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A Khara Dupatta and hyderabadi jewelry worn by a bride from Hyderabad

Women in Muslim societies have varying roles, rights and obligations depending on the particular society they live in. In many Muslim countries women have fewer rights than men with regard to marriage, divorce, civil rights, legal status, dress code, professional lives and education. The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... Divorce or dissolution of marriage is the ending of a marriage before the death of either spouse, which can be contrasted with an annulment, which is a declaration that a marriage is void, though the effects of marriage may be recognized in such unions, such as spousal support, child custody... Civil rights or positive rights are those legal rights retained by citizens and protected by the government. ... Clothing has various sociological functions, including: conspicuous consumption stating or claiming identity establishing, maintaining and defying sociological group norms Thus wearing specific types of clothing or the manner of wearing clothing can convey messages about class, income, belief and attitude. ...

Most Muslims feel that these restrictions are mandated by the Qur'an and sunnah, as explicated by sharia, or Islamic law. They argue that these laws are based on the divine understanding of the differences between the nature of men and women, and as such are immutable, perfect, and just. Sunnah (Arabic: ) means “way” or “custom”, and therefore, the sunnah of the prophet means “the way of the prophet”, or what is commonly known as the Prophet’s traditions. ... Sharia (Arabic: ‎ translit: ) refers to Islamic law. ...

Other Muslims say that these restrictions sometimes go beyond what is mandated by sharia, and are motivated by culture, not religion. However, they feel that the rules of sharia, liberally interpreted, should still apply.

Yet other Muslims feel that sharia, as developed by medieval scholars, is outdated and must be reinterpreted to fit the circumstances of modern life. They argue that these laws were intended to apply in the specific circumstances of the time of the prophet Muhammad, and that their intent can be defined by their contrast with the restrictions imposed on women in pre-Islamic Arabia. Muhammad set a process of liberation in motion which should be continued rather than frozen in its 7th century state. They argue that numerous verses from the Qur'an imply that men and women are equal as believers, and that these passages have precedence over more restrictive passages. (See [1] for a more extended treatment of such views.) For other people named Muhammad, see Muhammad (disambiguation). ...

Right to work

Islam does not prohibit women from working, though, it does emphasize the primary duty, applied to both parents, is of caring for the family and the household.

Many Muslims believe that a woman should work only if she can work without defying Islamic teachings. Often, this means that she must not do work that offends her modesty (Hijab) and chastity. In many interpretations it also means she must not work or interact with men who are not her relatives. Ħijāb (Arabic: حجاب) is the Arabic term for barrier or dressing modestly. ...

Many versions of Islamic law allow a husband to prevent his wife from working; some versions give the same right to her father as well. A husband may forbid his wife from leaving the house for any reason other than studying Islam.

There is no obligation on a woman to share her money with her spouse, though the reverse is true.

Marriage

Main article: Islamic view of marriage

Islam does require a type of dowry but it is different from anthropological notions of brideprice. Islam requires that a husband make a gift, or settle money upon the bride. This is called mahr, mehr, or meher. The gift can be intangible or negligible, or it can be a valuable gift of real property or investments. The mahr may also be divided into portions, one to be given the bride at marriage, the other to be given the wife if she is widowed or divorced. The mahr can be a woman's protection against arbitrary divorce. This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... The factual accuracy of this article is disputed. ... Bride price or bride wealth is an amount of money or property paid to the parents of a woman for the right to marry her. ... A dowry is a gift of money or valuables given by the brides family to that of the groom to permit their marriage. ...

The details of the mahr should be specified in the marriage contract. The marriage contract can also specify where the couple will live, whether or not the first wife will allow the husband to take a second wife without her consent, whether or not the wife has the right to initiate divorce, and other such matters. The marriage contract somewhat resembles the marriage settlements once negotiated for upper-class Western brides, but can extend to non-financial matters usually ignored by marriage settlements or pre-nuptial agreements. A prenuptial agreement, commonly abbreviated to prenup, is a contract entered into by two people prior to marriage or civil union. ...

In practice, most Islamic marriages are contracted without a written contract, or using a "fill in the blanks" form supplied by the officiant. In such cases, custom and/or rulings by local courts based on local law governs the treatment of a divorcee or widow, and is often, in the opinion of Islamic feminists, unfair or unkind. Islamic feminists have been active in informing Muslim women of their rights under Islamic law and encouraging them to negotiate favorable contracts before marriage. Sharia (Arabic: ‎ translit: ) refers to Islamic law. ...

A Muslim may not marry or remain married to an unbeliever of either sex (2:221, 60:10). A Muslim man may marry a woman of the People of the Book (5:5), however, a Muslim woman may only marry a Muslim man. Surat al-Baqarah (the Cow) is the second, and the longest, sura of the Quran, with 286 ayat. ... Surat Al-Mumtahina (She That Is To Be Examined, Examining Her) is the 60th sura of the Quran with 13 ayat. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Surat al-Maida (The Table) is the 5th sura of the Quran, with 120 ayat. ...

Divorce

Main article: Talaq (Nikah)

The rules for Talaq (divorce) vary among the major Islamic schools. Most importantly Shi'a and Sunni Muslims have different rules to engage a Talaq. In both the Sunni and Shi'a traditions the right of divorce is primarily for men, unless otherwise specified in the marriage contract, so that women can only seek divorce through court proceedings by convincing a Qadi to grant a divorce. Shi'as and Sunnis believe that a wife has the right to Hula or 'Khulah' (divorce by the wife) but is only recomended if her problem is serious -- for example, a husband who is beating her regularly or if her husband is treating her unjustly. In practice divorce can be quite involved; there may be separate state proceedings to follow as well. This is the case in most of the Muslim world today. The divorced wife keeps her mahr, both the original gift and any supplementary property specified in the marriage contract. She is also given child support until the age of weaning, at which point the childs' custody will be settled by the couple or by the courts. In traditional Islamic law custody goes to the father after the child has reached a certain age. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Shia Islam ( Arabic شيعى follower; English has traditionally used Shiite or Shiite) is the second largest Islamic denomination; some 20-25% of all Muslims are said to follow a Shia tradition. ... Sunni Islam (Arabic سنّة) is the largest denomination of Islam. ... Sunni Islam (Arabic سنّة) is the largest denomination of Islam. ... Shia Islam ( Arabic شيعى follower; English has traditionally used Shiite or Shiite) is the second largest Islamic denomination; some 20-25% of all Muslims are said to follow a Shia tradition. ...

Women were guaranteed certain rights of divorce and inheritance in Islam at an early stage, although the extent to which these rights have been exercised in practice has differed significantly from nation to nation, and from time period to time period.

Women as clergy and religious scholars

Main article: Women as imams

Women, as well as men, are encouraged to become as educated as they can in islam, and therefore there is nothing wrong with women becoming scholars, having an official position in a [masjid] is disputed by many. A fundamental role of an imam in a [masjid] is to lead the [salah]. Women may not lead the [salah] of men unless every man in the prayer is unable to lead it. Any woman may be an imam in [salah] for a group of women, but for a mixed group (men and women), only a man can lead. There is a current controversy among Muslims on the circumstances in which women may act as imams—that is, lead a congregation in salat (prayer). ...

As national leaders

There is a disputed Sunni hadith reported by Bukhari (Sahih Bukhari, Volume 5, Book 59, Number 709) which reports that Muhammad said that a people with a female ruler will never be successful. Many traditional Muslim societies have been unwilling to allow women to rule for this reason^{[citation needed]}. Sunni Islam (Arabic سنّة) is the largest denomination of Islam. ... Hadith (Arabic: hadÄ«th, Arabic pl. ...

Some interpretations of Islamic law hold that women should not lead men, and thus are forbidden from working in the government. This has been a widespread view in many Muslim nations in the last century^{[citation needed]}.

Some Muslims argue that Muhammad's wife Aisha, who both took part in politics and served as a major authority on hadith, is an example of possible roles for Muslim women. Other Muslims would dissent—(Aisha is seen in a darker light by Shi'a Muslims because she opposed Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law Ali). For other people named Muhammad, see Muhammad (disambiguation). ... Aisha, Ayesha, Aisha, or Aisha (Arabic عائشة `āisha, she who lives) was a wife of Muhammad, whom Muslims regard as the final prophet of Islam. ... Hadith (Arabic: hadÄ«th, Arabic pl. ... Aisha, Ayesha, Aisha, or Aisha (Arabic عائشة `āisha, she who lives) was a wife of Muhammad, whom Muslims regard as the final prophet of Islam. ... Shia Islam ( Arabic شيعى follower; English has traditionally used Shiite or Shiite) is the second largest Islamic denomination; some 20-25% of all Muslims are said to follow a Shia tradition. ... Ali ibn Abi Talib (Arabic: علي بن أبو طالب translit: ‘AlÄ« ibn AbÄ« Ṭālib Persian: علی پسر ابو طالب) ‎ (599 – 661) is an early Islamic leader. ...

There are few other historical role models for Muslim women as leaders. Razia Sultan was the short-lived third major independent Muslim ruler of the Sultanate of Delhi (India); the Mamluk queen Shajarat ad-Durr ruled for some years in Egypt. Given name Razia al-Din, throne name Jalâlat ud-Dîn Raziyâ. She is usually referred to in history as Razia Sultan or Razia Sultana. ... The Delhi Sultanate, or Sulthanath-e-Hind/Sulthanath-e-Dilli refers to the various dynasties that ruled in India from 1210 to 1526. ... An Ottoman Mamluk, from 1810 Mamluks (also Mameluks, Mamelukes or Mamlukes) (the Arabic word usually translates as owned, singular: مملوك plural: مماليك) comprised of slave soldiers who converted to Islam and served the Muslim caliphs and the Ottoman Empire. ... Shajar al-Durr (? - 1257), whose name means String of Pearls, grew up a slave in the Caliphs harem in Baghdad. ...

There are many more contemporary models. Indeed, many Muslim-majority countries have had female heads of state:

• Pakistan, headed by Benazir Bhutto
• Indonesia, headed by Megawati Sukarnoputri
• Turkey, headed by Tansu Ciller
• Bangladesh, headed by Khaleda Zia

All except Ciller were the daughters or widows of previous heads of state. Some Muslim women also hold important positions in some governments and corporations. A paradoxical example is the forbidden Islamist party of Morocco Justice and Charity. Since the leader cannot speak openly, his daughter Nadia Yassine is the one who publically defends the opposition to government-sponsored reforms on the legal status of Moroccan women. Benazir Bhutto at a Pakistan Peoples Party event in Newark, CA, 28 September 2004. ... Megawati Sukarnoputri Diah Permata Megawati Setiawati Sukarnoputri (born 23 January 1947), was President of Indonesia from July 2001 to 20 October 2004. ... Tansu Çiller Tansu Çiller (born 9 October 1946) is an economist and politician in Turkey and was the first female prime minister. ... Khaleda Zia - Prime Minister of Bangladesh Khaleda Zia (Bangla: খালেদা জিয়া) (born August 15, 1945) is the Prime Minister of Bangladesh. ...

The circumstances of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic and the Iran-Iraq war where men were fighting led to an increase of the role of women in the public life of the Sahrawi and Iranians. The Saharawi (or Sahrawi) Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) is the long-form English translation of the government of Western Sahara (Arabic: الجمهورية العربية الصحراوية الدمقرطية, Spanish: República Arabe Saharaui Democrática). ... Combatants Iran Iraq Casualties Est. ...

Right to vote

Until recently most Muslim nations (and a number of other nations) were non-democratic. Today a minority of Islamists view democracy as against Islam. This view is espoused by groups such as Al-Muhajiroun, whereas more mainstream Muslims disagree, and believe it to be an evolution of the Islamic concept of Shura. Al-Muhajiroun (Arabic: The Emigrants) was an Islamist group operating in the United Kingdom, which splintered from Hizb ut-Tahrir in 1996. ... Shura is an Arabic word for consultation. It is believed to be the method by which pre-Islamic Arabian tribes selected leaders and made major decisions. ...

Many Muslim nations today allow their citizens to have some level of voting and control over their local government; with a few exceptions in Arabia — Kuwait and Saudi Arabia; and Lebanon which requires proof of education for women to vote — all such nations allow women to vote. The Arabian Peninsula The Arabian Peninsula is a mainly desert peninsula in Southwest Asia at the junction of Africa and Asia and an important part of the greater Middle East. ...

In 2005 Kuwait passed a ruling that will allow women to vote in 2007.

It should also be noted that according to some scholars voting is permissible for women in Islam, as it has never been openly banned, neither in Quran nor by Sunnah. [2]

Clothing

Turkish Muslim Woman in Hijab

A woman wearing a Niqab in Yemen

The Qur'an requires believers, both male and female, to dress modestly. Image File history File links Esharplar. ... Image File history File links Esharplar. ... Ħijāb (Arabic: حجاب) is the Arabic term for barrier or dressing modestly. ... ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (720x1092, 52 KB) Description: Muslim woman in Yemen. ... ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (720x1092, 52 KB) Description: Muslim woman in Yemen. ... Yemeni woman wearing niqab Woman wearing a scarf wrapped around her head and face as a niqab-popular style in the Levant region. ... The , , (Arabic: recitation, also transliterated as Quran, Quran, Quran, Koran), is the holy book of Islam. ...

"And tell the believing women to lower their gaze and guard their private parts and not to display their adornment except that which ordinarily appears thereof and to draw their headcovers over their chests and not to display their adornment except to their husbands, their fathers, their husbands fathers, their sons." (24:31).

All those in whose presence a woman is not obliged to cover herself are called her mahrams. While she in front of other women, she is only obliged to cover from her naval to her knees. Surat An-Nur (The Light) is the 24th sura of the Quran with 64 ayat. ... In Islamic sharia legal terminology, a mahram (Arabic محرم, also transcribed mahrim or maharem) is an unmarriageable kin with whom sexual intercourse would be considered incestuous, a punishable taboo. ...

Traditionally, this sura has been interpreted to mean that women should cover all but their face and hands. Men are required only to cover themselves from knee to waist. Some Islamic societies have set even stricter dress codes for women, requiring women to wear chadors or burqas that hide all but the eyes. Some Muslims criticize this as excessive, referring to Qur'anic verses saying that it is wrong to refrain from what is permitted by God [Qur'an 66:1]. This is usually interpreted as applying to asceticism; critics of strict dress codes are applying this to clothing as well. Chador A chador (in Persian: چادر Châdor) is an outer garment worn by women; it is one possible way in which a Muslim woman may follow the hijab dress code. ... Woman with Burqa For the traditional coat that may be worn by men of the Caucasus region, see burka. ...

Many contemporary Muslims believe that the commandment to modesty must be interpreted with regard to the surrounding society. What is considered modest, or daring, in one society may not be considered so in another. It is important, they say, for believers to wear clothing that communicates modesty and reserve in the situations in which they find themselves. [3]

Other Muslims consider the Qur'anic commandment, and the dress codes that Islamic scholars have derived from it, apply no matter what the circumstances.

This is a highly contentious matter, more fully discussed in Islam and clothing and Hijab. Muslims, male and female, are expected to dress modestly as expressed in the Quran: Say to the believing men that they should lower their gaze and guard their modesty: that will make for greater purity for them: And Allah is well acquainted with all that they do. ... Ħijāb (Arabic: حجاب) is the Arabic term for barrier or dressing modestly. ...

Domestic violence

According to most interpretations of Sharia (Islamic law), authorization for the husband to physically beat disobedient wives is provided only under certain conditions. First, admonishment is verbal and secondly a period of refraining from intimate relations is observed. Finally, if the husband finds the situation very serious, he may hit her: Sharia (Arabic: ‎ translit: ) refers to Islamic law. ...

"Men are the maintainers of women because Allah has made some of them to excel others and because they spend out of their property; the good women are therefore obedient, guarding the unseen as Allah has guarded; and (as to) those on whose part you fear nushûz, admonish them, and (then) leave them alone in the sleeping-places and (last) idribûhunna'(usually translated as "beat"); then if they obey you, do not seek a way against them; surely Allah is High, Great." (Qur'an 4:34 English translation: MH Shakir) Surat An-Nisa (The Women) is the 4th sura of the Quran, with 176 ayat. ...

Here the Qur'an prescribes the steps to be taken in the event of nushûz. Concerning the meaning of nushûz, Dr. Ahmad Shafaat writes:

The literal meaning of the word is "rebellion". But rebellion against whom and in what sense? We should certainly not think of this in terms the rebellion of the ruled against a ruler in a sultanate or dictatorship and conclude that it consists of the wife disobeying some of the husband's commands. This is because the same word nushuz is used in case of a husband in verse 128 of the same surah 4, where it is said: "If a woman fears nushuz on her husband's part..." So nushûz is something that can be feared by the husband on the wife's part or by the wife on her husband's part. It cannot therefore be understood in terms of the ruler-ruled relationship. To correctly understand the meaning of the word, it must be noted that both in the verse under consideration and in verse 128 the reference to nushuz is followed by a reference to the break-up of the marriage (see vv. 35, 130). If this context is kept in mind, then it becomes evident that nushuz means the type of behavior on the part of the husband or the wife which is so disturbing for the other that their living together becomes difficult. ...In short, nushûz is a behavior on the part of one marriage partner which comes out of ill-will and seriously disturbs the other partner.[4]

Thus, in the case of nushûz, the Qur'an prescribes three steps. First, the husband is to admonish the wife and reason with her as to why her actions are damaging the family. Secondly, when discussion between the two fails, they are requested to start avoiding each other and remain separate. Lastly, the Qur'an prescribes idribûhunna as the final step.

The word idribûhunna (from the root daraba ضرب) has several meanings in the Qur'an. Its commonest meaning in Arabic has been rendered as "beat", "hit", "scourge", or "strike". Other meanings for daraba used in the Qur'an (though not with a human direct object) include 'to travel', 'to make a simile', 'to cover', 'to separate', and 'to go abroad', among others. The Arabic language (Arabic: ‎ translit: ), or simply Arabic (Arabic: ‎ translit: ), is the largest member of the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family (classification: South Central Semitic) and is closely related to Hebrew and Aramaic. ... The accusative case of a noun is, generally, the case used to mark the direct object of a verb. ...

For this reason, some contemporary Muslims consider "hit" to be a misinterpretation. They argue that this verse should be translated as "admonish them, and leave them alone in the sleeping-places and separate from them."

Yet other Muslim commentators and Qur'anic translators feel that these translations are strained, and that the most straightforward interpretation, "hitting", should be adopted.

Certain modern translations of the Qur'an in the English language accept the commoner translation of "beat", but tone down the wording with bracketed additions. The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ...

How severe a beating?

Most commentators have accepted that idribûhunna means "beat", but have imposed strict limits of the severity of the beating allowed, and have indicated that it is better not to beat than to beat. Furthermore, if the beating leaves bruises, the husband can be sued according to Islamic law.

The contemporary commentator Abul 'Ala Maududi makes the following comment in his Tafheem Al-Qur'an:

So far as the actual application of these measures is concerned, there should, naturally, be some correspondence between the fault and the punishment that is administered. Moreover, it is obvious that wherever a light touch can prove effective one should not resort to sterner measures. ...And even in cases where it is necessary, the Prophet (peace be upon him) directed men not to hit across the face, nor to beat severely nor to use anything that might leave marks on the body. (See Ibn Majah, 'Nikah', 3-Ed.)

The medieval jurist ash-Shafi'i, founder of one of the main schools of fiqh, commented on this verse that "hitting is permitted, but not hitting is preferable." Likewise, Ibn Kathir Ad-Damishqee records in his monumental Tafsir Al-Qur'an Al-Azim: The Šāfiˤī madhab (Arabic: شافعي) is one of the four schools of fiqh, or religious law, within Sunni Islam. ... Islamic jurisprudence, (Arabic: ‎ translit: ) is made up of the rulings (Fatwa) of Muslim Islamic jurists (Ulema) to direct the lives of the Muslims. ...

"Ibn `Abbas and several others said that the Ayah refers to a beating that is not violent. Al-Hasan Al-Basri said that it means, a beating that is not severe."

Muhammad Asad notes, in his translation of the Qur'an, The Message of the Qur'an:

With all this, he stipulated in his sermon on the occasion of the Farewell Pilgrimage, shortly before his death, that beating should be resorted to only if the wife "has become guilty, in an obvious manner, of immoral conduct", and that it should be done "in such a way as not to cause pain (ghayr mubarrih)"; authentic traditions to this effect are found in Muslim, Tirmidhi, Abu Da'ud, Nasa'i and Ibn Majah. On the basis of these traditions, all the authorities stress that this "beating", if resorted to at all, should be more or less symbolic – "with a toothbrush, or some such thing" (Tabari, quoting the views of scholars of the earliest times), or even "with a folded handkerchief" (Razi); and some of the greatest Muslim scholars (e.g., Ash-Shafi'i) are of the opinion that it is just barely permissible, and should preferably be avoided: and they justify this opinion by the Prophet's personal feelings with regard to this problem.

Dr. Ahmad Shafaat says:

The wife has no religious obligation to take the beating. She can ask for and get divorce any time. The suggestion applies only in the case when the husband is seriously disturbed by a prolonged nasty behavior on the part of the wife but neither he nor the wife is as yet seriously thinking of breaking up... If the husband beats a wife without respecting the limits set down by the Qur'an and Hadith, then she can take him to court and if ruled in favor has the right to apply the law of retaliation and beat the husband as he beat her.

Several hadith condemn beating one's wife. Hadith (Arabic: hadīth, Arabic pl. ...

• "How does anyone of you beat his wife as he beats the stallion camel and then embrace (sleep with) her? (Al-Bukhari, English Translation, vol. 8, Hadith 68, pp. 42-43).

• "I went to the Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) and asked him: What do you say (command) about our wives? He replied: Give them food what you have for yourself, and clothe them by which you clothe yourself, and do not beat them, and do not revile them. (Sunan Abu-Dawud, Book 11, Marriage (Kitab Al-Nikah), Number 2139)".

• "Never beat God's handmaidens". (Abu Da'ud, Nasa'i, Ibn Majah, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Ibn Hibban and Hakim, on the authority of Iyas ibn `Abd Allah; Ibn Hibban, on the authority of `Abd Allah ibn `Abbas; and Bayhaqi, on the authority of Umm Kulthum).

However, some suggest that these hadith were later abrogated, noting that on his last pilgrimage to Mecca, Muhammad is supposed to have said: Muhammad Ibn Ismail Ibn Ibrahim Ibn al-Mughirah Ibn Bardizbah al-Bukhari محمد بن اسماعيل بن ابراهيم بن المغيرة بن بردزبه البخاري (born (AD 810) - died (AD 870)), author of the most generally accepted collection of traditions (Hadith) from Muhammad, was born at Bokhara (Bukharä), of an Iranian family, in AH 194 (AD 810). ... Hadith (Arabic: hadīth, Arabic pl. ... Abu Daud, full name Abu Daud Sulayman ibn Ash`ath al-Azadi al-Sijistani, was a noted collector of hadith (sayings of Muhammad), and wrote the third of the six canonical hadith collections recognized by Sunni Muslims, Sunan Abi Daud. ... The Hajj (Arabic: ‎ translit: ) is the Pilgrimage to Mecca in Islam. ...

Fear Allah concerning women! Verily you have taken them on the security of Allah, and intercourse with them has been made lawful unto you by words of Allah. You too have right over them, and that they should not allow anyone to sit on your bed whom you do not like. But if they do that, you can chastise them but not severely. Their rights upon you are that you should provide them with food and clothing in a fitting manner. (Narrated in Sahih Muslim, on the authority of Jabir.) [5]

Sheikh Yusuf al-Qaradawi, head of the European Council for Fatwa and Research, says that: Yusuf al-Qaradawi, famous Muslim scholar Yusuf al-Qaradawi (Arabic: يوسف القرضاوي) (born September 9, 1926) is a Muslim scholar and preacher best known for his popular al Jazeera program, ash-Shariah wal-Hayat (Shariah and Life), and his website IslamOnline, which was launched in 1997. ... A Dublin-based private foundation, founded in London at 29-30 March 1997 on the initiative of the Federation of Islamic Organisations in Europe, the European Council for Fatwa and Research (ECFR) is a largely self-selected body, composed by islamic clerics and scholars, presided by Yusuf al-Qaradawi, and...

"If the husband senses that feelings of disobedience and rebelliousness are rising against him in his wife, he should try his best to rectify her attitude by kind words, gentle persuasion, and reasoning with her. If this is not helpful, he should sleep apart from her, trying to awaken her agreeable feminine nature so that serenity may be restored, and she may respond to him in a harmonious fashion. If this approach fails, it is permissible for him to beat her lightly with his hands, avoiding her face and other sensitive parts. In no case should he resort to using a stick or any other instrument that might cause pain and injury. Rather, this 'beating' should be of the kind the Prophet (peace be on him) once mentioned to a disobedient maid-servant, when he said 'If it were not for the fear of retaliation on the Day of Resurrection, I would have beaten you with this miswak (tooth-cleaning twig)' [as reported by Ibn Majah, by Ibn Hibban in his Sahih, and by Ibn Sa`d in his Tabaqat]. [6].[7]

Al-Qaradawi's critics say that he should also have mentioned the verse following the verse regarding wife-beating. This verse calls for arbitration:

"And if you fear a breach between them twain (the man and his wife), appoint (two) arbitrators, one from his family and the other from her's; if they both wish for peace, Allah will cause their reconciliation. Indeed Allah is Ever All-Knower,
Well-Acquainted with all things." (Qur'an 4:35) Sura An-Nisa:35 Arbitration, in the law, is a form of alternative dispute resolution — specifically, a legal alternative to litigation whereby the parties to a dispute agree to submit their respective positions (through agreement or hearing) to a neutral third party (the arbitrator(s) or arbiter(s)) for resolution. ... Surat An-Nisa (The Women) is the 4th sura of the Quran, with 176 ayat. ... Surat An-Nisa (The Women) is the 4th sura of the Quran, with 176 ayat. ...

Critics argue that the Qur'an favors arbitration over beatings; others disagree.

Domestic violence among Muslims

The scholars who accept that "beating" is allowed, stress that it is a last resort, discountenanced, and must be done so as not to cause injury. Yet some Muslim men feel they have the right to beat their wives in whatever fashion, mild or severe, that they choose.

Domestic violence is regarded as an endemic problem by officials of many Western countries with large populations of diasporic Muslims. The incidence in many Muslim-majority countries (where women hide their bruises and nothing is ever reported to authorities) is uncertain, but believed to be great by Muslim feminists. One recent study, in Syria, found that 25% of the married women surveyed said that they had been beaten by their husbands [8].

In some recent high-profile cases, Muslim women have dared to publicize their mistreatment at the hands of their husbands, in hopes that public condemnation of wife-beating will end toleration of the practice (see Rania al-Baz). Rania al-Baz, a Saudi celebrity, is famous internationally for speaking out against violence against women. ...

It is far from clear whether this toleration of domestic violence is a purely cultural matter, prevalent in some Muslim-majority societies and not in others, or whether it is a general Muslim problem.

Legal status

In Islamic law the legal status of women is similar to that of men, but in certain cases men have advantages. It is mentioned in the Qur'an:

"... And women shall have rights similar to the rights against them, according to what is equitable; but men have a degree (of advantage) over them. And Allah is Exalted in Power, Wise." Sura 2:228[9] Surat al-Baqarah (the Cow) is the second, and the longest, sura of the Quran, with 286 ayat. ...

Women are entitled the right of inheritance: Inheritance is the practice of passing on property, titles, debts, and obligations upon the death of an individual. ...

"From what is left by parents and those nearest related there is a share for men and a share for women, whether the property be small or large,-a determinate share."Sura 4:7 [10] Surat An-Nisa (The Women) is the 4th sura of the Quran, with 176 ayat. ...

But a daughter's share is half the share of a son , otherwise the share of a female heir is less than a male one :

"Allah (thus) directs you as regards your Children's (Inheritance): to the male, a portion equal to that of two females: if only daughters, two or more, their share is two-thirds of the inheritance; if only one, her share is a half. For parents, a sixth share of the inheritance to each, if the deceased left children; if no children, and the parents are the (only) heirs, the mother has a third; if the deceased Left brothers (or sisters) the mother has a sixth. (The distribution in all cases ('s) after the payment of legacies and debts. Ye know not whether your parents or your children are nearest to you in benefit. These are settled portions ordained by Allah; and Allah is All-knowing, Al-wise. "Sura 4: 11 [11] Surat An-Nisa (The Women) is the 4th sura of the Quran, with 176 ayat. ...

Proponents of shari'a argue that this is fair, given that a Muslim male is obligated to spend part of his inheritance on his wife, children and house, while the female may keep all of it for herself. Financial support for home and family is said to be solely the responsibility of the husband.

In most Muslim nations, the law of the state concering inheritance is in accordance with this law.

In Islamic law, in general, it is preferred that the testimony be given by a male. If, however, for any reason, a male is not available and the contract must be signed urgently, the testimony of two female witnesses is preferred for every male absent: In law and in religion, testimony is a solemn attestation as to the truth of a matter. ... This article is about witnesses in law courts. ...

"...Let his guardian dictate faithfully, and get two witnesses, out of your own men, and if there are not two men, then a man and two women, such as ye choose, for witnesses, so that if one of them errs, the other can remind her..."Sura 2: 282[12] Surat al-Baqarah (the Cow) is the second, and the longest, sura of the Quran, with 286 ayat. ...

It is argued, however, that this only applies to the signing of contracts, where witnesses are handpicked, and not to the witnessing of unplanned events (e.g. crimes), where the testimony of men and women is considered equal. [13]

The moral responsibility of men and women is considered equal, as suggested by verses like this :

"Lo! Men who surrender unto Allah, and women who surrender, and men who believe and women who believe, and men who obey and women who obey, and men who speak the truth and women who speak the truth, and men who persevere (in righteousness) and women who persevere and men who are humble and women who are humble, and men who give aims and women who give alms, and men who fast and women who fast, and men who guard their modesty and women who guard (their modesty), and men who remember Allah and women who remember-Allah hath prepared for them forgiveness and a vast reward." Sura 33:35[14]

But some Islamic laws concerning murder and injury deal with women separately, there is a verse in this connection :

"O ye who believe! the law of equality is prescribed to you in cases of murder: the free for the free, the slave for the slave, the woman for the woman. But if any remission is made by the brother of the slain, then grant any reasonable demand, and compensate him with handsome gratitude, this is a concession and a Mercy from your Lord. After this whoever exceeds the limits shall be in grave penalty."Sura 2:178 [15] Surat al-Baqarah (the Cow) is the second, and the longest, sura of the Quran, with 286 ayat. ...

This verse is referred to in connection with the legal concept of diyah, which is roughly the financial compensation for an injury or murder [16].In shari'a , the diyah paid in compesation of an injury done to a woman is usually half the diyah paid for a similar injury done to a man. It should be noted that diya usually applies only to un-intentional injuries and manslaughter.

These laws of shari'a are practiced in some Muslim nations. Some believe that they violate human rights. [17] However, proponents of shari'a argue that these laws -- unfair as they might seem at first -- ensure justice because positions of men and women are different in Islam. Shari'a defenders say that there is a difference between gender equity and gender equality[18]. Shari'a, they say, enforces equity but not equality. Human rights are rights which some hold to be inalienable and belonging to all humans. ...

Punishment for sexual or marriage offenses

Main article: honor killing

"Honor killings" are often identified with Islam, although scholars dispute their Koranic basis. Some writers assert this sort of punishment is a part of Islamic teaching. Others say that such killings have no basis in the Qu'ran whatsoever. It has been suggested that KaroKari be merged into this article or section. ... It has been suggested that KaroKari be merged into this article or section. ... The Quran ( Arabic al-qurʾān أَلْقُرآن; its literal meaning is the recitation and is often called Al Quran Al Karim: The Noble Quran, also transliterated as Quran, Koran, and less commonly Alcoran) is the holy book of Islam. ...

Many Muslim scholars and commentators say that honor killings are a cultural practice which is neither exclusive to, nor universal within, the Islamic world. Such killings take place within a few Muslim communities around the Mediterranean as well as in Brazil, and non-Muslim parts of West Africa. On the other hand, the practice is unknown in Indonesia, the world's largest Islamic country. The Islamic world is the world-wide community of those who identify with Islam, known as Muslims, and who number approximately one-and-a-half billion people. ... The Mediterranean Sea is an intercontinental sea positioned between Europe to the north, Africa to the south and Asia to the east, covering an approximate area of 2. ...  Western Africa (UN subregion)  Maghreb West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of the African continent. ...

The usual argument in favor of honor killings is the belief that the woman's sexual immorality causes the clan or family to lose honor. Islamic teaching holds that life is given by Allah and should not be taken lightly, but it allows severe punishment, up to and including capital punishment, for certain kinds of crime; these include, in strict interpretations, all extramarital sexual relations by both men and women — though only adulterers may be punished with death. However, Islamic law also maintains that before such punishment can take place, a trial must be held and there must either be proof of misbehavior in the form of pregnancy of the accused, or the accuser must supply four witnesses. The interpretation and application of these laws relating to marriage and chastity has varied in different eras and places. (See Islamic view of marriage, Zina) // Capital Punishment, or the death penalty, is the most severe punishment that can be imposed by the State for crimes known as capital crimes or capital offenses. ... Zina (زنا) is an Arabic term for extramarital or premarital sex. ... Man and woman undergoing public exposure for adultery in Japan, around 1860 Adultery is generally defined as consensual sexual intercourse by a married person with someone other than their lawful spouse. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Zina (زنا) is an Arabic term for extramarital or premarital sex. ...

Women as prisoners of war or as slaves

Main article: Ma malakat aymanukum

The term "what your right hands possess", Ma malakat aymanukum, occurs 14 times in the Qur'an. It is most often used with reference to women, but may be applied to both sexes. The term usually refers to prisoners of war, or may more broadly refer to slaves in general, according to the usual tafsirs (eg Ibn Kathir.) Most Muslims believe that what these verses state should not be applied today. The arguments range from simply ethical and social to strictly jurisprudential. The term what your right hands possess (ma malakat aymanukum) occurs 14 times in the Quran, in the following Arabic forms: ما ملكت أيمانكم ما ملكت أيمانهم ما ملكت أيمانهن ما ملكت يمينك الذين ملكت أيمانكم It is most often used with reference to women, but is applied to both sexes. ... The term what your right hands possess (ma malakat aymanukum) occurs 14 times in the Quran, in the following Arabic forms: ما ملكت أيمانكم ما ملكت أيمانهم ما ملكت أيمانهن ما ملكت يمينك الذين ملكت أيمانكم It is most often used with reference to women, but is applied to both sexes. ... Islamic jurisprudence, (Arabic: ‎ translit: ) is made up of the rulings (Fatwa) of Muslim Islamic jurists (Ulema) to direct the lives of the Muslims. ...

The effect of Islamism

The nebulous revivalist movement termed Islamism is one of the most dynamic movements within Islam in the 20th and 21st centuries. Islamists tend to minimize the role of women in some aspects of civil life, although in the longest-standing Islamist state - Iran - women legislators are included in the Majlis, and women comprise 60% of university students.[19] This article is about political Islamism. ...

Taliban

In Taliban-controlled Afghanistan, only the Taliban's version of Islam was permitted. The Taliban prevented women from working, and sharply restricted the education of girls. Women were also denied hospital treatment to prevent their exposure to male hospital staff. Flag flown by the Taliban. ...

Taliban religion minister, Al-Haj Maulwi Qalamuddin, told the New York Times that "To a country on fire, the world wants to give a match. Why is there such concern about women? Bread costs too much. There is no work. Even boys are not going to school. And yet all I hear about are women. Where was the world when men here were violating any woman they wanted?"

Although the Taliban claimed that the education of girls in rural Afghanistan was increasing, a UNESCO report stated that there was "a whopping 65 percent drop in their enrollment. In schools run by the Directorate of Education, only 1 percent of the pupils are girls. The percentage of female teachers, too, has slid from 59.2 per cent in 1990 to 13.5 per cent in 1999." The Taliban regime was considered by some Muslims to be no more than a sect; one that was not recognized by most Muslim nations and an incorrect representation of Islamic teachings. UNESCO logo UNESCO (the Kajal Sen/United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established in 1945. ...

The effect of feminism on Islam

Main article: Islamic feminism

All the mainstream denominations of Islam allow Muslim women to be recognized as religious scholars (at least in theory), but not to lead mixed prayers, i.e. be imams, or deliver Friday sermons. In practice, despite Aisha's example, few female religious scholars exist. This state of affairs is considered unsatisfactory by liberal movements within Islam (among others), which have attempted to bring about feminist reforms. Islamic feminism is a term coined in the 1990s for a movement that has its roots in the early 20th century, but which expanded in the 1990s in response to the growth of Islamism throughout the Islamic world. ... A Muslim (Arabic: مسلم) is an adherent of Islam. ... There is a current controversy on the circumstances in which women may act as imams - that is, lead a congregation in salat (prayer. ... Khutba (خطبة) is an Arabic term referring to the Islamic sermon delivered either before the Friday Salah (see: Jumuah) and after the Eid Salat. ... Aisha, Ayesha, Aisha, or Aisha (Arabic عائشة `āisha, she who lives) was a wife of Muhammad, whom Muslims regard as the final prophet of Islam. ... Since the 19th century, Muslim progressives have produced a considerable body of liberal thought within Islam (in Arabic: الإسلام الاجتهادي or interpretation-based Islam; also الإسلام التقدمي or progressive Islam). These have in common a religious outlook which depends mainly on ijtihad or re-interpretations of scriptures. ... Feminism is a diverse, competing, and often opposing collection of social theories, political movements, and moral philosophies, largely motivated by or concerning the experiences of women. ...

See also

• Islam
• Islamic feminism
• Golden Needle Sewing School
• Taliban treatment of women
• Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan
• Rania al-Baz
• Women as imams
• Women in Quran
• Role of women in religion

Islam (Arabic: ; ) is a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the Quran. ... Islamic feminism is a term coined in the 1990s for a movement that has its roots in the early 20th century, but which expanded in the 1990s in response to the growth of Islamism throughout the Islamic world. ... Three women in Herat, Afghanistan. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Logo of the Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan The Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan (RAWA) (جمعیت انقلابی زنان افغانستان) is a womens organization in Afghanistan that promotes womens rights and secular democracy. ... Rania al-Baz, a Saudi celebrity, is famous internationally for speaking out against violence against women. ... There is a current controversy among Muslims on the circumstances in which women may act as imams—that is, lead a congregation in salat (prayer). ... Please wikify (format) this article as suggested in the Guide to layout and the Manual of Style. ... The role of women in religion has only recently become a topic of research. ...

References

1. Women Leads Muslims in Prayers Daily News (New York) March 19,2005 Jordan Lite, p.8
2. Woman leads N.Y. Muslims in prayer Lisa Anderson, Chicago Tribune, Posted March 19 2005
3. The Camera and the Burqa, a review of films on women in Afghanistan, by Martin Kramer
4. Tafseer of Surah an-Nisa, Ayah 34 Dr. Ahmad Shafaat, Islamic Perspectives. August 10, 2005
5. Muslim women take charge of their faith, International Herald Tribune, December 4, 2005
6. Women, Islam, and the New Iraq, Foreign Affairs, January/February 2006

Martin Kramer (b. ...

External links

• The central role of women in Islam and Islamic history
• Women scholars in Islam
• IslamicFeminism.org
• BackToIslam.com Articles about Women in Islam
• Relation of the Sexes, a lecture by Muhammad Marmaduke Pickthall in 1925
• The First Muslim Woman on Record to Lead a Public Mixed-Gender Jum'ah Prayer
• A Statement from the Organizers of the March 18th Woman-led Jum’ah Prayer - MWA!
• Gaza women join Hamas fighters by Khaled Abu Toameh, published in the Jerusalem Post August 21, 2005
• A Sufi feminist perspective
• The status of women in Islam by a Muslim author
• In memory of Saint Jani A site dedicated to a Muslim woman
• Women in Islam A Salafi perspective
• Free and Equal under the Qur'an - an analysis by Havva G Guney-Ruebenacker