicca is a religion whose origins lie within Radical feminism views womens oppression as a fundamental element in human society and seeks to challenge that standard by broadly rejecting standard gender roles. The traditional Radical feminist standpoint may be expressed as viewing the division in all societies as that between men and women and stating that men... radical feminism. Among traditional religions, feminism has led to self examination, with reclaimed positive Christian and Islamic views and ideals of Mary is a popular name worldwide, and the most popular name for a female in the United States. During the 1990 US Census, approximately 2.629% of females counted had the first name Mary. There have been a number of important women who have gone by the name Mary: Biblical... Mary, Islamic views of This article needs cleanup. Please edit this article to conform to a higher standard of article quality. Fatima Zahra also called Fatemeh Al Zahraa or Az-Zahra (Arabic فاطمة الزهراء) was the daughter of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. She was... Fatima Zahra, and especially to the Catholic belief in the Coredemptrix, as counterexamples. However, criticism of these efforts as unable to salvage corrupt church structures and philosophies continues. Some argue that Mary, with her status as mother and virgin, and as traditionally the main role model for women, sets women up to aspire to an impossible ideal and also thus has negative consequences on human sense of identity and sexuality.

There is a separate article on This entry contains a discussion of how monotheistic religions deal with God and gender, and how modern feminism has influenced the theology of many religions. Monotheists hold a belief in one God as a fundamental religious principle. In Sikhism, Judaism and Islam God is conceived of as without sex or... God and gender; it discusses how monotheistic religions reconcile their theologies with contemporary gender issues, and how modern feminism has influenced the theology of many religions.

Effect on moral education

Opponents of feminism claim that women's quest for external power, as opposed to the internal power to affect other people's ethics and values, has left a vacuum in the area of Morality is a complex of principles based on cultural, religious, and philosophical concepts and beliefs, by which an individual determines whether his or her actions are right or wrong. These concepts and beliefs are often generalized and codified by a culture or group, and thus serve to regulate the behaviour... moral training, where women formerly held sway. Some feminists reply that the education, including the moral education, of children has never been, and should not be, seen as the exclusive responsibility of women. Paradoxically, it is also held by others that the moral education of children at home in the form of Homeschooling (also called home education) is the education of children at home and in the community, in contrast to education in an institution such as a public or parochial school. In the United States, homeschooling is the focus of a substantial minority movement among parents who wish to provide their... homeschooling is itself a women's movement. Such arguments are entangled within the larger disagreements of the The term culture war has been used to describe ideologically-driven and often strident confrontations typical of American public culture and politics since at least the 1980s. Origins and polarization The expression gained wide use with the publication in 1991 of Culture Wars: The Struggle to Define America by James... Culture Wars, as well as within feminist (and anti-feminist) ideas regarding custodianship of societal morals and Compassion is a sense of shared suffering, most often combined with a desire to alleviate or reduce such suffering. Compassionate acts are generally considered those which take into account the suffering of others and attempt to alleviate that suffering as if it were ones own. In this sense, the... compassion.

Worldwide statistics

The following is a sampling of statistics related to the relative status of women worldwide.

• Worldwide, women work more than men, when both paid employment and unpaid household tasks are accounted for, according to the United Nations Human Development Report 2004: Section 28, Gender, Work Burden, and Time Allocation (http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2004/pdf/hdr04_HDI.pdf). In rural areas of the developing countries surveyed, women perform an average of 20% more work than men, or an additional 98 minutes per day. In the OECD countries surveyed, on average women performed 5% more work than men, or 18 minutes per day.
• Women own only 1 percent of the world's wealth, and earn 10 percent of the world's income, despite making up 51 percent of the population.
• Women are underrepresented in all of the world's legislative bodies (see Women in National Parliaments, November 2004 (http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm)). In 1985 is a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. Events Environmental and weather change Asian Tiger Mosquito, an invasive species is first found in Houston, Texas May 25 - Bangladesh is hit by a tropical cyclone and storm surge which kills approximately 10,000 people. September 19 - 8... 1985, The Republic of Finland ( Finnish: Suomen tasavalta, Swedish: Republiken Finland) is a Nordic country in northeastern Europe, bordered by the Baltic Sea to the southwest, the Gulf of Finland to the southeast and the Gulf of Bothnia to the west. Finland has land frontiers with Sweden, Norway and Russia and... Finland had the largest percentage of women in national legislature at approximately 32 percent (P. Norris, Women's Legislative Participation in Western Europe, West European Politics). Currently, The Kingdom of Sweden ( Swedish: Konungariket Sverige  listen?) is a Nordic country in Scandinavia, in Northern Europe. It is bordered by Norway on the west, Finland on the northeast, the Skagerrak Strait and the Kattegat Strait on the southwest, and the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia on... Sweden has the highest number of women at 45 percent. The The United States of America — also referred to as the United States, the U.S.A., the U.S., America¹, the States, or (archaically) Columbia — is a federal republic of 50 states located primarily in central North America (with the exception of two states: Alaska and Hawaii... United States has just 14 percent. The world average is just 9 percent. ( For alternate meanings, see Wales (disambiguation) National motto: Cymru am byth (Welsh: Wales for ever) Official languages: English and Welsh Capital: Cardiff First Minister: Rhodri Morgan AM Area  - Total:  - % water: Ranked 3rd UK 20,779 km² xx% Population  - Total (2001):  - Density: Ranked 3rd UK 2,903... Wales, while not an independent country has 50% of its members being women.)
• In some parts of the For the Jamaican reggae band, see Third World (band). Third World is a term originally used to distinguish those nations that neither aligned with the West nor with the East during the Cold War and most were members of the Non-Aligned Movement. These countries are also known as the... third world, women are considered as effectively property, and have no legal rights in practice. Millions of women are expected to undergo Female circumcision (including excision) loosely refers to a number of procedures performed on the female genitalia and which are generally of a cultural, rather than medical, nature. Although occasionally practiced by some doctors in the United States until the 1970s, in recent years it is only common in parts... female circumcision. In some areas, For the domesticated crop plant called rape, see rapeseed. For responding to rape as a medical emergency, see sexual assault. For the former administrative division of Sussex, see Rape (district). Rape is a crime wherein the victim is forced into sexual activity against his or her will. Effectively, it co... rape is used as a sentence for a crime, even crimes not committed by the women themselves. (See, for example, the case of Meerwala has challenged a local tribal councils injustice Mukhtaran Bibi is a woman in Meerwala, a small and very poor village of Jatoi, a rural Tehsil (county) in the Muzaffargarh district of Pakistan. Mukhtaran Bibi, also known as Mukhtar Mai, Mukhtiar or just Mukhtaran, was raped, apparently on the... Mukhtaran Bibi.)

Perspective: the nature of the modern movement

Most feminists believe discrimination against women still exists in North American and European nations, as well as worldwide. But there are many ideas within the movement regarding the severity of current problems, what the problems are, and how to confront them. Extremes on the one hand include some radical feminists such as Mary Daly (born 1928) is a radical feminist theologian, a mother of modern feminist theology. She has doctorates in theology and philosophy from the University of Fribourg, Switzerland. A former Catholic theologian and nun, she taught at Boston College for 33 years. This feminist icon has provoked strong reactions of... Mary Daly who argues that the world would be better off with dramatically fewer men. There are also dissidents, such as Christina Hoff Sommers is an dissenting feminist author, best known for her questioning of mainstream feminism. She researches American culture, American adolescents, and morality in American society. A former university philosophy professor in Ethics, she is the author of Who Stole Feminism and The War Against Boys. Books Who Stole... Christina Hoff Sommers or Camille Anna Paglia (born April 2, 1947 in Endicott, New York) is a social critic, author and avowed feminist. She is University Professor of Humanities and Media Studies at the University of the Arts in Philadelphia. Paglia is an intellectual of many apparent contradictions: a classicist who champions art both... Camille Paglia, who identify themselves as feminist but who accuse the movement of anti-male prejudices.

Many feminists, however, also question the use of the term feminist to refer to any who espouse violence to any gender or who fail to recognize a fundamental equality between the sexes. Some feminists, like Katha Pollitt is an American feminist writer. She is best-known for her column Subject to Debate in The Nation magazine but has also published in other periodicals, including The New Yorker. In 2004, she published Reasonable Creatures, a collection of nineteen essays that appeared in The Nation and in... Katha Pollitt (see her book Reasonable Creatures) or Professor Nadine Strossen is president of the American Civil Liberties Union. She is the first woman and the youngest person to ever lead the ACLU. Professor Strossen also sits on the Council on Foreign Relations. She has been hailed as one of the most influential business leaders, women, or lawyers... Nadine Strossen (President of the The American Civil Liberties Union, or ACLU, is a non_governmental organization devoted to defending civil rights and civil liberties in the United States. Lawsuits brought by the ACLU have been central to several important developments in U.S. constitutional law. The ACLU provides lawyers and legal expertise in cases where... ACLU and author of Defending Pornography [a treatise on freedom of speech]), consider feminism to be, solely, the view that "women are people." Views that separate the sexes rather than unite them are considered by these people to be sexist rather than feminist.

There are also debates between Difference feminism is a branch of feminism that stresses that men and women are essentially very different beings, instead of past feminisms of equality that stress a fundamental sameness between men and women in some way. Difference feminisms may have arose due to issues with legislation - equality feminisms may have... difference feminists such as Carol Gilligan is an American feminist ethicist best known for her work with and against Lawrence Kohlberg on ethical community and ethical relationships, and certain subject-object problems in ethics. Her fame rests primarily on In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Womens Development (1982) in which she criticized... Carol Gilligan on the one hand, who believe that there are important differences between the sexes (which may or may not be inherent, but which cannot be ignored), and those who believe that there are no essential differences between the sexes, and that the roles observed in society are due to conditioning. Modern scientists sometimes disagree on whether inborn differences exist between men and women (other than physical differences such as anatomy, chromosomes, and hormones).

Criticisms of feminism

Feminism has attracted attention due to the social changes it has effected in Western society. While feminism in some forms and to varying degrees is generally accepted, dissenting voices do exist.

Some critics (both male and female) find that some feminists are effectively preaching hate against males or claiming male inferiority, citing that if the words "male" and "female" were replaced by "black" and "white" respectively in some feminist writings, the texts could be viewed as racist propaganda. While some feminists generally disagree with the view that men are equally oppressed under patriarchy, other feminists, especially Third-wave feminism is a feminist movement that arguably began in the early 1990s. Unlike second-wave feminism, which largely focused on the inclusion of women in traditionally male-dominated areas, third-wave feminism seeks to challenge and expand common definitions of gender and sexuality. Traits of third-wave feminism... third-wave feminists agree that men are similarly oppressed and that gender equality means oppression of neither gender.

Many feel that while feminists claim to believe in equality of the sexes, the ideology of present-day feminism is inherently gynocentric  (http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Gynocentric). These critics cite both the etymology and symbology of the contemporary feminist movement, and the constant focus of its work on issues that affect women. They feel that followers of this ideology tend to see the world through a certain lens, leading them to be prejudiced. These critics say that the feminists start with the assumption that women are widely oppressed in contemporary America, and never stray from that assumption – leading to observations that are clouded by confirmation bias. This group of critics would like to see a new non gender-biased term replace “feminism,” such as “ Gender egalitarians believe in equality of the sexes. Many followers of this philosophy would like to see this term come to replace “feminism” or “masculism,” when used to describe a belief in basic equal rights and opportunities for members of both sexes. They strive for ultimate... gender egalitarianism." This term would then replace “feminism” when used in reference to the belief, close to universal now in contemporary Western culture, in basic equal rights and opportunities for both sexes.

Some argue that because of feminism, males are beginning to be oppressed. Those who make this claim often note that males die from suicide 4 times more frequently than females attempting suicide in the USA; rates climbed dramatically during the 1980s and early 1990s; 72% of all suicides are white males; slightly over half of all suicides are adult men, aged 25-65; critics conclude that the USA is becoming a country where males especially white males are severely oppressed. (See statistics here (http://www.who.int/mental_health/media/en/374.pdf)) The global statistics are similar (See statistics for [1] (http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/global_campaign/en/selfdirectedviolfacts.pdf)). According to sociologists, there are various reasons for these suicide rate increases, and they do not indicate a greater level of male oppression. Some studies of the 20 year increase in male suicide rates (ending in 1998, when the rate began to decrease) have found only a correlation between it and: local economic health and employment rates, suicide methods preferred by men, male isolation if divorced, women seeking treatment for depression in far greater numbers than do men, and (especially) aging populations. It should be noted that during the same approximate period (1952 to 1995) the rates for teen and elder suicide nearly tripled.

Many people object to the feminist movement as trying to destroy traditional gender roles. They say that men and women have many natural differences and that everyone benefits from recognizing those differences. For example, children are thought to benefit from having a masculine father and a feminine mother; in this view, divorce, single parenthood, or non-traditional gender roles are all seen as harming children more than do conflict in the home, dual but poor role models, or new definitions of masculinity, femininity, or family. The traditional nuclear family is now an exceptional background in the US, and has been the subject of many critiques characterizing it as a racist or culturally ignorant or nostalgic idealized model.

Criticism has been made that social change and legal reform have gone too far and now negatively affect men and families with children. For example, it has been suggested that custody hearings in divorces are biased towards the mother, and several organizations have formed to fight for The Fathers rights movement is a loose network of interest groups, primarily in western countries, established to campaign for equal treatment by the courts in family law issues such as child custody after divorce, child support, and paternity determinations. History The Fathers Rights movement has existed since the 1970s. No... fathers' rights.

Some men also express worry that a belief in the A glass ceiling is an unofficial barrier to an upper management or such prominent position within a company or other organization which certain groups, particularly women, are perceived to be unable to cross. The term refers to the removal of formal barriers to career advancement when it is nevertheless believed... glass ceiling for women has led to women being promoted more than men for the purpose of Public relations (PR) is the practice of conveying messages to the public through the media on behalf of a client, with the intention of changing the publics actions by influencing their opinions. PR practitioners usually target only certain segments of the public (audiences), since similar opinions tend to be... public relations than for their merit. This could be compared to Affirmative action ( US English), or positive discrimination ( British English), is a policy or a program providing advantages for people of a minority group who are seen to have traditionally been discriminated against, with the aim of creating a more egalitarian society. This consists of preferential access to education, employment, health... affirmative action; thus, feminists who favour such a method of reform usually present arguments similar to those used for defending affirmative action (i.e. that such a system is required to offset the results of previous discrimination).

There is also a group of The term paleoconservative (sometimes shortened to paleo or paleocon when the context is clear) refers to an American branch of conservative Old Right thought that stands against both the mainstream tradition of the National Review magazine and the neoconservatives. Many paleoconservatives readily identify themselves as classical conservatives, because the former... Paleoconservatives including George Gilder (born 1939, in New York City) is a libertarian, right-wing, American philosopher, futurologists and author. He is a prominent oracle of techno-utopianism. He helped found the Discovery Institute with Bruce Chapman. Gilder writes books about technology and marriage. He has written articles for many publications include... George Gilder and Patrick Buchanan Patrick Joseph Buchanan (born November 2, 1938), usually known as Pat Buchanan, is an American conservative journalist and a well known television political commentator. In 2000, he ran for President of the United States on the Reform Party ticket. He has previously sought, though never received, presidential nomination... Pat Buchanan that have argued that feminism has produced a fundamentally unworkable, self-destructive, stagnant society. These authors have noted that all of the societies in which feminism has developed the most have below replacement rates of fertility, high rates of immigration (frequently from countries with cultures and religions extremely hostile to feminism). In the US, the "liberal" religious groups most accepting of feminism have had noted decline-in both conversions and natural increase. The most rapidly growing major religion in the US is Islam ( Arabic al-islām الإسلام,  listen?) the submission to God is a monotheistic faith and the worlds second-largest religion. Etymology In Arabic, Islām means submission and is described as a Dīn, meaning way of life... Islam, some forms of which are extremely hostile to feminism.

Although efforts to curb Sexual harassment is harassment of a sexual nature, typically in the workplace or other setting where raising objections or refusing may have negative consequences. In American employment law, it is any unwelcome sexual advance or conduct on the job, having the effect of making the workplace intimidating, hostile or offensive... sexual harassment against women in the workplace are normally applauded, there are those who note that the situation is such that the concern directed towards women in resolving disputes of sexual harassment is indirect discrimination, in that less concern is given to men when they are the subject of the claims, or when they are claiming a case of sexual harassment. Since the 1990s, proving sexual harassment in the United States (by either men or women) has been made much more difficult by Supreme Court decisions.

Postcolonial Feminism criticises Western forms of feminism, notably radical feminism and its universalization of female experience. These feminists argue that since the assumption of a global experience as a woman is an assumption that is a white middle-class experience as a woman where gender oppression is the primary one... Postcolonial feminists criticise Western forms of feminism, notably Radical feminism views womens oppression as a fundamental element in human society and seeks to challenge that standard by broadly rejecting standard gender roles. The traditional Radical feminist standpoint may be expressed as viewing the division in all societies as that between men and women and stating that men... radical feminism and its most basic assumption, universalization of female experience. These feminists argue that the assumption of a global experience as a woman is based on a white middle-class experience in which gender oppression is primary, and cannot apply to women for whom gender oppression may come second to racial or class oppression.

Today, young women most commonly associate "feminism" with radical and gender feminism, and this has put off a lot of these women from being active in feminism, spurring a move away from Second-wave feminism refers to a period of feminist thought that originated around the 1960s and was mainly concerned with independence and greater political action to improve womens rights. Second-wave feminism was most concerned with items such as economic equality between the genders and addressing the rights of... second-wave labels. However, the basic values of feminism (gender equality of rights and opportunities) have become so integrated into Western culture as to be accepted over-whelmingly as valid, and non-conformity to those values characterized as unacceptable, by the same men and women who reject the label "feminist".

See also

• Anti-racist mathematics refers to recent education reform theory in countries such as the US and the UK, which emphasizes the social context of teaching mathematics, suggesting the study of mathematics as its traditionally known in western societies may exhibit racial or cultural bias. It is part of a... Anti-racist math
• Equal pay for women is an issue involving pay inequality between men and women. It is often introduced into domestic politics in many first world countries as an economic problem that needs governmental intervention via regulation. Many consider the amount of pay disparity between men and women to be an... Equal pay for women
• Rosie the Riveter: We Can Do It! - Many women first found economic strength in World War II-era manufacturing jobs. Women played an important role in both World War I and World War II, and this had long lasting after effects. Prior to the First World War womens role... Female roles in the world wars
• Feminazi is a pejorative term coined by conservative talk radio host Rush Limbaugh to refer to the feminists that he personally finds the most obnoxious. According to Limbaugh, a feminazi is a woman to whom the most important thing in life is seeing to it that as many abortions as... Feminazi
• This is a history of feminism and the role of women throughout the history of the United States.     Women in colonial times The experiences of women during the colonial era varied greatly from colony to colony. In New England, the Puritan settlers brought their strong religious values with... Feminist history in the United States
• Feminist history in the United Kingdom covers part of the Feminism movement in the UK from 1800 to the present day. 19th Century The advent of the reformist age during the 19th century meant that those invisible minorities or marginalised majorities were to find a catalyst and a microcosm in... Feminist history in the United Kingdom
• The Feminist movement in Latin American countries began only in the 1920s after inspirations from outside influences. Because of the necessity of outside influence, feminism took hold only in larger cities where those influences could be heard. Everywhere else in Latin America, the tradition of patriarchy stood strong. Only a... Feminist history in Latin America
• This article is about homosexual women, not inhabitants of the Greek island of Lesbos A lesbian (lowercase L) is a homosexual woman. Lesbians are sexually and romantically attracted to other women. Etymology The word lesbian originally referred to an inhabitant of the island of Lesbos, in ancient Greece. The term... Lesbianism
• This is a list of topics related to the issue of feminism, womens rights and womens liberation: All-women band Coeducation Eco-feminism Erotophobia Female superiority (or male inferiority) Feminazi Feminist censorship Feminist history in the United States Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution Feminist history in... List of feminism topics
• This is a list of important participants in the development of feminism, listed by feminist ideology. Early pioneers Abigail Adams (1744-1818), First Lady of the United States Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa (1486-1535), author of Declamation on the Nobility and Preeminence of the Female Sex Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910), first... List of notable feminists
• This article needs cleanup. Please edit this article to conform to a higher standard of article quality. Court order awarding child custody to mother, visitation rights to father. Court order restricting divorcing parties use of financial assets Court order mandating child support payments Marriage strike is a social movement motivated... Marriage strike
• Misogyny is an exaggerated pathological aversion towards women. Compare with anti-woman sexism. Misogyny is usually regarded as directed against women by some men, but women can also harbor misogynistic views. In feminist theory, misogyny is recognised as a political ideology similar to racism or anti-semitism, existing to justify... Misogyny
• Misandry is an exaggerated pathological aversion towards the male part of mankind. While usually ascribed to women, it is also possible for males themselves to be misandrist. Unlike misogyny (a pathological aversion towards women), misandry has been little discussed or investigated. Some masculists maintain that misandry has been rampant for... Misandry
• Gender-neutral language (gender-generic, gender-inclusive, non-sexist, or sex-neutral language) is language that attempts to refer neither to males nor females when discussing an abstract or hypothetical person whose sex cannot otherwise be determined, as opposed to more traditional language forms, which may use male or female... Non-sexist language
• Sex in advertising is the use of sexual interest as a tool of persuasion to draw interest to a particular product, for purpose of sale. Images of pretty women often appear in ads even when they have no connection to the product being sold. Here a provacatively clad woman lends... Sex in advertising

Books

• Judith Butler (b. 1956) is the Maxine Elliot Professor in the Departments of Rhetoric and Comparative Literature at the University of California, Berkeley. She also has a professorial appointment at the European Graduate School. Butler is a post-feminist philosopher, probably the most widely-read and celebrated American post-feminist... Butler, Judith (1994). "Feminism in Any Other Name", differences 6:2-3: 44-45.
• Echols, Alice., Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967-1975, University of Minnesota Press 1990
• Farrell, Warren, PhD., Why Men Earn More 2005 (ISBN: 0-8144-7210-9)
• Kampwirth, Karen., Feminism and the Legacy of Revolution: Nicaragua, El Salvador, Chiapas, Ohio UP 2004
• Lerner, Gerda., The Creation of Feminist Consciousness: From the Middle Ages to Eighteen-Seventy, Oxford University Press 1994
• Margaret Mead Margaret Mead (December 16, 1901 - November 15, 1978) was an American cultural anthropologist. She was born in Philadelphia to a university professor father and a social activist mother. She graduated from Barnard College in 1923 and received her Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1929. She set out... Mead, Margaret, entitled Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies (1935)
• Silverman, Kaja., Male Subjectivity at the Margins, p.2-3. New York: Routledge 1992
• Thomas, Calvin., ed., "Introduction: Identification, Appropriation, Proliferation", Straight with a Twist: Queer Theory and the Subject of Heterosexuality, p.39n. University of Illinois Press (2000)

External links

Feminist organizations

• Feminist Majority (http://feminist.org)
• NARAL Pro-Choice America (http://naral.org)
• National Organization for Women (http://now.org)
• Planned Parenthood Federation of America (http://ppfa.org)
• Women living under muslim laws (http://www.wluml.org/english/)
• Committee for Asian Women (http://www.cawinfo.org/)

Supportive of feminism

• Directory of Women's Media (http://www.wifp.org/DWM/DirectoryWomensMedia.html)
• Feminist support pages (Australia) (http://www.iinet.net.au/~rabbit/femsup.htm)
• Don't Be Scared By Feminist Theory (http://www.womenorganizingwomen.com/wgs3150/index.html)
• Donna Haraway - Bibliography (http://www.egs.edu/faculty/donnaharaway.html)
• "I Had an Abortion" (http://montages.blogspot.com/2004/07/i-had-abortion.html)
• Islam from Patriarchy to Feminism (http://www.liberalislam.net/women.html) from LiberalIslam.net
• Judith Butler - Bibliography (http://www.egs.edu/faculty/judithbutler.html)
• Naomi Wolf - Resources (http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/wolf.html)
• FemBio - Notable Women International (http://www.fembio.org/default.shtml)
• Susan Faludi - Resources (http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/faludi.html)
• The SCUM Manifesto (http://www.ai.mit.edu/%7Eshivers/rants/scum.html)
• The Personal Is Political (http://personalispolitical.tripod.com/)
• Famous Quotes on Feminism (http://www.yourquotations.net/Feminism.html)
• LadyWiki - open site for discussion & exchange (http://www.ladywiki.org/cgi-bin/wiki.pl/LadyWiki)
• The Seneca Falls Convention: Teaching about the Rights of Women and the Heritage of the Declaration of Independence (http://www.ericdigests.org/2002-1/women.html)
• The Sophie Treadwell Collection (http://www.library.arizona.edu/branches/spc/treadwell/)

Critical of feminism

• Feminism as a form of conservatism - a somewhat postmondernist critique (http://www.nvsh.nl/Website_Engels/Texts/Issues/Feminism_Frameset.htm)
• Domain of Patriarchy (http://www.debunker.com/patriarchy.html)
• Against feminist sexism: A balanced view of male and female power (http://www.users.bigpond.com/sarcasmo/femo.html)
• Independent Women's Forum (http://www.iwf.org)
• Vast collection of anti-feminist resources (http://jkalb.org/book/view/2)
• Equity feminism (http://www.equityfeminism.com)
• Domestic Violence Against Men (http://www.dvmen.org)
• Eagle Forum (http://www.eagleforum.org)
• The Noble Lie (http://www.debunker.com/texts/noblelie.html)
• The Masculist Perspective: Why Feminism is a Farce (http://www.ukmm.org.uk/issues/masc.htm)

Feminism and Religion

• Riffat Hasan on RELIGIOUS CONSERVATISM: FEMINIST THEOLOGY AS A MEANS OF COMBATING INJUSTICE TOWARD WOMEN IN MUSLIM COMMUNITIES/CULTURE (http://www.irfi.org/articles/articles_101_150/religious_conservatism.htm)