Firewood, stacked to dry

Bags of firewood logged from the Barmah Forest in Victoria

Wood fuel is wood used as fuel. The burning of wood is currently the largest use of energy derived from a solid fuel biomass. Wood fuel can be used for cooking and heating, and occasionally for fueling steam engines and steam turbines that generate electricity. Wood fuel may be available as firewood (eg. logs, bolts, blocks), charcoal, chips, sheets, pellets and sawdust. The particular form used depends upon factors such as source, quantity, quality and application. Sawmill waste and construction industry by-products also include various forms of lumber tailings. Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 492 pixelsFull resolution (3452 × 2124 pixel, file size: 3. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 492 pixelsFull resolution (3452 × 2124 pixel, file size: 3. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (2560 × 1920 pixel, file size: 2. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (2560 × 1920 pixel, file size: 2. ... For other uses, see Wood (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Fuel (disambiguation). ... This article is about the chemical reaction combustion. ... Solid fuel is a term given to various types of solid material that provide energy. ... For the use of the term in ecology, see Biomass (ecology). ... Cooking is the act of preparing food. ... HVAC may also stand for High-voltage alternating current HVAC is an initialism that stands for heating, ventilation and air-conditioning. This is sometimes referred to as climate control. ... // The term steam engine may also refer to an entire railroad steam locomotive. ... WWII era ship propulsion turbine A turbine is a rotary engine that extracts energy from a fluid flow. ... World-wide electricity production for 1980 to 2005. ... Charcoal is the blackish residue consisting of impure carbon obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Wood-pellet heating. ... Sawdust is composed of fine particles of wood. ... For the 1922 film starring Oliver Hardy, see The Sawmill. ... A by-product is a secondary or incidental product deriving from a manufacturing process or chemical reaction, and is not the primary product or service being produced. ...

Historical development

The use of wood as a fuel source for home heat is as old as civilization itself. Historically, it was limited in use only by the distribution of technology required to make a spark. Wood heat is still common throughout much of the world. For other uses, see Wood (disambiguation). ...

Early examples include the use of wood heat in tents. Fires were constructed on the ground, and a smoke hole in the top of the tent allowed the smoke to escape by convection.

In permanent structures and in caves, hearths were constructed or established—surfaces of stone or another noncombustible material upon which a fire could be built. Smoke escaped through a smoke hole in the roof. In common historic and modern usage, a hearth (Har-th) is a brick- or stone-lined fireplace or oven used for cooking and/or heating. ...

The development of the chimney and the fireplace allowed for more effective exhaustion of the smoke. Masonry heaters or stoves went a step further by capturing much of the heat of the fire and exhaust in a large thermal mass, becoming much more efficient than a fireplace alone. Look up Chimney in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Winter (fireplace), tacuinum sanitatis casanatensis (XIV century) A fireplace is an architectural element consisting of a space designed to contain a fire, generally for heating but sometimes also for cooking. ... A masonry heater (or masonry stove) is a device for warming a home (or any interior space) that captures the heat from periodic burning of fuels (primarily wood), and then radiates that heat over a long period at a fairly constant temperature. ...

Stapled birch wood

The metal stove was a technological development concurrent with the industrial revolution. Stoves were manufactured or constructed pieces of equipment that contained the fire on all sides and provided a means for controlling the draft—the amount of air allowed to reach the fire. Stoves have been made of a variety of materials. Cast iron is among the more common. Soapstone (talc), tile, and steel have all been used. Metal stoves are often lined with refractory materials such as firebrick, since the hottest part of a woodburning fire will burn away steel over the course of several years' use. Image File history File links Metadata No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links Metadata No higher resolution available. ... A stove is a heat-producing device. ... A Watt steam engine, the steam engine that propelled the Industrial Revolution in Britain and the world. ... Talc (derived from the Persian via Arabic talq) is a mineral composed of hydrated magnesium silicate with the chemical formula H2Mg3(SiO3)4 or Mg3Si4O10(OH)2. ... Mission, or barrel, roof tiles A tile is a manufactured piece of hard-wearing material such as ceramic, stone, porcelain, metal or even glass. ... For other uses, see Steel (disambiguation). ... A small hardware firewall device. ...

The Franklin stove was developed in the United States by Benjamin Franklin. More a manufactured fireplace than a stove, it had an open front and a heat exchanger in the back that was designed to draw air from the cellar and heat it before releasing it out the sides. The heat exchanger was never a popular feature and was omitted in later versions. So-called "Franklin" stoves today are made in a great variety of styles, though none resembles the original design. This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Benjamin Franklin (January 17 [O.S. January 6] 1706 – April 17, 1790) was one of the most well known Founding Fathers of the United States. ... A heat exchanger is a device built for efficient heat transfer from one fluid to another, whether the fluids are separated by a solid wall so that they never mix, or the fluids are directly contacted. ... A cellar is a storage room built below ground level (usually under a house), primarily for the storage of food and drink (especially wine) for use throughout the year. ...

The airtight stove, originally made of steel, allowed greater control of combustion, being more tightly fitted than other stoves of the day. Airtight stoves became common in the 19th century. Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ...

After the 1967 Oil Embargo, many in the United States used wood for the first time. The EPA provided information on clean stoves, which burned much more efficiently.^[1] The 1967 Oil Embargo began on June 6, 1967, one day after the beginning of the Six-Day War, with a joint Arab decision to deter any countries from supporting Israel militarily. ...

Firewood

Stacking firewood in a shed

Some firewood is harvested in "woodlots" managed for that purpose, but in heavily wooded areas it is more usually harvested as a byproduct of natural forests. Deadfall that has not started to rot is preferred, since it is already partly seasoned. Standing dead timber is considered better still, as it is both seasoned, and has less rot. Harvesting this form of timber reduces the speed and intensity of bushfires. Harvesting timber for firewood is normally carried out by hand with chainsaws. Thus, longer pieces - requiring less manual labour, and less chainsaw fuel - are less expensive and only limited by the size of their firebox. Prices also vary considerably with the distance from wood lots, and quality of the wood. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (725x1105, 1339 KB)Stacking firewood in a shed. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (725x1105, 1339 KB)Stacking firewood in a shed. ... A woodlot is a segment of a woodland or forest capable of small-scale production of forest products such as wood fuel , sap for maple syrup, sawlogs, as well as recreational uses like bird watching, bushwalking, and wildflower appreciation. ... This article is about a community of trees. ... Wood drying also know as seasoning lumber or timber seasoning in the UK refers to reducing the moisture content of wood prior to its use. ... Backburning in Townsville, Australia. ... For other uses, see Chainsaw (disambiguation). ...

Firewood usually relates to timber or trees unsuitable for building or construction. Firewood is a renewable resource provided the consumption rate is controlled to sustainable levels. The shortage of suitable firewood in some places has seen local populations damaging huge tracts of bush thus leading to further desertification. For other uses, see Construction (disambiguation). ... A natural resource qualifies as a renewable resource if it is replenished by natural processes at a rate comparable to its rate of consumption by humans or other users. ... Ship stranded by the retreat of the Aral Sea Desertification is the degradation of land in arid, semi arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various climatic variations, but primarily from human activities. ...

Measurement of firewood

In the metric system, firewood is normally sold by the stere (1 m³ = ~0.276 cords). The International System of Units (symbol: SI) (for the French phrase Syst me International dUnit s) is the most widely used system of units. ... The cubic metre (symbol m³) is the SI derived unit of volume. ...

In the United States, firewood is usually sold by the cord, 128 ft³ (3.62 m³), corresponding to a woodpile 8 ft wide × 4 ft high of 4 ft-long logs. The cord is legally defined by statute in most states. It is also common to see wood sold by the "face cord", which is usually not legally defined, and varies from one area to another. For example, in one state a pile of wood 8 feet wide × 4 feet high of 16"-long logs will often be sold as a "face cord", though its volume is only one-third of a cord. In another state, or even another area of the same state, the volume of a face cord may be considerably different. Hence, it is risky to buy wood sold in this manner, as the transaction is not based on a legally enforceable unit of measure. The cord is a unit of dry volume used in Canada and in the United States to measure firewood. ... A foot (plural: feet or foot;[1] symbol or abbreviation: ft or, sometimes, ′ – a prime) is a unit of length, in a number of different systems, including English units, Imperial units, and United States customary units. ...

In Australia, it is normally sold by the tonne. This article is about the metric tonne. ...

Combustion by-products

As with any fire, burning wood fuel creates numerous by-products, some of which may be useful (heat and steam), and others that are undesirable, irritating or dangerous. For other uses, see Fire (disambiguation). ...

One by-product of wood burning is wood ash, which in moderate amounts is a fertilizer (mainly potash), contributing minerals, but is strongly alkaline as it contains sodium hydroxide (lye). Wood ash can also be used to manufacture soap. Spreading manure, an organic fertilizer Fertilizers (also spelled fertilisers) are compounds given to plants to promote growth; they are usually applied either via the soil, for uptake by plant roots, or by foliar feeding, for uptake through leaves. ... Potash Potash (or carbonate of potash) is an impure form of potassium carbonate (K2CO3) mixed with other potassium salts. ... The common (Arrhenius) definition of a base is a chemical compound that either donates hydroxide ions or absorbs hydrogen ions when dissolved in water. ... Flash point Non-flammable. ... A collection of decorative soaps used for human hygiene purposes. ...

Smoke, containing water vapor, carbon dioxide and other chemicals and aerosol particulates, can be an irritating (and potentially dangerous) by-product of partially burnt wood fuel. A major component of wood smoke is fine particles that may account for a large portion of particulate air pollution in some regions. During cooler months, wood heating accounts for as much as 60% of fine particles in Melbourne, Australia.^[2] This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Water vapor or water vapour (see spelling differences), also aqueous vapor, is the gas phase of water. ... Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom. ... Aerosol, is a term derived from the fact that matter floating in air is a suspension (a mixture in which solid or liquid or combined solid-liquid particles are suspended in a fluid). ... This article is about the Australian city; the name may also refer to City of Melbourne or Melbourne city centre. ...

Slow combustion stoves increase efficiency of wood heaters burning logs, but also increase particulate production. Low pollution/slow combustion stoves are a current area of research.^{[citation needed]} An alternative approach is to use pyrolysis to produce several useful biochemical byproducts, and clean burning charcoal, or to burn fuel extremely quickly inside a large thermal mass, such as a masonry heater. This has the effect of allowing the fuel to burn completely without producing particulates while maintaining the efficiency of the system.^{[citation needed]}

In some of the most efficient burners, the temperature of the smoke is raised to a much higher temperature where the smoke will itself burn (e.g., 1,200 degrees for igniting carbon dioxide gases). This may result in significant reduction of smoke hazards while also providing additional heat from the process. By using a catalytic converter, the temperature for obtaining cleaner smoke can be reduced. Some U.S. jurisdictions prohibit sale or installation of stoves that do not incorporate catalytic converters.^{[citation needed]} Catalytic converter on a Dodge Ram Van. ...

Combustion by-product effects on human health

Depending on population density, topography, climatic conditions and combustion equipment used, wood heating may substantially contribute to air pollution, particularly particulates. Wood combustion products can include toxic and carcinogenic substances.^{[citation needed]} The conditions in which wood is burnt will greatly influence the content of the emission.^{[citation needed]} Air pollution is the modification of the natural characteristics of the atmosphere by a chemical, particulate matter, or biological agent. ... Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM), aerosols or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. ...

Particulate air pollution can contribute to human health problems and increased hospital admissions for asthma & heart diseases.^[2]

The technique of compressing wood pulp into pellets or artificial logs can reduce emissions. The combustion is cleaner, and the increased wood density and reduced water content can eliminate 30 to 70% of the transport bulk.^{[citation needed]} Thus the fossil energy consumed in transport is reduced (and in fact represents a tiny fraction of the fossil fuel consumed in producing and distributing heating oil or gas).

Environmental Impact

Harvesting Operations

Much wood fuel comes from native forests around the world. Plantation wood is rarely used for firewood, as it is more valuable as timber or wood pulp. The collection or harvesting of this wood can have serious environmental implications for the collection area. The concerns are often specific to the particular area, but can include all the problems that regular logging create. Removing wood from forests can cause habitat destruction. Look up native in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... This article is about forests as a massing of trees. ... This article is about crop plantations. ... Timber in storage for later processing at a sawmill Timber is a term used to describe wood, either standing or that has been processed for use—from the time trees are felled, to its end product as a material suitable for industrial use—as structural material for construction or wood... International Paper Company Wood pulp is the most common material used to make paper. ... Logging is the process in which trees are cut down usually as part of a timber harvest which is good for the environment. ... Habitat destruction is a process of land use change in which one habitat-type is removed and replaced with another habitat-type. ...

Greenhouse gases

Harvesting operations can produce significant amounts of greenhouse gas pollution.^{[citation needed]} Top: Increasing atmospheric CO2 levels as measured in the atmosphere and ice cores. ...

Wood burning does not release more carbon dioxide than its biodegradation (rottening). This is commonly called "carbon neutral", whereby the burning of wood releases the same amount of carbon into the atmosphere as the wood would do if it was left to rot on the ground. This is why the burning of wood does not have the effect of increasing global warming. The processing and transport of heating wood to its users can contribute to emissions. Biodegradation is the process by which organic substances are broken down by living organisms. ... Rotten. ...

European use of wood fuel

Some countries produce a significant fraction of their electricity needs from wood or wood wastes. Sweden, for example produces 1490 megawatts of electricity this way and Austria produces 747 megawatts ^{[citation needed]}. In Finland, there is a growing interest in using wood waste as fuel for home and industrial heating, in the form of compacted pellets. The megawatt (symbol: MW) is a unit for measuring power corresponding to one million (106) watts. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Wood-pellet heating. ...

In Scandinavian countries the costs of manual labour to process firewood is very high. Therefore it is common to import firewood from countries with cheap labour and natural resources. The main exporters to Scandinavia are the Baltic countries (Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia).

Historic Japanese use of wood fuel

Wood, during the Edo period, was used for many purposes, and the consumption of wood led Japan to develop a forest management policy during that era. ^[3] Demand for timber resources was on the rise not only for fuel, but also for construction of ships and buildings, and consequently deforestation was widespread. As a result, forest fires occurred, along with floods and soil erosion. Around 1666, the shogun made it a policy to reduce logging and increase the planting of trees. This policy decreed that only the shogun, and/or a daimyo, could authorize the use of wood. By the 18th century, Japan had developed detailed scientific knowledge about silviculture and plantation forestry. The Edo period ), also called Tokugawa period, is a division of Japanese history running from 1603 to 1868. ... Forest management includes a range of human interventions that affect forest ecosystems. ... Daimyo Matsudaira Katamori visits the residence of a retainer. ... Silviculture is the art and science of controlling the establishment, growth, composition, health, and quality of forests to meet diverse needs and values of landowners, society and the many cultures throughout the globe // Forest regeneration is the act of renewing tree cover by establishing young trees naturally or artificially, generally... A decidous beech forest in Slovenia. ...

United States use of wood heat

Use of wood heat declined in popularity with the growing availability of other, less labor-intensive fuels. Wood heat was gradually replaced by coal and later by fuel oil, natural gas and propane heating except in rural areas with available forests. Coal Example chemical structure of coal Coal (pronounced ) is a fossil fuel formed in swamp ecosystems where plant remains were saved by water and mud from oxidization and biodegradation. ... An oil tanker taking on bunker fuel. ... For other uses, see Natural gas (disambiguation). ... Propane is a three-carbon alkane, normally a gas, but compressible to a liquid that is transportable. ...

1973 energy crisis

A brief resurgence in popularity occurred during and after the 1973 energy crisis, when some believed that fossil fuels would become so expensive as to preclude their use. A period of innovation followed, with many small manufacturers producing stoves based on designs old and new. Notable innovations from that era include the Ashley heater, a thermostatically-controlled stove with an optional perforated steel enclosure that prevented accidental contact with hot surfaces. (Redirected from 1973 energy crisis) United States, drivers of vehicles with odd numbered license plates were allowed to purchase gasoline only on odd-numbered days of the month, while drivers with even-numbers were limited to even-numbered days. ... Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source fuels, this is, hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the earth’s crust. ...

A number of dual-fuel furnaces and boilers were made, which utilized ductwork and piping to deliver heat throughout a house or other building.

The growth in popularity of wood heat also led to the development and marketing of a greater variety of equipment for cutting and splitting wood. Consumer grade hydraulic log splitters were developed to be powered by electricity, gasoline, or PTO of farm tractors. A tractor PTO A power take-off (PTO) is a splined driveshaft, usually on a tractor or truck that can be used to provide power to an attachment or separate machine. ...

The magazine "Wood Burning Quarterly" was published for several years before changing its name to "Home Energy Digest" and, subsequently, disappearing.

Today

Wood heat continues to be used in areas where firewood is abundant. For serious attempts at heating, rather than mere ambiance (open fireplaces), stoves, fireplace inserts, and furnaces are most commonly used today. In rural, forested parts of the U.S., freestanding boilers are increasingly common. They are installed outdoors, some distance from the house, and connected to a heat exchanger in the house using underground piping. The mess of wood, bark, smoke, and ashes is kept outside and the risk of fire is reduced. The boilers are large enough to hold a fire all night, and can burn larger pieces of wood, so that less cutting and splitting is required. There is no need to retrofit a chimney in the house. However, outdoor wood boilers emit more wood smoke and associated pollutants than other wood burning appliances. This is due to design characteristics such as the water-filled jacket surrounding the firebox, which acts to cool the fire and leads to incomplete combustion. Outdoor wood boilers also typically have short stack heights in comparison to other wood burning appliances, contributing to ambient levels of particulates at ground level. A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated. ... A heat exchanger is a device built for efficient heat transfer from one fluid to another, whether the fluids are separated by a solid wall so that they never mix, or the fluids are directly contacted. ...

Wood is still used today for cooking in many places, either in a stove or an open fire. It is also used as a fuel in many industrial processes, including smoking meat.

As a sustainable energy source, wood fuel also remains viable for generating electricity in areas with easy access to forest products and by-products.

Firewood use in Australia

About 1.5 million households in Australia use firewood as the main form of domestic heating.^[4] As of 1995, approximately 1.85 million cubic metres of firewood (1m³ equals approximately one car trailer load) was used in Victoria annually, with half being consumed in Melbourne.^[5] This amount is comparable to the wood consumed by all of Victoria’s sawlog and pulplog forestry operations (1.9 million m³).^{[citation needed]} Utility trailer A Trailer is generally an unpowered vehicle pulled by a powered vehicle. ... VIC redirects here. ... This article is about the Australian city; the name may also refer to City of Melbourne or Melbourne city centre. ...

A pile of firewood logged from the Barmah Forest in Victoria.

Species used as sources of firewood include: Image File history File links Size of this preview: 400 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1286 × 1929 pixel, file size: 1. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 400 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1286 × 1929 pixel, file size: 1. ... Barmah has the distinction of being the only town in Victoria that is north of New South Wales at . ...

• Red Gum, from forests along the Murray River (the Mid-Murray Forest Management Area, including the Barmah and Gunbower forests, provides about 80% of Victoria’s red gum timber^[6]).
• Box and Messmate Stringybark, in southern Australia.
• Sugar gum, a wood with high thermal efficiency that usually comes from small plantations.^{[citation needed]}

Binomial name Dehnh. ... This article is about a community of trees. ... For other uses, see Murray River (disambiguation). ... Binomial name Eucalyptus obliqua LHér. ... Binomial name Eucalyptus cladocalyx F. Muell. ... The thermal efficiency () is a dimensionless performance measure of a thermal device such as an internal combustion engine, a boiler, or a furnace, for example. ...

Environmental concerns

In Victoria, red gum is the most popular and commonly used firewood. Although some consider that Victoria's red gum forests are being depleted wholesale as a direct result of firewood harvesting, much of the forest clearance occurred decades ago, when the wood was used in large-scale infrastructure projects such as railway construction.^{[citation needed]}

Victoria and NSW's remnant red gum forests, including the Murray River's Barmah-Millewa forest, are increasingly being clear-felled using mechanical harvesters, destroying ecologically significant and already endangered habitat. Macnally estimates that approximately 81% of fallen timber has been removed from the southern Murray-Darling Basin.^[7] Barmah has the distinction of being the only town in Victoria that is north of New South Wales at . ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Habitat (which is Latin for it inhabits) is the place where a particular species live and grow. ... Semi-arid grazing country near Burra Creek, South Australia The Murray-Darling Basin being 3430km long, drains one-seventh of the Australian land mass and is currently by far the most significant agricultural area in Australia. ...

There are concerns with the extent to which firewood harvesting in red gum forests depletes the habitat of various animal species that would otherwise reside in the hollows which form in fallen timber (it is estimated that 37% of mammals and 39% of woodland bird species in Victoria reside in such hollows).^{[citation needed]} In areas where there is extensive firewood harvesting (eg. Barmah), there are concerns that many species may be at risk .^{[citation needed]} The Barmah forest contains 51% of the threatened species found in eastern north Victoria.^[8] At least 37 threatened plants are found in Barmah-Millewa, four of which are found nowhere else in Victoria.^[8] The forest includes the only remaining Victorian breeding grounds of the Superb Parrot, a bird that is listed as endangered in that state, and as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List.^[9] Mammals listed as threatened in both Victoria and New South Wales reside in the forest, including the squirrel glider, the brush tailed phascogale, and the large footed myotis.^[10][11] Barmah has the distinction of being the only town in Victoria that is north of New South Wales at . ... The list of endangered Australian plants includes all plant species listed as critically endangered or endangered in Australia under the EPBC Act. ... Binomial name Polytelis swainsonii Desmarest, 1826 The Superb Parrot, Polytelis swainsonii, also known as the barraband parrot, is a beautiful, up to 40cm, bright green parrot with long tail feathers, yellow-green below and yellow eye. ... This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it. ... The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (also known as the IUCN Red List and Red Data List), created in 1963, is the worlds most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of plant and animal species and can be found here. ... The threatened categories (IUCN Red List) Threatened species are any species (including animals, plants, fungi, insects, bugs, etc. ... Binomial name Petaurus norfolcensis (Kerr, 1792) The Squirrel Glider (Petaurus norfolcensis) is a gliding possum of the Marsupial family Petauridae. ...

Efficiency and sustainability

With appropriately certified and operated modern wood heaters, the use of good quality wood fuel is one of the most efficient and cheapest forms of heating in Australia.^{[citation needed]} The replacement of existing national domestic heating needs supplied by wood, with gas and electricity, would result in a significant net increase in carbon dioxide emissions,^[12] while the application and enforcement of national standards for wood heaters and wood fuel would substantially reduce particulate emissions.^[13] The peak industry body, the Australian Home Heating Association Inc is a major financial supporter of Landcare Australia, sponsoring the planting of over 40,000 trees per year. Landcare groups have planted millions of trees in revegetation programs to replace the estimated 20 billion trees removed since European settlement, laid thousands of kilometres of protective fencing, introduced sustainable farming techniques, removed hundreds of thousands of tonnes of weeds, and volunteered countless hours to the land care ethic.^[14] Landcare Research, or Manaaki Whenua in the Maori language, is a Crown Research Institute of New Zealand. ...

Firewood plantations also provide alternative financial opportunities for farmers and local government, with fuel being one of the multi-uses of tree plantations.

See also

• Biofuel
• Biomass
• Forestry
• Wood-fired oven

For articles on specific fuels used in vehicles, see Biogas, Bioethanol, Biobutanol, Biodiesel, and Straight vegetable oil. ... For the use of the term in ecology, see Biomass (ecology). ... A decidous beech forest in Slovenia. ... Wood-fired ovens, also known as wood ovens, are for cooking. ...

References

1. ^ Clean Burning Wood Stoves and Fireplaces
2. ^ ^{a b} Environment Protection Authority (2002) Wood heaters, open fires and air quality. Publication 851 EPA Victoria.
3. ^ Diamond, Jared. 2005 Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. Penguin Books. New York. 294-304 pp. ISBN 0-14-303655-6
4. ^ Social Benefits
5. ^ Firewood
6. ^ NRE 2002 Forest Management Plan for the Mid-Murray Forest Management Area
7. ^ Macnally, R, Ballinger, A and Horrocks, G. (2002) Habitat change in River Red Gum Floodplains: Depletion of Fallen Timber and Impacts on Biodiversity. Victorian Naturalis, Volume 119(4). Pp. 107-113.
8. ^ ^{a b} Robinson 1998
9. ^ Webster, R. and Ahern, L. 1992. Management for the conservation of the Superb Parrot (Polytelis swainsonii) in New South Wales and Victoria. Report to New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service andVictorian Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.
10. ^ Law and Anderson 1999
11. ^ Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia 2001
12. ^ Pollution Issues
13. ^ Benefits
14. ^ Social Benefits

External Links

• Firewood Facts

• Woodfuel Wales - information on various issues regarding wood as a fuel

• Woodenergy Scotland - information on various issues regarding wood as a fuel