This article is about the position of women in society as advocated by religious texts in Hinduism. For the actual position of women in India, see Women in India

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Hinduism (Sanskrit: , , also known as , ) is a religion that originated on the Indian subcontinent. ... The status of women in India has been subject to great changes over the past few millennia. ... Hinduism (Sanskrit: , , also known as , ) is a religion that originated on the Indian subcontinent. ... Image File history File links Aum. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ... Within Smarta Hinduism, a variety of forms of God are seen as aspects of the one impersonal divine ground, (Brahma) or Aum. ... Hinduism encompasses many movements and schools fairly organized within Hindu denominations. ... Hindu mythology is a term used by modern scholarship for a large body of Indian literature that details the lives and times of legendary personalities, deities and divine incarnations on earth interspersed with often large sections of philosophical and ethical discourse. ... Hindu philosophy - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... Reincarnation, literally to be made flesh again, as a doctrine or mystical belief, holds the notion that some essential part of a living being (or in some variations, only human beings) can survive death in some form, with its integrity partly or wholly retained, to be reborn in a new... Moksha - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... Karma is a concept in Hinduism, based on the Vedas and Upanishads, which explains causality through a system where beneficial events are derived from past beneficial actions and harmful events from past harmful actions, creating a system of actions and reactions throughout a persons reincarnated lives. ... A puja as performed in Ujjain during the Monsoon on the banks of the overflooding river Shipra. ... Maya (illusion) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... Illustration depicting the transmigration of the soul. ... Dharma (Sanskrit धर्म) or Dhamma (Pāli) means Natural Law or Reality, and with respect to its significance for spirituality and religion might be considered the Way of the Higher Truths. ... Vedanta (Devanagari: , ) is a school of philosophy within Hinduism. ... A woman practising hatha yoga Yoga (Devanagari: योग) is a family of ancient spiritual practices originating in India. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Ama (Ayurveda). ... yugas (Devnāgari: युग) In Hindu philosophy the cycle of evolution of life is divided into four yugs (epochs or eras): Satya Yuga or Krita Yuga Treta Yuga Dvapara Yuga Kali Yuga // The spiritual states of civilization in each yuga In Hindu tradition, the world goes through a continuous cycle of... Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Vegetarianism For plant-eating, non-human animals, see Herbivore. ... Bhakti - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... Hindu scripture is overwhelmingly written in Sanskrit. ... The Upanishads (उपनिषद्, Upanişad) are part of the Hindu Shruti scriptures which primarily discuss meditation and philosophy and are seen as religious instructions by most schools of Hinduism. ... The Vedas (Sanskrit: वेद) are the main scriptural texts of Hinduism, also known as the Sanatana Dharma, and are a large corpus of texts originating in Ancient India. ... The Brahmana (Sanskrit ब्राह्मण) are part of the Hindu Shruti; They are composed in Vedic Sanskrit, and the period of their composition is sometimes referred to as the Brahmanic period or age (approximately between 900 BC and 500 BC). ... Bhagavad Gīta भगवद्गीता, composed ca the fifth - second centuries BC, is part of the epic poem Mahabharata, located in the Bhisma-Parva chapters 23–40. ... The (DevanāgarÄ«: ) is an ancient Sanskrit epic attributed to the poet Valmiki and is an important part of the Hindu canon (smá¹›ti). ... Manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra The (Devanagari: ), is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the . ... The Puranas are part of Hindu Smriti; these religious scriptures discuss devotion and mythology. ... The Aranyakas (Sanskrit आरण्यक, Forest Books, Forest Treatises) are part of the Hindu Shruti; these religious scriptures are sometimes argued to be part of either the Brahmanas or Upanishads. ... The Shikshapatri is a text of two hundred and twelve verses, and was written by Shree Swaminarayan, a reforming Hindu from the Vaishnava tradition, who lived in Gujarat from 1781-1830 and who was recognised by his followers as a deity during his lifetime. ... The Vachanamrut The Vachanamrut or the nectarine discourses of Bhagwan Swaminarayan is the most sacred and foundational scripture of the Swaminarayan Sampraday. ... map showing the prevalence of Dharmic (yellow) and Abrahamic (purple) religions in each country. ... The percentage of Hindu population of each country was taken from the US State Departments International Religious Freedom Report 2004. ... These are some of the most noteworthy Gurus and Saints of Hinduism: A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada Adi Shankara Amritanandamayi Baba Lokenath Brahmachari Bhakti Vaibhava Puri Maharaj Bhagawan Nityananda Bhagwan Swaminarayan Chinmayananda Gurumayi Chidvilasananda Lahiri Mahasaya Madhvacharya Mahavatar Babaji Mother Meera Muktananda Narayana Guru Nimbarka Nisargadatta Maharaj Raghavendra Swami Ramakrishna... The Gopuram of temples, in south India, are adorned with colourful icons depicting a particular story surrounding the temples deity. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... In Tibet, many Buddhists carve mantras into rocks as a form of devotion. ... Glossary of terms in Hinduism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... The Nataraja is one of the most famous images of Lord Shiva Murtis (singular Murti, also spelled Murthi or Murthy) refers to deities or images used by Hindus and also by some Mahayana Buddhists during worship as points of devotional and meditational focus. ... Image File history File links HinduSwastika. ... This box: view • talk • edit

The role of women in Hinduism is often disputed, from quite fair to extremely intolerant. Hinduism is based on numerous texts, some of which date back to 2000 BC. They are varied in authority, aunthencity, content and theme, with the most authoritative being the Vedas. The position of women in Hinduism is widely dependent on the specific text and the context. Positive references are made to the ideal woman in texts such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, while some texts such as the Manu Smriti advocate a restriction of women's rights. Hinduism (Sanskrit: , , also known as , ) is a religion that originated on the Indian subcontinent. ... The Vedas (Sanskrit: वेद) are the main scriptural texts of Hinduism, also known as the Sanatana Dharma, and are a large corpus of texts originating in Ancient India. ... Hinduism (Sanskrit: , , also known as , ) is a religion that originated on the Indian subcontinent. ... The (DevanāgarÄ«: ) is an ancient Sanskrit epic attributed to the poet Valmiki and is an important part of the Hindu canon (smá¹›ti). ... Manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra The (Devanagari: ), is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the . ... The Manusmriti (Sanskrit मनुस्मृति), translated Laws of Manu is regarded as an important work of Hindu law and ancient Indian society. ...

Gender of God

There are a wide variety of viewpoints within the different schools of Hinduism concerning the exact nature and gender (where applicable) of the Supreme person or being. The Shakti traditions for example focus their worship on the goddess Durga as the supreme embodiment of power and feminine strength (a female form of God). Vaishnavism and Shaivism both worship Lakshmi with Vishnu and Parvati with Shiva respectively as beings on an equal level of magnitude (the male and female aspects of God). In some instances such as with Gaudiya Vaishnavism, specific emphasis is placed on the worship of God's female aspect (Radharani) even above that of her paramour Krishna. Thus it could be said that Hinduism considers God to have both male and female aspects, as the original source of both. Other traditions which follow the advaita philosophy consider that ultimately the supreme being is formless without any particular gender, or is transcendental to such considerations. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... In Hinduism, Durga (Sanskrit: , Bengali: ) is a form of Devi, the supreme goddess, also identified with Parvati. ... Maha-Vishnu depicted as resting on the causal ocean, with countless universes emanating from his skin pores. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... For South Indian actress, see Laxmi (actress). ... Vishnu (IAST , Devanagari , with honorific Shri Vishnu; , ), (also frequently referred to as Narayana) is the most popularly worshipped form of God in Hinduism [1]. Within the Vaishnava tradition he is viewed as the Ultimate Reality or Supreme God (similarly to Shiva within Shaivism). ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ... Shiva (English IPA: Sanskrit: शिव; Hindi: शिव; Malayalam ശിവന്‍; Tamil: சிவன் (when used to distinguish lordly status), also known as Siva and written Śiva in the official IAST transliteration, pronounced as ) is a form of Ishvara or God in the later Vedic scriptures of Hinduism. ... Gaudiya Vaishnavism, (Bengal) Vaishnavism, is a sect of Hinduism founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Krishna with Radharani, 18th C Rajasthani painting Krishna (कृष्ण in Devanagari, in IAST ), according to various Hindu traditions, is the eighth avatar of Vishnu. ... Advaita Vedanta is probably the best known of all Vedanta schools of Hinduism, the others being Dvaita and Vishishtadvaita. ...

Position of the women

In the marriage hymn (RV 10.85.26), the wife is "should address the assembly as a commander."^[1]

Property rights

Arthashastra and Manusamhita are sources about the woman's right to property or ‘Stridhan’, (literally meaning, property of wife). It is of two types: maintenance (in money or land given by the husband), and anything else like ornaments given to her by her family, husband, in-laws and the friends of her husband. Manu further subdivides this into six types - the property given by parents at marriage, given by the parental family when she is going to her husband’s house, given by her husband out of affection (not maintenance which he is bound to give), and property given separately by brother, mother and father [Manu IX 194]. Pre-nuptial contracts are also mentioned where the groom would agree to give a set amount of brideprice to both parents and the bride. Such property belonged to the wife alone and was not to be touched by the groom or her parents except in emergencies (in sickness, in famine, threated by robbers, or for performing holy deeds). At the same time, the Manu Smriti contradicts itself by declaring that a wife has no property and the wealth earned is for the husband [Manu VIII.416].

Daughters and sons equally inherited their mother's property; but some scriptures insist that a mother's property belongs solely to the daughters [Manu IX 131], in order of preference: unmarried daughters, married but poor daughters, married and rich daughters. When a father died, unmarried daughters had to be given a share in their father’s property, equal to one-fourth from every brother's share [since it is assumed that the married daughter had been given her share at marriage] [Manu IX. 118]. If the family has no sons, the (appointed) daughter is the sole inheritor of the property [Manu IX 127].

Study of Scriptures

Several women sages and seers are mentioned in the Upanishads, the philosophical part of the Vedas, notable among them being Gargi and Maitreyi. The Sanskrit word for female teachers as Acharyā (as opposed to Acharya for teacher and Acharyini for teacher's wife) reveal that women were also given a place as Gurus. The Vedas (Sanskrit: वेद) are the main scriptural texts of Hinduism, also known as the Sanatana Dharma, and are a large corpus of texts originating in Ancient India. ...

The Harita Dharmasutra (of the Maitrayaniya school of Yayurveda) declares that there are two kind of women: Sadhyavadhu who marry, and the Brahmavaadini who are inclined to religion, they can wear the sacred thread, perform rituals like the agnihotra and read the Vedas. Bhavabhuti's Uttararamacharita 2.3 says that Atreyi went to Southern India where she studied the Vedas and Indian philosophy. Shankara debated with the female philosopher Ubhaya Bharati, and Madhava's Shankaradigvijaya (9.63) mentions that she was well versed in the Vedas. Tirukkoneri Dasyai (15th century) wrote a commentary on Nammalvar's Tiruvaayamoli, with reference to Vedic texts like the Taittiriya Yajurveda. Bhavabhuti, a 7th century scholar of India, is noted for his drams and poetry, written in Sanskrit. ... Shankara can refer to: Shiva, the Hindu god Adi Shankara, Hindu philosopher of around 800 CE Also written, Sankara This is a disambiguation page: a list of articles associated with the same title. ... Madhava is another name for Vishnu and appears as the 72nd, 167th and 735th names in the Vishnu sahasranama. ... Nammalvar was a Hindu bhakti saint, well-known for his many poems about devotion to Vishnu. ...

The Bhagavata Purana states that the Mahabharata was written specifically for women and also men who were not in the priestly Brahmin caste : The Bhagavata Purana (sometimes rendered as Bhagavatha Purana), also known as the Srimad Bhagavatam, written c. ... Manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra The (Devanagari: ), is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the . ... A Brahmin (anglicised from the Sanskrit word IAST ; Devanagari ), also known as Vipra, Dvija, Dvijottama (best of the Dvijas), (god on Earth) is a member of an upper caste within Hindu society. ...

"Out of compassion, the great sage thought it wise that this would enable men to achieve the ultimate goal of life. Thus he compiled the great historical narration called the Mahabharata for women, laborers and friends of the twice-born." ^[2]

In several schools for Vedic priests, many graduates are women.^[3]

Education

Katyayana's Varttika 125, 2477 mentions that there were female teachers of grammar. Patanjali wrote in his comments to Ashtadhyayi 3.3.21 and 4.1.14, that women undergo the thread ceremony before beginning their education, and says that women studied grammar.

Marriage

In a Hindu marriage, both husband and wife are two parts of one, complementing each other and becoming one in their spiritual journey. The most sacred part of the ceremony involves circumbulating the sacred fire in seven steps to a Vedic mantra where the groom addresses his wife thus

The Vedas prescribe, as do most ancient cultures, that a dowry be given by the bride's family to the groom as a token for supporting the female as now the parents will not have to. The Rig Veda states that cows and gifts given by the father of the bride to the daughter accompanied the bride's procession [Rg Ved. X.85]. A dowry (also known as trousseau) is a gift of money or valuables given by the brides family to the grooms at the time of their marriage. ...

In the Manu Smriti, on the other hand, 8 types of marriage are specified; two involve bedecking the bride with costly garments and ornaments before giving her away, two involve the groom's family giving a gift to the bride's and the other four do not involve an exchange of gifts.

The Manusmriti enjoins 'Let mutual fidelity continue until death,' this may be considered as the summary of the highest law for husband and wife. [Manu IX 101]

Rigvedic verses suggest that the women married at a mature age and were probably free to select their husband.^[4] The wedding hymn in the Rigveda (RV 10.85.37-38) speaks of "husbands" (plural) for a single wife, but this may have a mythological character.^[5]

Divorce

Both Manusamhita and Arthashastra say that, if the husband is impotent, a traitor, evil-liver, has become an ascetic or an outcast or is missing for a prescribed number of years, then the wife can leave him without blame and marry again. Arthashastra also declares that in other circumstances, divorce can take place only by mutual consent. Manu discusses situations where the wife wishes to return to her first husband whether she has simply deserted him or had married another. The Arthashastra (more precisely Arthaśāstra) is a treatise on statecraft and economic policy which identifies its author by the names Kauṭilya[1] and Viṣṇugupta,[2] who are traditionally identified with the Mauryan minister Cāṇakya. ...

Remarriage

According to all Hindu scriptures, a widow can remarry. The very term 'punurbhu' is defined as a woman, virgin or not-a-virgin, who has married again. There are several texts that lay down her property rights in various such situations and the rights of her children from both her previous and later marriages.

Sati

Main article: Sati (practice)

Sati (as verb) is an act of immolation of a woman on her husband's funeral pyre. Sati (as noun) one who immolated either self-willingly or by societal inducement and compulsion. Satī (Devanagari: सती) (also suttee) is a Hindu funeral custom, in which the dead mans widow used to immolate herself on her husband’s funeral pyre. ...

(Sati was practiced by the Scythians and also the ancient peoples of Scythia, Egypt, Scandinavia and China)^{[citation needed]}. Sati was performed ideally as an act of immortal love and was believed to purged the couple of all accumulated sin.

Though no scripture mandates it, the Puranas, part of the Hindu Smriti, mention sati as highly meritorious in several instances. A few instances of sati are recorded in the Hindu epics, which are otherwise replete with influential widows. Some examples from the Mahabharata include: Manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra The (Devanagari: ), is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the . ...

• several of Vasudeva's wives (Rohini, Devaki, Bhadraa and Madira) [M.Bh. Mausalaparvan 7.18].
• Madri, second wife of Pandu, who held herself responsible for his death, performed sati. His first wife Kunti did not commit sati. [M.Bh. Adiparvan 95.65]

In reference to India, the act of Satiism began around the inception of the Moghul Empire in 13th century. From 13th century onward, because of the death of her husband, Hindu women (who avowed to remain true to their husbands as part of the sacred ritual of marriage) became targets of Muslim raiders and early conquerors of India. Since such women were vulnerable to molestation, rape and other atrocities, it became a societal means to deprive the conqueros of rape and pillage of the Hindu women. One account from the conquest of a Rajput town by Muslim invaders relates that the high-caste women burned themselves to death to preserve their honor and avoid abuse^[6]. That saw a significant increase in Satiism (especially among high-caste women) from mid-13th century until early-20th century, when the British Viceroy abolished the act of Satiism by the Order of The Empress Victoria. However, the actual practice of Sati continued by tacit endorsement of the British and was reduced significantly thanks to the social work of the Brahmo Samaj under Raja Ram Mohan Roy. The royal Rajputs (anonymous, c. ... Sati may refer to any of the following: The Hindu Goddess Sati, daughter of Daksha and wife of Shiva A social practise in some parts of India in past centuries, often spelt Suttee The Buddhist Sati; see mindfulness. ... Brahmo Samaj is a social and religious movement founded in Kolkata, India in 1828 by Raja Ram Mohan Roy. ... Indian reformer Ram Mohan Roy died in Bristol, England, where this statue of him stands. ...

References

1. ^ R. C. Majumdar and A. D. Pusalker (editors): The history and culture of the Indian people. Volume I, The Vedic age. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951, p.424
2. ^ Bhag-P 1.4.25
3. ^ Vasuda Narayanan, Women of Power in the Hindu tradition
4. ^ R. C. Majumdar and A. D. Pusalker (editors): The history and culture of the Indian people. Volume I, The Vedic age. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951, p.394
5. ^ R. C. Majumdar and A. D. Pusalker (editors): The history and culture of the Indian people. Volume I, The Vedic age. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951, p.394
6. ^ [1]

• [Rg Ved.] : Rig Veda
• [M.Bh.] : Mahabharata
• [Br.P.] : Brahma Purana
• [Manu] : Manu Smriti, Manu, Aryavartta, 4400 B.C-1500 B.C. ? translations exist, see eg. The Laws of Manu W.Doniger and B.K.Smith, Penguin India N.Delhi 1991
• [Garudapurana] : Garuda Purana
• [Vishnusmriti] : Vishnu Smrti
• [Bhag.Pur.] : Bhagavata Purana
• [Alld. Ch.] : Allied-Chambers Transliterated Hindi-English Dictionary
• [Vasishta's Padma Purana]
• [DCGanguly 594]: CHI Vol II #37 p.595 #37 'Some aspects of the position of women in Ancient India'

R.C. Majumdar (1888-1980) was an Indian historian and Vice-Chancellor of Dacca University. ... R.C. Majumdar (1888-1980) was an Indian historian and Vice-Chancellor of Dacca University. ... R.C. Majumdar (1888-1980) was an Indian historian and Vice-Chancellor of Dacca University. ...

See also

• Women in India
• List of famous Indian women
• List of female mystics#Hinduism

The status of women in India has been subject to great changes over the past few millennia. ... This is a list of Indian women, or of women who lived in India. ... // Buddhism Alexandra David-Néel author of books on Tibetan Mysticism Christianity Joan of Arc French saint Anna Kingsford Teresa of Avila Flower A. Newhouse Hildegard of Bingen German saint Julian of Norwich Margery Kemp Mother Shipton Hinduism Sri Sarada Devi Lalleshvari Meera Mirabai The Mother Sister Nivedita Islam Rabi...

Further reading

• Kane, Pandurang Vaman: History of Dharmasastra: (ancient and mediaeval, religious and civil law) -- Poona : Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1962-1975
• Vasuda Narayanan, Women of Power in the Hindu tradition, pp.25-77 in Arvind Sharma and Katherine K Young (eds.), Feminism and World Religions, SUNY Press: Albany (New York)

External links

• Women in Hinduism
• Hinduism and the status of women
• ECIT Deadly Laws
• women of shaivism
• women of Vaishnavism
• women in hindu dharma
• Hindu Womens' Universe
• Women In The Sacred Laws - a book by author Shakuntala Rao Shastri
• Books about Hindu women - an article by "Hinduism Today" magazine