A Chinese Song Dynasty naval river ship with a Xuanfeng traction-trebuchet catapult on its top deck, taken from an illustration of the Wujing Zongyao.

The Wujing Zongyao (Chinese: 武经总要; Wade-Giles: Wu Ching Tsung Yao; literally "Collection of the Most Important Military Techniques") was a Chinese military compendium written in 1044 AD, during the Northern Song Dynasty. Its authors were the prominent scholars Zeng Gongliang (曾公亮), Ding Du (丁度), and Yang Weide (楊惟德), whose writing influenced many later Chinese writers of martial subjects. Although the English philosopher and friar Roger Bacon was the first to mention the sole ingredients of gunpowder in 1267 (i.e. strictly saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal) when referring to firecrackers in "various parts of the world", the Wujing Zongyao was the first book in history to record the written formulas for blackpowder solutions containing saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal, along with many added ingredients. It also described an early form of the compass. Northern Song in 1111 AD Capital Kaifeng (960–1127) Linan (1127–1279) Language(s) Chinese Religion Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism Government Monarchy History  - Zhao Kuangyin taking over the throne of the Later Zhou Dynasty 960  - Battle of Yamen; the end of Song rule 1279 Population  - Peak est. ... Trebuchet at Château des Baux, France. ... Wade-Giles, sometimes abbreviated Wade, is a Romanization (phonetic notation and transliteration) system for the Chinese language based on Mandarin. ... Alternative meaning: Song Dynasty (420-479) The Song dynasty (Chinese: 宋朝) was a ruling dynasty in China from 960-1279. ... For the Nova Scotia premier see Roger Bacon (politician). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Blackpowder. ... Saltpeter is variously: potassium nitrate (niter); or sodium nitrate (soda niter) ... For the chemical element see: sulfur. ... Charcoal is the blackish residue consisting of impure carbon obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances. ... See Firecracker (album) for information on the Lisa Loeb album. ... Black powder is a type of gunpowder invented in the 9th Century and practically the only propellant and explosive known until the middle of the 19th Century. ... Compass in a wooden box A compass (or mariners compass) is a navigational instrument for finding directions on the earth. ...

History

Court portrait of Emperor Renzong.

Under the imperial order of Emperor Renzong of Song (r. 1022-1063 AD), a team of Chinese scholars compiled the treatise of the Wujing Zongyao from 1040 to 1044, in order to improve the knowledge of all the known martial techniques used in warfare.^[1][2] Its chief editor was Zeng Gongliang, while he was assisted by the prominent astronomer Yang Weide and the scholar Ding Du.^[1][2] The Wujing Zongyao was one of 347 military treatises listed in the biographical chapters of the Song Shi (1345 AD), the historical work that embodied part of the Twenty-Four Histories.^[2] Of these 347 different military treatises from Song Dynasty period, only the Wujing Zongyao, the Huqianjing (Tiger Seal Manual) of Xu Dong in 1004 AD, and fragments of similar works found in he later Yonglo Datian have survived.^[2] The original text of the Wujing Zongyao was kept in the Imperial Library, while a number of hand-written copies were distributed elsewhere, including a copy given to Wang Shao by Emperor Shenzong of Song in 1069 AD.^[3] However, with the sacking of the capital Kaifeng by the invading Jurchens in 1126 AD, the enormous amount of prized literature found in the Imperial Library was lost, including the original copy of the Wujing Zongyao.^[4] After the original was lost, there was only a scarce amount of surviving copies rewritten by hand. There was a scarcity because the book was meant to be kept a secret amongst a few trustees of the government, as publishing and printing many copies using woodblock printing would have allowed the possibility of it falling into enemy hands.^[4] Nevertheless, from a remaining copy of the Wujing Zongyao, it was remade into a newly published edition in 1231 AD during the Southern Song Dynasty era.^[4] Then, during Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 AD), a book published in 1439 AD featured fragments of the original Wujing Zongyao edition of 1231 while omitting some material and combining it with two other books, the preface of this book written by Li Jin.^[5] Then there was a reprinted edition of the entire Wujing Zongyao in 1510 AD, this complete version being the oldest extant copy available.^[1][4] Furthermore, the historian Joseph Needham asserts that this edition of 1510 AD is the most reliable in its faithfulnes to the original version, since it was printed from blocks that were re-carved directly from tracings of the edition made in 1231 AD.^[4] This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Events Several Catharist heretics are killed in Toulouse. ... Events Anselm of Canterbury becomes prior at Le Bec Sancho I becomes ruler of Aragon Bishopric of Olomouc is founded Births Deaths April 30 - Emperor Renzong (b. ... An astronomer or astrophysicist is a person whose area of interest is astronomy or astrophysics. ... The Twenty-Four Histories is a collection of historical books covering a period of history from 3000 B.C. to the Ming Dynasty in the 17th century. ... Emperor Shenzong (May 25, 1048 – April 1, 1085) was the sixth emperor of Song Dynasty China. ... Kaifeng (Simplified Chinese: ; Traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: KāifÄ“ng; Wade-Giles: Kai-feng), formerly known as Bianliang (汴梁; Wade-Giles: Pien-liang), is a prefecture-level city in eastern Henan province, Peoples Republic of China. ... The Jurchens (Chinese: 女真, pinyin: nǚzhēn) were a Tungusic people who inhabited parts of Manchuria and northern Korea until the seventeenth century, when they became the Manchus. ... Yuan Dynasty woodblock edition of a Chinese play For the use of the technique in art, see Woodcut on the technique, and Old master print for the history in Europe and woodblock printing in Japan. ... Alternative meaning: Song Dynasty (420-479) The Song dynasty (Chinese: 宋朝) was a ruling dynasty in China from 960-1279. ... For other uses, see Ming. ... Events Timur ascends throne of Samarkand. ... // Events February to August - Explorer Abel Tasmans second expedition for the Dutch East India Company maps the north coast of Australia. ... Joseph Terence Montgomery Needham (December 9, 1900 – March 24, 1995) was a British biochemist and pre-eminent authority on the history of Chinese science. ...

After the edition of 1510 was printed, other Ming Dynasty copies were made. This included the Jiajing edition (1522-1566 AD), the Wanli edition (1573-1619 AD) of Quanzhou, and the Wanli edition (1573-1619) of Jinling by Tang Xinyün (preserved by Cunjingge).^[4] During the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911 AD) it was also reprinted in two different editions durnig the 18th century, and again in 1934 with the Shanghai edition.^[4] The Jiajing Emperor (September 16, 1507–January 23, 1567) was the 11th emperor of China (Ming dynasty) between 1521-1567. ... Events January 9 - Adrian Dedens becomes Pope Adrian VI. February 26 - Execution by hanging of Cuauhtémoc, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlan under orders of conquistador Hernán Cortés. ... Events January 7 - Pius V becomes Pope Selim II succeeds Suleiman I as Sultan of the Ottoman Empire Religious rioting in the Netherlands signifies the beginning of the Eighty Years War in the Netherlands. ... Wanli Emperor (September 4, 1563 - August 18, 1620) was emperor of China (Ming dynasty) between 1572 and 1620. ... Year 1573 was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. ... Events May 13 - Dutch statesman Johan van Oldenbarnevelt is executed in The Hague after having been accused of treason. ... The characters 泉州 are also used for SenshÅ«, an alternate name for the former Japanese province of Izumi. ... Nanjing (南京, Pinyin: Nánjīng, Wade-Giles: Nan-ching; Postal System Pinyin: Nanking, formerly Jinling 金陵, Jiangning 江宁, and Tianjing 天京) is the central city of downstream Yangtze Basin and is a renowned historical and cultural city. ... The Qing Dynasty (Chinese: ; Hanyu Pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Ching chao; Manchu: daicing gurun; Mongolian: Манж Чин), occasionally known as the Manchu Dynasty, was the ruling Chinese Dynasties. ... // Events February to August - Explorer Abel Tasmans second expedition for the Dutch East India Company maps the north coast of Australia. ... 1911 (MCMXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar). ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ...

Compass and navigation

Layout of a Ming Dynasty mariner's compass.

In the 3rd century, the Chinese engineer Ma Jun invented the South Pointing Chariot. This was a wheeled vehicle that employed differential gearing in order to lock a figurine of an immortal in place on the end of a long wooden staff, the figure having its arm stretched out and always pointing to the southern cardinal direction. Although the authors of the Wujing Zongyao were mistaken in believing that the design of the South Pointing Chariot was not handed down (as it was reinvented during the Song period and combined with an odometer), they described a new device which allowed one to navigate. This was the 'south pointing fish' (a thermoremanence compass), essentially a heated iron (or preferably steel) object cut in the shape of a fish and suspended in a bowl of water. The Wujing Zongyao text stated: Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... For other uses, see Ming. ... Compass in a wooden box A compass (or mariners compass) is a navigational instrument for finding directions on the earth. ... Ma Jun a certain officer serving under Wei that oversaw the construction of Chong Huas palace under the orders of Cao Rui. ... South Pointing Chariot (replica) Supposedly invented sometime around 2600BC in China by the Yellow Emperor Huang Di, the South Pointing Chariot (Zhi Nan Ju 指南車) is widely regarded as the most complex geared mechanism of the ancient Chinese civilization. ... In an automobile and other four-wheeled vehicles, a differential is a device, usually consisting of gears, that allows each of the driving wheels to rotate at different speeds, while supplying equal torque to each of them. ... Xian (Chinese: ; pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: hsien) is a Chinese word for an enlightened person, translatable in English as: spiritually immortal; transcendent; super-human; celestial being (in Daoist/Taoist philosophy and cosmology) physically immortal; immortal person; immortalist; saint (in Daoist religion and pantheon) alchemist; one who seeks the elixir of life... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... A modern non-digital odometer A Smiths speedometer from the 1920s showing odometer and trip meter An odometer is a device used for indicating distance traveled by an automobile or other vehicle. ... Compass in a wooden box A compass (or mariners compass) is a navigational instrument for finding directions on the earth. ...

When troops encountered gloomy weather or dark nights, and the directions of space could not be distinguished, they let an old horse go on before to lead them, or else they made use of the south-pointing carriage, or the south-pointing fish to identify the directions. Now the carriage method has not been handed down, but in the fish method a thin leaf of iron is cut into the shape of a fish two inches long and half an inch broad, having a pointed head and tail. This is then heated in a charcoal fire, and when it has become thoroughly red-hot, it is taken out by the head with iron tongs and placed so that its tail points due north. In this position it is quenched with water in a basin, so that its tail is submerged for several tenths of an inch. It is then kept in a tightly closed box. To use it, a small bowl filled with water is set up in a windless place, and the fish is laid as flat as possible upon the water-surface so that it floats, whereupon its head will point south.^[6]

Writing several decades after the Wujing Zongyao was written, the scientist and statesman Shen Kuo (1031-1095 AD) wrote of the first truly magnetized compass needle in his book Dream Pool Essays (1088 AD). With a more efficient compass magnetized by lodestone, the thermoremanence compass fell out of use.^[7] This is a Chinese name; the family name is Shen Shen Kuo or Shen Kua (Chinese: ; pinyin: ) (1031–1095 AD) was a polymath Chinese scientist of the Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD). ... Events Collapse of the Moorish Caliphate of Córdoba. ... Events The country of Portugal is established for the second time. ... Shen Kuo (沈括) (1031-1095 AD) The Dream Pool Essays (Pinyin: Meng Xi Bi Tan; Wade-Giles: Meng Chi Pi Tan Chinese: 梦溪笔谈) was an extensive book written by the polymath Chinese scientist and statesman Shen Kuo (1031-1095) by 1088 AD, during the Song Dynasty (960-1279) of China. ... Magnetite Lodestone or loadstone refers to either: Magnetite, a magnetic mineral form of iron(II), iron(III) oxide Fe3O4, one of several iron oxides. ...

Gunpowder formulas and weapons

Grain of smokeless powder.

Gunpowder warfare began in China during the early 10th century, with the advent of the blackpowder-impregnated fuse that was used to light the burst of the Chinese two-piston flamethrower.^[8] However, it was not until the Wujing Zongyao that the exact formulas for early Chinese blackpowder was revealed. In the Wujing Zongyao there are three formulas for blackpowder provided, including one for a quasi-explosive bomb launched from a trebuchet catapult, another for a similar bomb with hooks attached so that it could latch on to any wooden structure and set it on fire, and another formula specified for a poison-smoke bomb used for chemical warfare.^[9] The Wujing Zongyao stated that simple incendiary weapons were launched from catapults, thrown down from city walls at besiegers, or let down by iron chains from a swape lever set up on the top of the wall.^[10] There was also description of the 'igniter ball' used in warfare and in finding firing range. The Wujing Zongyao stated the following: Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (2592x1944, 2431 KB) Yhteenveto (c) Timo Halén Licensing File links The following pages link to this file: Gunpowder Smokeless powder Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (2592x1944, 2431 KB) Yhteenveto (c) Timo Halén Licensing File links The following pages link to this file: Gunpowder Smokeless powder Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. ... Smokeless powder Smokeless powder is the name given to a number of gunpowder-like propellants used in firearms which produce negligible smoke when fired, unlike the older black powder which it replaced. ... Black powder is a type of gunpowder invented in the 9th Century and practically the only propellant and explosive known until the middle of the 19th Century. ... Look up fuse in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Riverboat of the U.S. Brownwater Navy shooting ignited napalm from its mounted flamethrower during the Vietnam war. ... Trebuchet at Château des Baux, France. ... Chemical warfare is warfare (and associated military operations) using the toxic properties of chemical substances to kill, injure or incapacitate an enemy. ...

The 'igniter ball' (yin huo qiu) is made of paper round like a ball, inside which is put i between three and five pounds of powdered bricks. Melt yellow wax and let it stand until clear, then add powdered charcoal and make it into a paste permeating the ball; bind it up with hempen string. When you want to find the range of anything, shoot off this fire-ball first, then other incendiary balls can follow.^[11]

As Joseph Needham states, the Wujing Zongyao's first recorded blackpowder formula used in these bombs held a potassium nitrate level of 55.4% to 55.5%, sulfur content of 19.4% to 26.5%, and carbonaceous content of 23% to 25.2%.^[12] For the second labeled formula, the inner ball alone had a nitrate percentage of 61.5% to 50.2%, a sulfur content of 30.8% to 25.1%, and if all carbonaceous matter was taken, 24.7%, if just taking the charcoal content alone, the carbon level was 7.7%.^[13] If the outer coating and inner ball are both included with the second blackpowder formula, that would yield a nitrate level of 34.7% to 54.8%, a sulfur content of 17.4% to 27.4%, and if all carbonaceous material is used, 47.9% carbon, if only charcoal is used, 17.8%.^[13] If the inner ball of the third blackpowder formula is only considered, it held nitrate levels of 39.6% if all carbonaceous matter was taken, 49.4% nitrate if excluding the poisons, and 60% if charcoal is specified alone.^[14] The sulfur content was 19.8% if all carbonaceous matter was considered, 24.7% if this excluded poisons, and 30% if charcoal is specified alone.^[14] The carbon content was 40.5% if all carbonaceous matter was considered, 25.9% if this excluded poisons, and 10% if charcoal alone was specified.^[14] If both the inner ball and outer coating are considered for the third formula, that would yield a nitrate level of 27% if all carbonaceous matter was taken, 31.2% if this excluded poisons, and 51.7% if charcoal alone was used.^[14] The sulfur content would be 13.5% if all carbonaceous matter was taken, 15.6% if this excluded the poisons, and 25.9% if only charcoal alone was specified.^[14] The carbon content was 59.5% if all carbonaceous matter was taken into account, 53.2% if this excluded poisons, and 22.4% if charcoal alone was specified.^[14] R-phrases   S-phrases   Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ... General Name, Symbol, Number carbon, C, 6 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 14, 2, p Appearance black (graphite) colorless (diamond) Standard atomic weight 12. ...

The first blackpowder concoction was simply labeled as the "method for making the fire-chemical", with its ingredients and measured weight (in ounces) of each ingredient listed in the section below with the others listed in similar fashion. The ounce (abbreviation: oz) is the name of a unit of mass in a number of different systems, including various systems of mass that form part of English units, Imperial units, and United States customary units. ...

Formulas

1st Formula^[15]

• Sulfur (14 oz.)
• Wo huang ('nest yellow', perhaps nodular sulfur) (7 oz.)
• Saltpetre (40 oz.)
• Hemp roots (1 oz.)
• Dried lacquer (1 oz.)
• Arsenic (1 oz.)
• White lead (lead carbonate) (1 oz.)
• Bamboo roots (1 oz.)
• Minium (lead tetroxide) (1 oz.)
• Yellow wax (0.5 oz.)
• Clear oil (0.1 oz.)
• Tung oil (0.5 oz.)
• Pine resin (14 oz.)
• Thick oil (0.1 oz.)

Total weight = 82.2 oz. General Name, Symbol, Number sulfur, S, 16 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 16, 3, p Appearance lemon yellow Standard atomic weight 32. ... Saltpeter is variously: potassium nitrate (niter); or sodium nitrate (soda niter) ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... In a general sense, lacquer is a clear or coloured coating, that dries by solvent evaporation only and that produces a hard, durable finish that can be polished to a very high gloss, and gives the illusion of depth. ... General Name, Symbol, Number arsenic, As, 33 Chemical series metalloids Group, Period, Block 15, 4, p Appearance metallic gray Standard atomic weight 74. ... For Pb as an abbreviation, see PB. General Name, Symbol, Number lead, Pb, 82 Chemical series poor metals Group, Period, Block 14, 6, p Appearance bluish gray Standard atomic weight 207. ... Sample of cerussite-bearing quartzite Cerussite (also known as Horn silver, Lead carbonate, White lead ore) is a mineral consisting of lead carbonate (PbCO3), and an important ore of lead. ... Diversity Around 91 genera and 1,000 species Subtribes Arthrostylidiinae Arundinariinae Bambusinae Chusqueinae Guaduinae Melocanninae Nastinae Racemobambodinae Shibataeinae See the full Taxonomy of the Bambuseae. ... Red lead is a bright red pigment, in Latin minium after the Minius River in northwest Spain where it was first mined. ... Red lead, also called minium or lead tetroxide, is a bright red or orange crystalline or amorphous pigment. ... candle wax This page is about the substance. ... Natural olive oil Synthetic motor oil An oil is any substance that is in a viscous liquid state (oily) at ambient temperatures or slightly warmer, and is both hydrophobic (immiscible with water, literally water fearing) and lipophilic (miscible with other oils, literally fat loving). This general definition includes compound classes... Tung oil is used as a wood finishing product. ...

2nd Formula^[13]

Inner ball

• Sulphur (20 oz.)
• Saltpetre (40 oz.)
• Coarse charcoal powder (5 oz.)
• Pitch (2.5 oz.)
• Dried lacquer (pounded to powder) (2.5 oz.)
• Bamboo roots (1.1 oz.)
• Hemp roots, cut into shreds (1.1 oz.)
• Tung oil (2.5 oz.)
• Lesser oil (possibly an edible oil) (2.5 oz.)
• Wax (2.5 oz.)

Total weight of inner ball = 79.7 oz. For the chemical element see: sulfur. ... Saltpeter is variously: potassium nitrate (niter); or sodium nitrate (soda niter) ... Charcoal is the blackish residue consisting of impure carbon obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances. ... The pitch drop experiment. ... In a general sense, lacquer is a clear or coloured coating, that dries by solvent evaporation only and that produces a hard, durable finish that can be polished to a very high gloss, and gives the illusion of depth. ... Diversity Around 91 genera and 1,000 species Subtribes Arthrostylidiinae Arundinariinae Bambusinae Chusqueinae Guaduinae Melocanninae Nastinae Racemobambodinae Shibataeinae See the full Taxonomy of the Bambuseae. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Tung oil is used as a wood finishing product. ... candle wax This page is about the substance. ...

Outer coating

• Paper (12.5 oz.)
• Hemp (fibre) (10 oz.)
• Minium (1.1 oz)
• Charcoal powder (8 oz.)
• Pitch (2.5 oz)
• Yellow wax (2.5 oz)

Total weight of outer coating = 36.6 oz. A blank sheet of paper Paper is a commodity of thin material produced by the amalgamation of fibers, typically vegetable fibers composed of cellulose, which are subsequently held together by hydrogen bonding. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Red lead is a bright red pigment, in Latin minium after the Minius River in northwest Spain where it was first mined. ... Charcoal is the blackish residue consisting of impure carbon obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances. ...

Total weight = 116.3 oz.

3rd Formula^[16]

Inner ball

• Sulphur (15 oz.)
• Saltpetre (30 oz.)
• Aconite (aconitum fischeri) (5 oz.)
• Croton oil (croton tiglium) (5 oz.)
• Wolfsbane (aconitum ferox or lycoctonum) (5 oz.)
• Tung oil (5 oz.)
• Lesser oil (2.5 oz.)
• Charcoal powder (5 oz.)
• Pitch (5 oz.)
• Arsenic (2 oz.)
• Yellow wax (1 oz.)
• Bamboo roots (1.1 oz.)
• Hemp roots (1.1 oz.)

Total weight of inner ball = 77.7 oz. For the chemical element see: sulfur. ... Saltpeter is variously: potassium nitrate (niter); or sodium nitrate (soda niter) ... Species About 60: see text Aconitum is a genus of plants belonging to the buttercup family Ranunculaceae. ... Croton oil (Crotonis Oleum) is an oil prepared from the seeds of Croton Tiglium, a tree belonging to the natural order Euphorbiaceae and native or cultivated in India and the Malay Archipelago. ... Species See text Aconitum is a genus of flowering plant belonging to the buttercup family ( Ranunculaceae). ... Tung oil is used as a wood finishing product. ... Charcoal is the blackish residue consisting of impure carbon obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances. ... The pitch drop experiment. ... General Name, Symbol, Number arsenic, As, 33 Chemical series metalloids Group, Period, Block 15, 4, p Appearance metallic gray Standard atomic weight 74. ... candle wax This page is about the substance. ... Diversity Around 91 genera and 1,000 species Subtribes Arthrostylidiinae Arundinariinae Bambusinae Chusqueinae Guaduinae Melocanninae Nastinae Racemobambodinae Shibataeinae See the full Taxonomy of the Bambuseae. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ...

Outer coating

• Old paper (12.5 oz.)
• Hemp (stalk) skin fibre (10 oz.)
• Pitch (2.5 oz.)
• Yellow wax (2.5 oz.)
• Minium (1.1 oz.)
• Charcoal (8 oz.)

Total weight of outer coating = 36.6 oz. A blank sheet of paper Paper is a commodity of thin material produced by the amalgamation of fibers, typically vegetable fibers composed of cellulose, which are subsequently held together by hydrogen bonding. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... The pitch drop experiment. ... candle wax This page is about the substance. ... Red lead is a bright red pigment, in Latin minium after the Minius River in northwest Spain where it was first mined. ... Charcoal is the blackish residue consisting of impure carbon obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances. ...

Total weight = 114.3 oz.

See also

• History of the Song Dynasty
• Gunpowder warfare
• Huolongjing
• Technology of the Song Dynasty
• Jiao Yu

The Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD) of China was a ruling dynasty that controlled China proper and southern China from the middle of the 10th century into the last quarter of the 13th century. ... Gunpowder warfare is associated with the start of the widespread use of gunpowder and the development of suitable weapons to use the explosive. ... Ming Dynasty musketeers in drill formation. ... The Song Dynasty (960–1279) was a period of Chinese history and human history in general that provided some of the most prolific advancements in early science and technology, much of it through talented statsemen drafted by the government (see Imperial examinations). ... Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 AD) era matchlock firearms featuring serpentine levers. ...

Notes

References

• Feng Jiasheng (1954). The Invention of Gunpowder and Its Spread to The West. Shanghai: Shanghai People's Press. TQ56-09/1
• Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 1, Physics. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
• Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.

External links

• JSTOR
• Chinese siege warfare