NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Zanskar

Zanskar is a subdistrict or tahsil of the Kargil district, which lies in the eastern half of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. The administrative centre is Padum. Zanskar, together with the neighbouring region of Ladakh, formerly belonged to Guge or Western Tibet. The equivalent terms tehsil, tahsil, tahasil, taluka, taluk, and taluq refer to a unit of government in some countries of South Asia. ... Kargil was a part of Gilgit-Baltistan before 1947, but now is a town in the Indian-controlled Kashmir. ... This article is about the area controlled by India. ... Padum (also spelt Padam) is the largest town and adminstrative centre of Zanskar. ... , Ladakh (Tibetan script: à½£à¼‹à½‘à¾à½‚à½¦à¼‹; Wylie: la-dwags, Ladakhi IPA: , Hindi: à¤²à¤¦à¥à¤¦à¤¾à¤–à¤¼, Hindi IPA: , Urdu: Ù„Ø¯Ù‘Ø§Ø®; land of high passes) is a region in the state of Jammu and Kashmir in Northern India sandwiched between the Kuen Lun mountain range in the north and the main Great Himalayas to the south, inhabited by people... Guge was an ancient kingdom in Western Tibet. ... This article is about historical/cultural Tibet. ...

location map of Zanskar

Along the paths of Zanskar, the traveller is often confronted with Mani walls. These stone structures are a compilation of exquisitely carved stone tablets, each with the inscription "Om Mani Padme Hum" which translates to "Hail to the jewel in the lotus". These walls should be passed or circumvented from the left side, the clockwise direction in which the earth and the universe revolve, according to Buddhist doctrine.

Prayer flag above the monastery (Gompa) of Tanze, in the Kurgiakh valley. The wind is believed to propagate the prayers printed on tissue.

Village houses in the Kargyak Valley.

Group of Zanskari women and children. In the summer, the women and children stay far away from the villages to tend to the livestock. This system, known as transhumance, is similar to the one found in the Alps where the animals are sent during the summer higher up in the mountains (the alpages) and were kept by the children and women.

White yak

The Monastery of Phugtal in south-east Zanskar.

Row of Chorten (or Stupa) at the village of Purne. Each of the elements that constitute these edifices, as well as their color, has a symbolic meaning in Tibetan Buddhism.

Fresco on a wall of the Bardan Gompa representing a Wheel of Life.

class="preview" id="pv9"> Download high resolution version (451x648, 87 KB) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Download high resolution version (451x648, 87 KB) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Download high resolution version (900x600, 245 KB) Along the paths of Zanskar, the traveller is often confronted with Mani walls. ... Download high resolution version (900x600, 245 KB) Along the paths of Zanskar, the traveller is often confronted with Mani walls. ... Om Mani Padme Hum, written in Tibetan, on a rock outside the Potala Palace in Tibet. ... A replica of an ancient statue found among the ruins of a temple at Sarnath Buddhism is a philosophy based on the teachings of the Buddha, SiddhÄrtha Gautama, a prince of the Shakyas, whose lifetime is traditionally given as 566 to 486 BCE. It had subsequently been accepted by... Download high resolution version (600x900, 228 KB) Prayer flag above the monastery (Gompa) of Tanze, in the Kurgiakh valley. ... Download high resolution version (600x900, 228 KB) Prayer flag above the monastery (Gompa) of Tanze, in the Kurgiakh valley. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 526 pixelsFull resolution (891 Ã— 586 pixel, file size: 97 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 526 pixelsFull resolution (891 Ã— 586 pixel, file size: 97 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Download high resolution version (900x600, 213 KB) Group of Zanskari women and children. ... Download high resolution version (900x600, 213 KB) Group of Zanskari women and children. ... Transhumance is the seasonal movement of livestock between mountainous and lowland pastures. ... Download high resolution version (900x600, 390 KB) File links The following pages link to this file: Zanskar Categories: GFDL images ... Download high resolution version (900x600, 390 KB) File links The following pages link to this file: Zanskar Categories: GFDL images ... Download high resolution version (600x900, 268 KB) File links The following pages link to this file: Zanskar Categories: GFDL images ... Download high resolution version (600x900, 268 KB) File links The following pages link to this file: Zanskar Categories: GFDL images ... Download high resolution version (900x600, 229 KB) Row of Chorten (or Stupa) near the village of Purne in Zanskar. ... Download high resolution version (900x600, 229 KB) Row of Chorten (or Stupa) near the village of Purne in Zanskar. ... The Great Stupa at Sanchi. ... Tibetan Buddhism is the body of religious Buddhist doctrine and institutions characteristic of Tibet, the Himalayan region (including northern Nepal, Bhutan, Sikkim and Ladakh), Mongolia, Buryatia, Tuva and Kalmykia (Russia), and northeastern China (Manchuria: Heilongjiang, Jilin). ... Download high resolution version (600x900, 236 KB) File links The following pages link to this file: Zanskar Categories: GFDL images ... Download high resolution version (600x900, 236 KB) File links The following pages link to this file: Zanskar Categories: GFDL images ... Fresco by Dionisius representing Saint Nicholas. ... Gompas are Buddhist temples, located in Tibet, Ladakh (India), Nepal, and Bhutan. ... The Bhavacakra (Sanskrit) or Wheel of becoming, Tibetan is a complex symbolic representation of in the form of a circle (mandala), used primarily in Tibetan Buddhism. ...

Geography

Zanskar covers an area of some 7,000 square kilometres (2,700 square miles), at a height of between 3,500 and 7,000 metres (11,500–23,000 feet). It consists of the country lying along the two main branches of the Zanskar river. The first, the Doda, has its source near the Pensi-la (4,400 metres) (14,450 feet) mountain-pass, and then flows south-eastwards along the main valley leading towards Padum, the capital of Zanskar. The second branch is formed by two main tributaries known as Kargyag river, with its source near the Shingo-La, and Tsarap river, with its source near the Baralacha-La. These two rivers unite below the village of Purne to form the Lungnak river (also known as the Lingti or Tsarap). The Lungnak river then flows north-westwards along a narrow gorge towards Zanskar's central valley (known locally as gzhung khor), where it unites with the Doda river to form the Zanskar river. Square kilometre (U.S. spelling: square kilometer), symbol kmÂ², is a decimal multiple of SI unit of surface area square metre, one of the SI derived units. ... A square mile is an English unit of area equal to that of a square with sides each 1 statute mile (â‰ˆ1,609 m) in length. ... â€¹ The template below (Unit of length) is being considered for deletion. ... A foot (plural: feet or foot;[1] symbol or abbreviation: ft or, sometimes, â€² â€“ a prime) is a unit of length, in a number of different systems, including English units, Imperial units, and United States customary units. ... Pensi-la is a mountain pass in the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir, which is known as the Gateway to Zanskar. ...

The Zanskar river then takes a north-eastern course until it joins the Indus in Ladakh. High mountain ridges lie on both sides of the Doda and Lingti–kargyag valleys, which run north-west to south-east. To the south-west is the Great Himalayan Range which separates Zanskar from the Kisthwar and Chamba basins. To the north-east lies the Zanskar Range, which separates Zanskar from Ladakh. The only outlet for the whole Zanskar hydrographic system is thus the Zanskar river, which cuts a deep and narrow gorge through the Zanskar range. The Indus River (Urdu: Sindh; Sindhi: Sindh; Sanskrit and Hindi: à¤¸à¤¿à¤¨à¥à¤§à¥ ; Persian: ØÙ†Ø¯Ùˆ ; Pashto: Ù‘Ø¢Ø¨Ø§Ø³Ù†Father of Rivers; Tibetan: Lion River; Chinese: YÃ¬ndÃ¹; Greek: Î™Î½Î´Î¿Ï…Ï‚ Indus) is the longest and most important river in Pakistan and one of the most important rivers on the Indian subcontinent and has given the country India its... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

These topographical features explain why access to Zanskar is difficult from all sides. Communication with the neighbouring Himalayan areas is maintained across mountain passes or along the Zanskar river when frozen. The easiest approach leads from Kargil through the Suru valley and over the Pensi La. It is along this track that in 1979 the first and only road in Zanskar was built to connect Padum with the main road from Srinagar into Ladakh. One of the first Tibetologists to spend an extended period in the region was Alexander Csoma de Koros, who spent over a year living in the region in 1823. After being integrated into the newly formed state of India in 1947, Zanskar and the neighboring region of Ladakh were both declared restricted areas and only opened to foreigners only in 1974. Kargil was a part of Gilgit-Baltistan before 1947, but now is a town in the Indian-controlled Kashmir. ... Map of the Ladakh region with Suru Valley in the west The Suru valley is a valley in the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir, which is drained by the Suru river, a tributary of the Indus river. ... Also: 1979 by Smashing Pumpkins. ... SÃ¡ndor KÅ‘rÃ¶si Csoma, also known as Alexander Csoma de KÅ‘rÃ¶s, born Csoma SÃ¡ndor (March 27, 1784[2] - April 11, 1842), was a Hungarian philologist and orientologist, author of the first Tibetan-English dictionary and grammar book. ...

Flora and fauna

Much of Zanskar's vegetation is found in the lower reaches of the valleys, and consists of alpine and tundra species. Most impressive are the meadows covered with thousands of edelweiss. Crops including barley, lentils, and potatoes are grown by farmers at the lower elevations, as well as apricot trees. Domesticated animals such as the yak, dzo, sheep, horse, and dog are found in the region. Binomial name Leontopodium alpinum Cass. ... For other uses, see Yak (disambiguation). ... A Dzo is a male hybrid of a yak and a domesticated cow. ...

Among the wildlife that can be found in Zanskar are the marmot, bear, wolf, snow leopard, kiang, bharal, alpine Ibex, wild sheep and goats, and the lammergeier. Species See text. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Wolf Wolf Man Mount Wolf Wolf Prizes Wolf Spider Wolf 424 Wolf 359 Wolf Point Wolf-herring Frank Wolf Friedrich Wolf Friedrich August Wolf Hugo Wolf Johannes Wolf Julius Wolf Max Franz Joseph Cornelius Wolf Maximilian Wolf Rudolf Wolf Thomas Wolf As Name Wolf Breidenbach Wolf Hirshorn Other The call... Binomial name Schreber, 1775 Range map Synonyms Panthera uncia The Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia[1] or Panthera uncia[3]), sometimes known as the Ounce, is a large cat native to the mountain ranges of central and southern Asia. ... Binomial name Equus kiang , The Kiang (Equus kiang) is a large mammal belonging to the horse family. ... Binomial name Pseudois nayaur Hodgson, 1833 The bharal or Himalayan blue sheep is a caprid found in the high Himalayas of Nepal, Tibet, China, throughout Northern Pakistan and Kashmir region. ... Species Capra ibex Capra nubiana Capra pyrenaica Capra sibirica Capra walie An ibex, also called steinbock, is a type of wild mountain goat with large recurved horns that are transversely ridged in front. ... Binomial name Gypaetus barbatus (Linnaeus, 1758) The Lammergeier or Bearded Vulture, Gypaetus barbatus, is an Old World vulture, the only member of the genus Gypaetus. ...

Climate

Zanskar is a high altitude semi-desert lying on the Northern flank of the Great Himalayan Range. This mountain range acts as a climatic barrier protecting Ladakh and Zanskar from most of the monsoon, resulting in a pleasantly warm and dry climate in the summer. Rain and snowfall during this period are scarce, although recent decades have shown a trend towards increasing precipitation. Several water-driven mills were built during ancient periods of drought at a great distance from the villages, but have been abandoned because running water is now available nearer to the settlements. Zanskari houses, though otherwise well built, are not adapted to the recently increasing rainfall, as their roofs leak, catching their surprised inhabitants unprepared. Most of the precipitation occurs as snowfall during the harsh and extremely long winter period. These winter snowfalls are of vital importance, since they feed the glaciers which melt in the summer and provide most of the irrigation water.

Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 598 pixelsFull resolution (1024 Ã— 766 pixel, file size: 142 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) I, the copyright holder of this work, hereby release it into the public domain. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 598 pixelsFull resolution (1024 Ã— 766 pixel, file size: 142 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) I, the copyright holder of this work, hereby release it into the public domain. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 598 pixelsFull resolution (1024 Ã— 766 pixel, file size: 205 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) I, the copyright holder of this work, hereby release it into the public domain. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 598 pixelsFull resolution (1024 Ã— 766 pixel, file size: 205 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) I, the copyright holder of this work, hereby release it into the public domain. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 598 pixelsFull resolution (1024 Ã— 766 pixel, file size: 198 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Village guy in Zanskar Valley I, the copyright holder of this work, hereby release it into the public domain. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 598 pixelsFull resolution (1024 Ã— 766 pixel, file size: 198 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Village guy in Zanskar Valley I, the copyright holder of this work, hereby release it into the public domain. ...

Population

Zanskar's population is small, the April 2006 medical census records a population of 13,849 people. The medical census is the most accurate indicator of population as it collects birth, death, and census information from Zangskar's 22 medical aid centers. Roughly 95% of the inhabitants practice Tibetan Buddhism, while the remainder are Sunni Muslims, whose ancestors settled in Padum and its environs in the 19th century. The majority of Zanskaris are of mixed Tibetan and Indo-European origins; notably Dard and Mon. The latter are in fact ethnically Dard, but "Mon" is used in order to distinguish them from later Dard settlers. The Tibetan people are a people indigenous to Tibet and surrounding areas stretching from Central Asia in the West to Myanmar and China in the East. ... This article needs cleanup. ...

The population lives mainly in scattered small villages, the largest being the capital Padum, with nearly 700 inhabitants. Most of the villages are located in the valleys of the Zanskar river and its two main tributaries. Given the isolation of this region, the inhabitants tend towards self-sufficiency, and until recently lived in almost complete autarky. External trade has, however, always been necessary for the acquisition of goods such as tools, jewellery, or religious artefacts. Padum (also spelt Padam) is the largest town and adminstrative centre of Zanskar. ... An autarky is an economy that limits trade with the outside world, or an ecosystem not affected by influences from the outside, and relies entirely on its own resources. ... A modern hammer is directly descended from ancient hand tools A tool or device is a piece of equipment which typically provides a mechanical advantage in accomplishing a physical task, or provides an ability that is not naturally available to the user of a tool. ... Amber jewellery in the form of pendants Jewellery (also spelled jewelry, see spelling differences) is a personal ornament, such as a necklace, ring, or bracelet, made from jewels, precious metals or other substance. ... A cultural artifact is an man-made object which gives information about the culture of its creator and users. ...

The Zanskaris' main occupations are cattle-rearing and farming of land that they almost always own. Cultivable land is scarce, and restricted to alluvial fans and terraces, cultivated fields being rarely found above an altitude of 4,000 metres. The Zanskaris have developed a system of intensive arable agriculture and complex irrigation to produce enough food in these conditions. The scarcity of cultivable land has also resulted in a tendency towards a stable, zero-growth population. An efficient birth-control system in Zanskar has historically been achieved by the common practice of polyandrous marriage, in which several brothers are married to the same wife, and the widespread adoption of a celibate religious life. A high (natural) infant mortality rate also contributes to the maintenance of population stability. In social anthropology and sociobiology, polyandry (Greek: poly- many, andros- man) means a female forming a sexual union with more than one male. ...

Livestock

Livestock, and especially the yak, is of paramount importance in Zanskar. Yaks are used to plough the land, to thresh the grain, to carry heavy loads (up to 200 kilograms), and their dung not only serves as fertiliser but is also the only heating fuel available in the region. They are a vital source of milk and sometimes, but rarely, of meat. The yak's fur is used to make clothes, carpets, ropes, and bed covers. For other uses, see Yak (disambiguation). ... The international prototype, made of platinum-iridium, which is kept at the BIPM under conditions specified by the 1st CGPM in 1889. ...

History

The first traces of human activity in Zanskar seem to go back as far as the Bronze Age. Petroglyphs attributed to that period suggest that their creators were hunters on the steppes of central Asia, living between Kazakhstan and China. It is suspected that an Indo-European population known as the Mon might then have lived in this region, before mixing with or being replaced by the next settlers, the Dards. Early Buddhism coming from Kashmir spread its influence in Zanskar, possibly as early as 200 BCE. The earliest monuments date from the Kushan period. After this eastward propagation of Buddhism, Zanskar and a large part of the Western Himalaya were overrun in the 7th century by the Tibetans, who imposed their then animistic Bön religion. The Bronze Age is a period in a civilizations development when the most advanced metalworking has developed the techniques of smelting copper from natural outcroppings and alloys it to cast bronze. ... Petroglyphs on Newspaper Rock State Historic Monument, southern Utah, USA Petroglyphs are images created by removing part of a rock surfaces by incising, pecking, carving, and abrading. ... The Mon are an ethnic group in Southeast Asia. ... (Redirected from 200 BCE) Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC Years: 205 BC 204 BC 203 BC 202 BC 201 BC - 200 BC... Boundary of the Kushan empire, c. ... The 7th century is the period from 601 - 700 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian Era. ... BÃ¶n[1] (Tibetan: à½–à½¼à½“à¼‹; Wylie: bon; Lhasa dialect IPA: [) is the oldest spiritual tradition of Tibet. ...

Buddhism regained its influence over Zanskar in the 8th century when Tibet was also converted to this religion. Between the 10th and 11th centuries, two Royal Houses were founded in Zanskar, and the monasteries of Karsha and Phugtal (see picture) were built. Until the 15th century Zanskar existed as a more or less independent Buddhist Kingdom ruled by between two and four related royal families. Since the 15th century, Zanskar has been subordinate to Ladakh, sharing its fortunes and misfortunes. In 1822 a coalition of Kulu, Lahoul, and Kinnaur invaded Zanskar, plundering the country and destroying the Royal palace at Padum. (7th century — 8th century — 9th century — other centuries) Events The Iberian peninsula is taken by Arab and Berber Muslims, thus ending the Visigothic rule, and starting almost 8 centuries of Muslim presence there. ... This article is about historical/cultural Tibet. ... As a means of recording the passage of time, the 10th century was that century which lasted from 901 to 1000. ... As a means of recording the passage of time, the 11th century was that century which lasted from 1001 to 1100. ... (14th century - 15th century - 16th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 15th century was that century which lasted from 1401 to 1500. ... 1822 (MDCCCXXII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Thursday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ...

In the mid-20th century, border conflicts between India, Pakistan, and China caused Ladakh and Zanskar to be closed to foreigners. During these wars Ladakh lost two thirds of its original territory, losing Baltistan to Pakistan and the Aksai Chin to China. Ladakh and Zanskar, despite a tumultuous history of internal wars and external aggressions, have never lost their cultural and religious heritage since the 8th century. Thanks to its adherence to the Indian Union, this is also one of the rare regions in the Himalaya where traditional Tibetan culture, society, and buildings survived the Chinese Cultural Revolution. In the last twenty years, the opening of a road and the massive influx of tourists and researchers have brought many changes to the traditional social organisation of Zanskar. In 2007 the valley suffered its third year of a desert locust infestation with many villages losing their crops. The response of the monasteries was to carry out Puja ( prayer ) to get rid of them whilst the government was advocating the use of insectisides which the Buddhists were reluctant to use , but in some cases were forced to try with as yet undocumented success. (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999... Baltistan (Urdu: Ø¨Ù„ØªØ³ØªØ§Ù†) , also known as Baltiyul in the Balti language, is a region to the north of Kashmir, bordering the Chinese region of Xinjiang. ... China - India Western border showing Aksai Chin Aksai Chin (Simplified Chinese: , Traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: Ä€kÃ¨sÃ iqÄ«n, Hindi: à¤…à¤•à¤¸à¤¾à¤ˆ à¤šà¤¿à¤¨) is a region located at the junction of the Peoples Republic of China, Pakistan, and India. ... (7th century — 8th century — 9th century — other centuries) Events The Iberian peninsula is taken by Arab and Berber Muslims, thus ending the Visigothic rule, and starting almost 8 centuries of Muslim presence there. ... The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution [1] in the Peoples Republic of China was a struggle for power within the Communist Party of China that manifested into wide-scale social, political, and economic chaos, which grew to include large sections of Chinese society and eventually brought the entire country to...

Etymology

Zanskar appears as “Zangskar” mostly in academic studies in social sciences (anthropology, gender studies). Older geographical accounts and maps may use the alternate spelling "Zaskar". An etymological study (Snellgrove and Skorupsky, 1980) of the name reveals that its origin might refer to the natural occurrence of copper in this region, the Tibetan word for which is “Zangs”. The second syllable however seems to be more challenging as it has various meanings: “Zangs-dkar” (white copper), “Zangs-mkhar” (copper palace), or “Zangs-sKar” (copper star). Crook (1994) partly shares this interpretation but suggests that the origin of this name might also be “Zan-mKhar” (food palace), because the staple food crops are so abundant in an otherwise rather arid region. Anthropology (from Greek: á¼€Î½Î¸ÏÏ‰Ï€Î¿Ï‚, anthropos, human being; and Î»ÏŒÎ³Î¿Ï‚, logos, knowledge) is the study of humanity. ... Gender studies is a theoretical work in the social sciences or humanities that focuses on issues of sex and gender in language and society, and often addresses related issues including racial and ethnic oppression, postcolonial societies, and globalization. ... For other uses, see Copper (disambiguation). ...

Some of the religious scholars of the district, also cited by Snellgrove and Skorupsky (1980) and Crook (1994), held that it was originally “bZang-dKar”, meaning good (or beautiful) and white. “Good” would refer to the triangular shape of the Padum plain, the triangle being the symbol of Dharma and religion; “white” would refer to the simplicity, goodness, and religious inclinations of the Zanskaris. Thus, even if etymologically it would be more correct to use “Zangskar”, the most frequently found spelling for this region is undoubtedly “Zanskar”. For other uses, see Dharma (disambiguation). ...

Tourism

Zanskar is extremely difficult to reach for tourists between November and May, because of the coldness and the heavy snowfall. Only very well-prepared visitors should try to attempt this, and then only with a knowledgeable Zanskari guide. In February the Zanskar river freezes over and it is possible to walk all the way to the village of Zangla from Ladakh - this is known as the " Chaddar" which translates as blanket. in winter there are many religious festivals as the Zanskari monasteries have not shifted all of their celebrations to the summer under pressure from tourism. In 2007 the pass to Zanskar ( Pensi La ) opened 3 weeks earlier than usual and it was possible to visit Bardan monastic festival in early June. However, one can visit all of Zanskar between June and October. Trekking is the best method to gain full access to Zanskar, although one may hire a jeep or take a bus to drive from Kargil to Padum over the Pensi-La mountain pass.

Tourism is probably the major disruption that Zanskar has experienced during recent times. The opening of this region to foreigners has brought benefits such as the financing of schools and the restoration of monasteries and roads, but has also taken its toll on this fragile mountain environment and its population. Not only do the campsites along the trekking routes look more and more like junkyards at the end of the tourist season, but the local population has sometimes developed a questionable attitude towards visitors, involving begging, and very occasionally stealing.

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