This article is part of the series: Territorial changes of Poland History of Poland Geography of Poland Borders of Poland
World War I
Greater Poland Uprising (1918–1919)
Treaty of Versailles
Silesian uprisings
Polish Corridor
World War II
Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany
Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union
Tehran Conference
Yalta Conference
Potsdam Conference
Post World War II
Territorial changes of Poland after World War II
Treaty of Zgorzelec
Treaty of Warsaw
Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany
Lines
Curzon Line
Oder-Neisse line
Areas
Eastern Borderlands
Kresy Zachodnie
Recovered Territories
Former eastern territories of Germany
Zaolzie
See also
Territorial changes of Germany

Zaolzie (Czech: Zaolší (Zaolží), Polish: Zaolzie, Śląsk zaolziański, literally: Trans-Olza River Silesia) was an area disputed between Poland and Czechoslovakia, west of Cieszyn. The term "Zaolzie" is used predominantly in Poland (literally meaning "lands beyond the Olza River") and also commonly by the Polish minority living on this territory. In Czech it is more frequently referred to with the term České Těšínsko/Českotěšínsko or by the neutral Těšínsko and Těšínské Slezsko (meaning Cieszyn Silesia). Main article: History of Poland In the period following its emergence in the 10th century, the Polish nation was led by a series of strong rulers who converted the Poles to Christianity, created a strong Central European state and integrated Poland into European culture. ... Image File history File links Polska_map_blank. ... Over the past millennium, the territory ruled by Poland has shifted and varied greatly. ... Administrative map of Poland Shaded relief map of Poland, 2000 Satellite photo of Poland taken from Landsat7 Topography Hypsometry Poland is a country in Central Europe, east of Germany. ... Kraków Katowice WrocÅ‚aw Łódź PoznaÅ„ Bydgoszcz Lublin BiaÅ‚ystok GdaÅ„sk Szczecin Warsaw Baltic Sea Tatra Sudetes Russia Lithuania Belarus Ukraine Slovakia Czech Republic Ger. ... Soldiers of the Greater Polish Army The Greater Poland Uprising of 1918–1919, or Wielkopolska Uprising of 1918–1919 (Polish: powstanie wielkopolskie 1918–19 roku; German: Großpolnischer Aufstand) or Posnanian War was a military insurrection of Poles in the Greater Poland (also called the Grand Duchy of PoznaÅ„ or... The Treaty of Versailles (1919) was the peace treaty which officially ended World War I between the Allied and Associated Powers and Germany. ... The Silesian Uprisings (Polish: Powstania Å›lÄ…skie) was a series of three military insurections (1919-1921) of the Polish people in the Upper Silesia region against the German/Prussian forces in order to force them out the region and join it with Poland, that regained her independence after the World... A Polish map showing the territory known as the Polish Corridor The Polish Corridor was the name given to a strip of territory which was transferred from Germany to Poland by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. ... Reichsgau and General Governement in 1941 At the beginning of World War II, significant Polish areas were annexed by Nazi Germany. ... Under the terms of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, adjusted by agreement on 28 September 1939, the Soviet Union annexed all Polish territory east of the line of the rivers Pisa, Narew, Western Bug, and San, except for Wilno Voivodship with its capital Wilno (Vilnius), which was given to Lithuania, and... Image:Teheran Conference, 1943. ... The Big Three at the Yalta Conference, Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin. ... Harry S. Truman and Joseph Stalin meeting at the Potsdam Conference on July 18, 1945. ... Territorial changes of Poland after World War II have been very extensive. ... The Treaty of Zgorzelec or the Treaty between the Republic of Poland and the German Democratic Republic concerning the demarcation of the established and existing Polish-German state border was signed in Zgorzelec, Lower Silesia, Poland on July 6, 1950 by the prime ministers Józef Cyrankiewicz of Poland and... The Treaty of Warsaw is a treaty between West Germany and the Peoples Republic of Poland. ... The Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany is the final peace treaty negotiated between the Federal Republic of Germany, the German Democratic Republic, and the Four Powers which occupied Germany at the end of World War II in Europe: France, the United Kingdom, the United States and... The Curzon Line was a demarcation line proposed in 1919 by the British Foreign Secretary, Lord Curzon of Kedleston, as a possible armistice line between Poland, to the west, and Soviet Russia to the east, during the Polish-Soviet War of 1919–20. ... The Oder-Neisse line (German: , Polish: ) marked the border between German Democratic Republic and Poland between 1950 and 1990. ... Polish voivodeships 1922-1939. ... Kresy Zachodnie - (Polish: Western Borderlines) - term used by Poles, mostly in historical context, to refer to western parts of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, that after Partitions of Poland were annexed by Prussia. ... NOTE: Although the terms Recovered Territories, or Regained Territories have clear meanings in Poland and Polish historiography, they are not accepted terms or concepts outside of Poland, especially in Germany and the other German-speaking countries. ... Former eastern territories of Germany (German: ehemalige deutsche Ostgebiete) describes collectively those provinces or regions east of the Oder-Neisse line which were internationally recognised as part of the territory of Germany after the formation of the German Empire in 1871. ... // Part of the motivation behind the territorial changes are based on events in the history of Germany and Europe, especially Eastern Europe. ... Olza (Czech Olše, German Olsa) is a river in Central Europe, right tributary of Oder. ... Divided city. ... Cieszyn Silesia (Polish: ÅšlÄ…sk CieszyÅ„ski, Czech: Těšínské Slezsko, German: Teschener Schlesien) is a historical region in south-eastern Silesia, between the Vistula and Oder rivers. ...

Zaolzie was made up of the former districts of Těšín and Fryštát and since the 1960 reform of administrative divisions it has been made up of Karviná District and the eastern part of Frýdek-Místek District. It is de facto part of the western region of Cieszyn Silesia. Town square in FryÅ¡tát FryÅ¡tát (Polish: , German: ) is a town in the Moravian-Silesian Region of the Czech Republic, now administratively a part of the city of Karviná. Until 1948 it was a separate town. ... Karviná District (Czech: , Polish: ) is a district (okres) within the Moravian-Silesian Region of the Czech Republic. ... Frýdek-Místek District (Czech: , Polish: ) is a district (okres) within the Moravian-Silesian Region of the Czech Republic. ... Cieszyn Silesia (Polish: ÅšlÄ…sk CieszyÅ„ski, Czech: Těšínské Slezsko, German: Teschener Schlesien) is a historical region in south-eastern Silesia, between the Vistula and Oder rivers. ...

Historically, the largest ethnic group inhabiting this area were the Poles.^[1] Under Austrian rule, the Cieszyn area was divided into four districts. One of them, Friedeck, had a mostly Czech population, the other three were mostly inhabited by Poles. ^[2] During the 19th century the number of Germans grew. After decline at the end of the 19th century,^[3] at the beginning of the 20th century and later from 1920 to 1938, the Czech population grew significantly (mainly as a result of immigration and the assimilation of locals) and Poles became a minority, which they are to this day. Another significant ethnic group were the Jews, but almost the entire Jewish population was exterminated during World War II. Location of Frýdek-Místek in the Czech Republic Frýdek-Místek is a city in Moravian-Silesian Region of the Czech Republic. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000...

History

Map of Zaolzie with territorial changes

Initially a part of Poland, from 1339 the area belonged to Czech Silesia. Upon the death of its last ruler from the Polish Piast dynasty in 1653, it passed to the Habsburgs together with the rest of the Duchy of Cieszyn.^[4] Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 432 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1167 × 1620 pixel, file size: 343 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg)Map of Zaolzie, used in several books without restrictions description: This file is in the public domain, because it is no longer copyrighted due to its... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 432 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1167 × 1620 pixel, file size: 343 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg)Map of Zaolzie, used in several books without restrictions description: This file is in the public domain, because it is no longer copyrighted due to its... Events Emperor Go-Murakami ascends to the throne of Japan Kashmir is conquered by the muslims Births July 23 - King Louis I of Naples (d. ... ... The Piast dynasty is a line of Kings and dukes that ruled Poland from its beginnings as an independent state up to 1370. ... // For other uses, see Dynasty (disambiguation). ... Events February 2 - New Amsterdam (later renamed New York City) is incorporated. ... Habsburg (sometimes spelled Hapsburg, but never so in official use) was one of the major ruling houses of Europe. ... Duchy of Cieszyn (Teschen) (Polish Księstwo cieszyńskie) was an independent duchy in the area of Cieszyn Silesia. ...

From 1848 to the end of the 19th century, local Polish and Czech people co-operated, united against the Germanization tendencies of the Austrian Empire and later of Austria-Hungary.^[5] At the end of the century, ethnic tensions appeared as the area's economic significance grew. This growth caused an immigration wave from Galicia. About 60,000 people arrived between 1880 and 1910.^[6] The new immigrants were Polish and poor, about half of them being illiterate. They worked in coal mining and metallurgy. For these people the most important factor was material well-being; they cared little about the homeland from which they had fled. Almost all of them assimilated into the Czech population.^[7] Many of them settled in Ostrava (west of the ethnic border), as the heavy industry was spread in the whole western part of Cieszyn Silesia. Even today, etnographers traced about 25 thousands Polish surnames in Ostrava (about 8% of the population).^[8] Czech population (settled mainly in the northern part of the area, Oderberg, Orlau etc.) numerically declined at the end of the 19th century,^[3] assimilating into the prevalent Polish population.^{[citation needed]} This process shifted with the industrial boom in the area. Year 1848 (MDCCCXLVIII) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a leap year starting on Monday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Anthem: Volkshymne (Peoples Anthem) Capital Vienna Language(s) German Religion Roman Catholic Government Monarchy History  - Established 1804  - Disestablished 1867 Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy The Crown of the Austrian Emperor The Austrian Empire (German: ) was an empire centred on what is modern day Austria that officially lasted from 1804... Austria-Hungary, also known as the Dual monarchy (or: the k. ... Coat-of-arms of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria Galicia (Ukrainian: , Polish: , Russian: , German: , Hungarian: , Czech: , Yiddish: , Turkish: , Romanian: ) is an historical region in East Central Europe, currently divided between Poland and Ukraine. ... Cultural assimilation (often called merely assimilation) is an intense process of consistent integration whereby members of an ethno-cultural group, typically immigrants, or other minority groups, are absorbed into an established, generally larger community. ... Nickname: Steel Heart of the Republic Coordinates: Country Czech Republic Region Moravian-Silesian District Ostrava Founded 1267  - Mayor Petr Kajnar (ÄŒSSD) Area    - City 214 km²  (82. ... Bohumín (-Czech, German: Oderberg, Polish: Bogumin) is a city in the Czech Republic near the border with Poland. ... Location of Orlová in the Czech Republic Coordinates: Country Czech Republic Region Moravian-Silesian District Karviná First mentioned 1223 Government  - Mayor Jiří Michalík (ÄŒSSD) Area  - City 24. ...

Decision time (1918-1920)

Originally, both national councils (the Polish Rada Narodowa Księstwa Cieszyńskiego in its declaration "Ludu śląski!" of 30 October 1918 and the Czech Národní výbor pro Slezsko in its declaration of 1 November 1918) claimed the whole Cieszyn Silesia for themselves.^[9] Border conflicts between Poland and Czechoslovakia began in 1918 between the newly independent Poland (Second Polish Republic) and Czechoslovakia. ...

On 31 October 1918, in the wake of World War I and the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, the majority of the area was taken over by local Polish authorities supported by armed forces.^[10] The interim agreement of 2 November 1918 reflected the inability of the two national councils to come to final delimitation.^[11] On 5 November 1918, the area was divided between Poland and Czechoslovakia by an interim agreement of two local self-government councils (Czech Národní výbor pro Slezsko and Polish Rada Narodowa Księstwa Cieszyńskiego).^[12] Before that, the majority of the area was taken over by Polish local authorities. In 1919 both councils were absorbed by the newly created and independent central governments in Prague and Warsaw. The former was not satisfied with this compromise and on 23 January 1919 invaded the area^[13][14] while Poland was engaged in its war against the West Ukrainian People's Republic and also with Bolshevist Russia. October 31 is the 304th day of the year (305th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 61 days remaining. ... 1918 (MCMXVIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. ... This article is becoming very long. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... November 5 is the 309th day of the year (310th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 56 days remaining. ... 1918 (MCMXVIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. ... Year 1919 (MCMXIX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar). ... Nickname: City of a Hundred Spires Motto: Praga Caput Rei publicae Location within the Czech Republic Coordinates: Country Czech Republic Region Capital City of Prague Founded 9th century Government  - Mayor Pavel Bém Area  - City 496 km²  (191. ... Motto: Contemnit procellas (It defies the storms) Semper invicta (Always invincible) Coordinates: Country Poland Voivodeship Masovia Powiat city county Gmina Warszawa Districts 18 boroughs City Rights turn of the 13th century Government  - Mayor Hanna Gronkiewicz-Waltz (PO) Area  - City 516. ... January 23 is the 23rd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1919 (MCMXIX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar). ... Orlęta, a 1926 painting by Wojciech Kossak The Polish-Ukrainian War of 1918 and 1919 was a conflict between the forces of Poland and Western-Ukrainian Peoples Republic for the control over the Eastern Galicia after the dissolution of Austria-Hungary. ... The West Ukrainian National Republic (Ukrainian: ) was a short-lived republic that existed in late 1918 and early 1919 in eastern Galicia, Bukovina and Transcarpathia and included the cities of Lviv, Kolomyya, and Stanislav. ... Combatants Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic Republic of Poland Ukrainian Peoples Republic Commanders Mikhail Tukhachevsky Semyon Budyonny Józef PiÅ‚sudski Edward Rydz-ÅšmigÅ‚y Strength 950,000 combatants 5,000,000 reserves 360,000 combatants 738,000 reserves Casualties Dead estimated at 100,000... Bolshevist Russia is a common term that refers to the Red side in the Russian government between the Bolsheviks October Revolution (November 7, 1917) and the constitution of the Soviet Union (December 30, 1922). ...

The reason for the Czech invasion in 1919 was primarily the organisation of elections to the Sejm (parliament) of Poland in the disputed area.^[15] The elections were to be held in the whole Cieszyn Silesia controlled by Poland on 26 January 1919. Czechs claimed that the polls must not be held in the disputed area as the delimitation is only interim and no sovereign rule should be executed there by any party. Czech demand was rejected by the Poles and, following the rejection, Czechs decided to solve the issue with force.^[16] Year 1919 (MCMXIX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar). ... The Sejm building in Warsaw. ...

Czech units were stopped near Skoczów and a cease-fire was signed on 3 February. The new Czechoslovakia claimed the area partly on historic and ethnic grounds, but especially on economic grounds.^[17] The area was important for the Czechs as the crucial railway line connecting Czech Silesia with Slovakia crossed the area (the Bohumín-Košice railway, which was one of only two railroads that linked the Czech provinces to Slovakia at that time).^[17] The area is also very rich in black coal. Many important coal mines, facilities and metallurgy factories are located there. The Polish side based its claim to the area on ethnic criteria: a majority of the area's population was Polish according to the last (1910) Austrian census.^[18] Skoczów is a town in southern Poland with 23,100 inhabitants (1995). ... An armistice is the effective end of a war, when the warring parties agree to stop fighting. ... ... Bohumín (-Czech, German: Oderberg, Polish: Bogumin) is a city in the Czech Republic near the border with Poland. ... Statue of KoÅ¡ices coat of arms St. ... Coal Coal (IPA: ) is a fossil fuel formed in swamp ecosystems where plant remains were saved by water and mud from oxidization and biodegradation. ... Wyoming coal mine Coal mining is the mining of coal. ... Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and of materials engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are called alloys. ...

In this very tense climate it was decided that a plebiscite would be held in the area asking people which country this territory should join. Plebiscite commissioners arrived there at the end of January 1920 and after analyzing the situation declared a state of emergency in the territory on 19 May 1920. The situation on the territory remained very tense. Mutual intimidation, acts of terror, beatings and even killings affected the area.^[19] A plebiscite could not be held in this atmosphere. On 10 July both sides renounced the idea of plebiscite and entrusted the Conference of Ambassadors with the decision.^[20] Eventually 58.1% of the area of Cieszyn Silesia and 67.9% of the population was taken over by Czechoslovakia on 28 July 1920 by a decision of the Spa Conference.^[20] This division practically created Zaolzie. A referendum (plural: referendums or referenda) or plebiscite is a direct vote in which an entire electorate is asked to either accept or reject a particular proposal. ... A state of emergency is a governmental declaration that may suspend certain normal functions of government, may work to alert citizens to alter their normal behaviors, or may order government agencies to implement emergency preparedness plans. ... July 28 is the 209th day (210th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar, with 156 days remaining. ... Year 1920 (MCMXX) was a leap year starting on Thursday. ... The Spa Conference was a meeting between the members of the Entente, and of Poland, Germany, and Czechoslovakia that took place in the town of Spa, Belgium between July 5, 1920 and July 16, 1920. ...

Richard M. Watt

Historian Richard M. Watt gives an account on the situation in 1918-1919. He writes that "On November 5, 1918, the Poles and the Czechs in the region disarmed the Austrian garrison (...) The Poles took over the areas that appeared to be theirs, just as the Czechs had assumed administration of theirs. Nobody objected to this friendly arrangement (...) Then came second thoughts in Prague. It was observed that under the agreement of November 5, the Poles controlled about a third of the duchy's coal mines. The Czechs realized that they had given away rather a lot (...) It was recognized that any takeover in Teschen would have to be accomplished in a manner acceptable by the victorius Allies (...), so the Czechs cooked up a tale that the Teschen area was becomning Bolshevik (...) The Czechs put together a substantial body of infantry - about 15,000 men - and on January 23, 1919, they invaded the Polish-held areas. To confuse the Poles, the Czechs recruited some Allied officers of Czech background and put these men in their respective wartime uniforms at the head of the invasion forces. After a little skirmishing, the tiny Polish defense force was nearly driven out.^[21] Nickname: City of a Hundred Spires Motto: Praga Caput Rei publicae Location within the Czech Republic Coordinates: Country Czech Republic Region Capital City of Prague Founded 9th century Government  - Mayor Pavel Bém Area  - City 496 km²  (191. ... Bolshevik Party Meeting. ...

According to Watt, the Allies were not fooled by this, even Lloyd George (who as a rule was not appreciative of the Poles), was in this case on Polish side (on April 16, 1919, Lloyd George complained to the Commons: "How many members have ever heard of Teschen? I do not mind saying that I have not" .^[22]). During 1919 the matter of Cieszyn Silesia was studied by the Allies, they wanted to draw a just frontier line. Both Poles and Czechs were invited to Paris to present their views. The Poles based their claims on etnographical reasons and the Czechs had a more difficult task. They stated that they needed the Teschen coal in order to influence the actions of Austria and Hungary, whose capitals were fueled by coal from the duchy. Also, the Czechs held that the large Polish population in Teschen should not influence its partition. They claimed that these Poles were only relatively recent arrivals in a territory that was historically Bohemian. ^[23] David Lloyd George, 1st Earl Lloyd George of Dwyfor, OM (January 17, 1863–March 26, 1945) was a British statesman and the last Liberal to be Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. ...

The Allies finally decided that the Czechs should get 60 percent of the coal fields, and the Poles were to get most of the people and the stategic rail line. Then something unusual happened - Czech envoy Edvard Beneš proposed a plebiscite. The Allies were shocked, arguing that the Czechs were bound to lose it. However, Beneš was insistent and a plebiscite was announced in September 1919. As it turned out, Beneš knew what he was doing. A plebiscite would take some time to set up, and a lot could happen in that time -particularly when a nation's affairs were conducted as cleverly as were Czechoslovakia's. ^[24] Edvard BeneÅ¡ Edvard BeneÅ¡ with wife 1921, autochrome portrait by Josef JindÅ™ich Å echtl Edvard BeneÅ¡ (May 28, 1884 - September 3, 1948) was a leader of the Czechoslovak independence movement and the second President of Czechoslovakia. ...

In July 1920, while the Allies held a meeting in Spa in Belgium, Polish Prime Minister Władysław Grabski came there asking for help in Poland's war with Soviet Russia (see: Polish-Soviet War). It was obvious that a country so desperate as Poland would accept any dictate of the Allies. And this was the moment Beneš had been waiting for.^[25] Spa is a town in Belgium, and the term Spa is associated with water treatment which is also known as balneotherapy, spa towns or resorts offering such treatment, or the medication or equipment for such treatment. ... WÅ‚adysÅ‚aw Grabski WÅ‚adysÅ‚aw Grabski (July 7, 1874 - March 3, 1938) was a Polish politician, economist and Prime Minister of Poland. ... Soviet Russia is sometimes used as a somewhat sloppy synonym to the Soviet Union — although the term Soviet Russia sometimes refers to Bolshevist Russia from the October Revolution in 1917 to 1922 (Although Russian communists officially formed RSFSR in 1918). ... Combatants Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic Republic of Poland Ukrainian Peoples Republic Commanders Mikhail Tukhachevsky Semyon Budyonny Józef PiÅ‚sudski Edward Rydz-ÅšmigÅ‚y Strength 950,000 combatants 5,000,000 reserves 360,000 combatants 738,000 reserves Casualties Dead estimated at 100,000...

As Watt writes, "Over the dinner table, Beneš convinced the British and French that the plebiscite should not be held and that the Allies should simply impose their own decision in the Teschen matter. More than that, Beneš persuaded the French and the British to draw a frontier line that gave Czechoslovakia most of the territory of Teschen, the vital railroad and all the important coal fields. With this frontier, 139,000 Poles were to be left in Czech territory, whereas only 2,000 Czechs were left on the Polish side". ^[26]

"The next morning Beneš visited the Polish delegation at Spa. By giving the impression that the Czechs would accept a settlement favorable to the Poles without a plebiscite, Beneš got the Poles to sign an agreement that Poland would abide by any Allied decision regarding Teschen. The Poles, of course, had no way of knowing that Beneš had already persuaded the Allies to make a decision on Teschen. After a brief interval, to make it appear that due deliberation had taken place, the Allied Council of Ambassadors in Paris imposed its "decision". Only then did it dawn on the Poles that at Spa they had signed a blank check. To them, Beneš' stunning triumph was not diplomacy, it was a swindle (...) As Polish Prime Minister Wincenty Witos warned: "The Polish nation has received a blow which will play an important role in our relations with the Czechoslovak Republic. The decision of the Council of Ambassadors has given the Czechs a piece of Polish land containing a population which is mostly Polish... The decision has caused a rift between these two nations which are ordinarily politically and economically united" (...). ^[27] Wincenty Witos Wincenty Witos (1874 - 1945) was an actvist of the Polish Peasant Party (PSL) from 1895 and leader of Piast faction from 1913. ...

The Cieszyn Silesia affair was indeed a tragedy. It poisoned relations between two nations that had every reason to act in concert. The Poles could never forget how they had been duped. They swore that the day would come when the Czechs would find themselves in the same desperate position as the Poles had been in Spa. Then, there would be a different end to the story of Teschen. And eventually that day did come. ^[28]

Victor S. Mamatey

A different account on the situation in 1918-1919 is given by historian Victor S. Mamatey. He writes that "When the French government recognised Czechoslovakia's right to the "boundaries of Bohemia, Moravia, and Austrian Silesia" in its note to Austria of December 19, the Czechoslovak government thought it had French support for its claim to Těšín. However, the French government gave that assurance only against German-Austrian claims, not Polish. It viewed both Czechoslovakia and Poland as potential allies against Germany, but regarded Poland as more important than Czechoslovakia. It refused to back the Czechoslovak claim. ... [After the Czech invasion the Poles] brought the matter before the peace conference that had opened in Paris on January 18. On January 29, the Council of Ten summoned Beneš and the Polish delegate Roman Dmowski to explain the dispute, and on February 1 obliged them to sign an agreement redividing the area pending its final disposition by the peace conference. Czechoslovakia thus failed to gain her objective in Těšín.".^[29] Victor Samuel Mamatey (February 2, 1917 - January 18, 2007) was an American professor to history. ... Flag of Bohemia Bohemia (Czech: ; German: ) is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western and middle thirds of the Czech Republic. ... Flag of Moravia Moravia (Czech and Slovak: Morava; German: ; Hungarian: ; Polish: ) is a historical region in the east of the Czech Republic. ... City flag City coat of arms Motto: Fluctuat nec mergitur (Latin: Tossed by the waves, she does not sink) Paris Eiffel tower as seen from the esplanade du Trocadéro. ... Edvard BeneÅ¡ Edvard BeneÅ¡ with wife 1921, autochrome portrait by Josef JindÅ™ich Å echtl Edvard BeneÅ¡ (May 28, 1884 - September 3, 1948) was a leader of the Czechoslovak independence movement and the second President of Czechoslovakia. ... Roman Dmowski Roman Dmowski (b. ...

With respect to the arbitration decision itself, Mamatey writes that "On March 25, to expedite the work of the peace conference, the Council of Ten was divided into the Council of Four (The "Big Four") and the Council of Five (the foreign ministers). Early in April the two councils considered and approved the recommendations of the Czechoslovak commission without a change - with the exception of Těšín, which they referred to Poland and Czechoslovakia to settle in bilateral negotiations. When the Polish-Czechoslovak negotiations failed, the Allied powers proposed plebiscites in the Těšín area and also in the border districts of Orava and Spiš in Slovakia to which the Poles had raised claims. In the end, however, no plebiscites were held. Instead, on July 28, 1920 ... the Conference of Ambassadors divided each of the three disputed areas between Poland and Czechoslovakia, leaving them both somewhat unhappy.".^[30] Victor Samuel Mamatey (February 2, 1917 - January 18, 2007) was an American professor to history. ... Orava is the name of: A historic administrative county (comitatus) of the Kingdom of Hungary (see Orava (county)) A river in Slovakia (see Orava (river) A castle in Slovakia (see Orava (castle)) A reservoir in Slovakia (see Orava (reservoir)) A village in Estonia (see Orava (village)) This is a disambiguation... SpiÅ¡ in Slovakia SpiÅ¡ (-Slovak; Latin: Scepusium, Polish: Spisz, German: , Hungarian: Szepesség) is a region in north-eastern Slovakia, with a very small area in south-eastern Poland. ...

Part of Czechoslovakia (1920-1938)

The local Polish population felt that Warsaw had betrayed them and they were not satisfied with the division of Cieszyn Silesia.^{[citation needed]} About 12,000 to 14,000 Poles emigrated to Poland by choice or forcibly.^[31] It is not quite clear how many Poles were in Zaolzie in Czechoslovakia. Estimates (depending mainly whether the Silesians are included as Poles or not)^[32] range from 110,000 to 140,000 people in 1921.^[33] The 1921 and 1930 census numbers are not accurate since nationality depended on self-declaration and many Poles filled in Czech nationality mainly as a result of fear of the new authorities and as compensation for some benefits.^{[citation needed]} Czechoslovak law guaranteed rights for national minorities but reality in Zaolzie was quite different.^{[citation needed]} Local Czech authorities made it more difficult for local Poles to obtain citizenship, while the process was expedited when the applicant pledged to declare Czech nationality and send his children to a Czech school.^[34] Newly-built Czech schools were often better supported and equipped, thus inducing some Poles to send their children there.^{[citation needed]} This and other factors contributed to the cultural assimilation of Poles and also to significant emigration to Poland. After few years, the heightened nationalism typical for the years around 1920 receded and local Poles increasingly co-operated with Czechs. Still, Czechization was supported by Prague, which did not follow certain laws related to language, legislative and organizational issues.^[35] One way or the other, increasingly local Poles thus assimilated into the Czech population. Girl in Upper Silesian dress 2006, Morgi (Mysłowice) 2006 Woman in Silesian dress from Cieszyn 1914 Silesians ( pol Ślązacy, ger Schlesier, śl. ... Year 1921 (MCMXXI) was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for full calendar). ... 1870 US Census for New York City A census is the process of obtaining information about every member of a population (not necessarily a human population). ... Cultural assimilation (often called merely assimilation) is an intense process of consistent integration whereby members of an ethno-cultural group, typically immigrants, or other minority groups, are absorbed into an established, generally larger community. ... Eugène Delacroixs Liberty Leading the People, symbolising French nationalism during the July Revolution. ...

Part of Poland (1938-1939)

A military band walks under a sign made by the Polish people of Karwina during the 1938 annexation of Zaolzie by Poland. The sign reads, "We've been waiting for you for 600 years".

Polish people from Czeski Cieszyn welcome Polish troops during the 1938 annexation of Zaolzie by Poland.

On 1 October 1938 the area was annexed by Poland following the Munich Conference.^[36] The Polish Army, commanded by General Władysław Bortnowski, annexed an area of 801.5 km² with a population of 227,399 people. Within the region originally demanded by Nazi Germany was the important railway junction city of Bohumin. The Poles regarded the city as of crucial importance to the area. Polish leader, Colonel Jozef Beck believed that he must act rapidly to forestall the German occupation of the city. At noon on September 30, Poland gave an ultimatum to the Czech government. It demanded the immediate evacuation of Czech troops and police and gave Prague time until noon the following day. At 11:45 A.M. on October 1 the Czech foreign ministry called the Polish ambassador in Prague and told him that Poland could have what it wanted. The Germans were delighted with this outcome. They were happy to give up a provincial rail center to Poland, it was a small sacrifice indeed. It spread the blame and confused the issue, Poland was accused of being an accomplice of Germany - a charge that Warsaw was hard put to deny. .^[37] Image File history File linksMetadata Zaolzie_karwina_1938. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Zaolzie_karwina_1938. ... Location of Karviná in the Czech Republic Coordinates: Country Czech Republic Region Moravian-Silesian District Karviná First mentioned 1268  - Mayor Tomáš Hanzel (ÄŒSSD) Area    - City 57. ... Image File history File linksMetadata No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File linksMetadata No higher resolution available. ... Český Těšín is a town in the northeastern Czech Republic, at the Olza river, in Moravian-Silesian Region. ... October 1 is the 274th day of the year (275th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1938 (MCMXXXVIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will take you to calendar). ... The Munich Agreement was an agreement regarding the Munich Crisis between the major powers of Europe after a conference held in Munich in Germany in 1938 and concluded on September 29. ... WÅ‚adysÅ‚aw Bortnowski (1891-1966) was a Polish military commander and one of the highest ranking generals of the Polish Army. ... Location of Bohumín in the Czech Republic Coordinates: Country Czech Republic Region Moravian-Silesian District Karviná First mentioned 1256 Government  - Mayor Petr Vícha Area  - City 31. ... Józef Beck Józef Beck ( October 4, 1894 - June 5, 1944) was a Polish statesman, diplomat, military officer, and close associate of Józef Piłsudski. ...

The Polish side argued that Poles in Zaolzie deserved the same rights as Germans in the Munich Agreement. The vast majority of the local Polish population enthusiastically welcomed the change, seeing it as a liberation and a form of historical justice.^[38] But they quickly changed their mood. The new Polish authorities appointed people from Poland to various key positions from which Czechs were fired.^[39] The Polish language became the sole official language.^{[citation needed]} Using Czech (or German) by Czechs (or Germans) in public was prohibited and Czechs and Germans were being forced to leave the annexed area.^[40] Rapid Polonization followed. Czech organizations were dismantled and their activity was prohibited.^[41] Czech education ceased to exist.^[42] About 35,000 Czechs emigrated to Czechoslovakia by choice or forcibly.^[43] The behaviour of the new Polish authorities was different but similar in nature to that of the Czech ones before 1938. Two political factions appeared: socialists (the opposition) and rightists (loyal to the new authorities). Leftist politicians and sympathizers were discriminated against and often fired from work.^[44] The Polish political system was artificially implemented in Zaolzie. Local Polish people continued to feel like second-class citizens and a majority of them were dissatisfied with the situation after October 1938.^[45] Zaolzie remained a part of Poland for only 11 months. For the annual global security meeting held in Munich, see Munich Conference on Security Policy Chamberlain holds the paper containing the resolution to commit to peaceful methods signed by both Hitler and himself on his return from Germany in September 1938. ... Polonization (Polish: ) is the assumption (complete or partial), of the Polish language or another real or supposed Polish attribute. ...

Richard M. Watt describes Polish capture of Teschen in these words: "Amid the general euphoria in Poland - the acquisition of Teschen was a very popular development - no one paid attention to the bitter comment of the Czech general who handed the region over to the incoming Poles. He predicted that it would not be long before the Poles would themselves be handing Teschen over to the Germans". .^[46]

Watt also writes that "The Polish 1938 ultimatum to Czechoslovakia and its acquisition of Teschen were gross tactical errors. Whatever justice there might have been to the Polish claim upon Teschen, its seizure in 1938 was an enormous mistake in terms of the damage done to Poland's reputation among the democratic powers of the world". .^[47] Teschen is the German name of a city at the Olza River that is currently divided into the separate towns of Cieszyn (Poland) and Český Těšín (Czech Republic). ...

World War II

On 1 September 1939 Zaolzie was annexed by Germany after it invaded Poland. During World War II Zaolzie was a part of Nazi Germany. During the war, strong Germanization was introduced by the authorities. The Jews were in the worst position, followed by the Poles.^[48] Poles received lower food rations, they were supposed to pay extra taxes, they were not allowed to enter theatres, cinemas, etc.^[48] Polish and Czech education ceased to exist, Polish organizations were dismantled and their activity was prohibited. The German authorities introduced terror into Zaolzie. The Nazis especially targeted the Polish intelligentsia, many of whom died during the war. Mass killings, executions, arrests, taking locals to forced labour and deportations to concentration camps all happened on a daily basis.^[48] The most notorious war crime was a murder of 36 villagers in and around Żywocice on 6 August 1944.^[49] This massacre is known as Tragedia Żywocicka (the Żywocice tragedy). The resistance movement, mostly comprised of Poles, was fairly strong in Zaolzie. Volkslists - a document in which a non-German citizen declared that he had some German ancestry by signing it; refusal to sign this document could lead to deportation to a concentration camp - were introduced. Local people who took them were later on enrolled in the Wehrmacht. Many local people with no German ancestry were also forced to take them. The World War II death toll in Zaolzie is estimated at about 6000 people: about 2500 Jews, 2000 other citizens (80% of them being Poles)^[50] and more than 1000 locals who died in the Wehrmacht (those who took the Volksliste).^[50] Also a few hundred Poles from Zaolzie were murdered by Russians in the Katyń massacre.^[51] Percentage-wise, Zaolzie suffered the worst human loss from the whole of Czechoslovakia–about 2.6% of the total population.^[50] September 1 is the 244th day of the year (245th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1939 (MCMXXXIX) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display full year calendar). ... Combatants Poland Germany, Soviet Union, Slovakia Commanders Edward Rydz-ÅšmigÅ‚y Fedor von Bock (Army Group North), Gerd von Rundstedt (Army Group South), Mikhail Kovalov (Belorussian Front), Semyon Timoshenko (Ukrainian Front), Ferdinand ÄŒatloÅ¡ (Field Army Bernolak) Strength 39 divisions, 16 brigades, 4,300 guns, 880 tanks, 400 aircraft Total: 950... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... Nazi Germany, or the Third Reich, commonly refers to Germany in the years 1933–1945, when it was under the firm control of the totalitarian and fascist ideology of the Nazi Party, with the Führer Adolf Hitler as dictator. ... Piles of bodies in a liberated Nazi concentration camp in Germany Prior to and during World War II, Nazi Germany maintained concentration camps (Konzentrationslager, abbreviated KZ or KL) throughout the territories it controlled. ... Životice (Polish: , German: ) is a village in Karviná District, Moravian-Silesian Region, Czech Republic. ... August 6 is the 218th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (219th in leap years), with 147 days remaining. ... 1944 (MCMXLIV) was a leap year starting on Saturday. ... A resistance movement is a group or collection of individual groups, dedicated to fighting an invader in an occupied country through either the use of physical force, or nonviolence. ... Volksdeutsche (ethnic Germans) is a historical term which arose in the early 20th century to apply for Germans living outside of the German Empire. ... Wehrmacht   (armed forces, literally defence force(s)) was the name of the armed forces of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945. ... Photo taken in 1943, during the Nazi German exhumations of the Polish dead from the Katyn forest sites. ...

Since 1945

Immediately after World War II, Zaolzie was returned to Czechoslovakia within its 1920 borders, although local Poles hoped it would again be given to Poland.^[52] The local Polish population again suffered discrimination, as many Czechs blamed them for the discrimination by the Polish authorities in 1938-1939.^[53] Polish organizations were banned, and Czech authorities conducted many arrests and firings from work.^[54] Situation had somehow improved when the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia took the power in February 1948. Polish properties stolen by the Germans during the war were never returned. Poland signed a treaty with Czechoslovakia in Warsaw on 13 June 1958 confirming the border as it existed on 1 January 1938. After the Communist takeover of power, industrial boom continued and many immigrants arrived to the area (mostly from the other parts of Czechoslovakia, mainly from Slovakia). Arrival of Slovaks significantly changed ethnical structure of the area. However, most of Slovak immigrants assimilated into the Czech majority in the course of time. Number of self-declared Slovaks is rapidly declining. Last Slovak elementary school was closed in Karviná several years ago. Zaolzie continued to be part of Czechoslovakia until the latter's dissolution in 1993, and since then has been part of the Czech Republic. Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... Year 1920 (MCMXX) was a leap year starting on Thursday. ... The Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, in Czech and in Slovak: Komunistická strana ÄŒeskoslovenska (KSÄŒ) was a political party in Czechoslovakia that existed between 1921 and 1992. ... 1948 (MCMXLVIII) was a leap year starting on Thursday (the link is to a full 1948 calendar). ... June 13 is the 164th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (165th in leap years), with 201 days remaining. ... Year 1958 (MCMLVIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... January 1 is the first day of the calendar year in both the Julian and Gregorian calendars. ... Year 1938 (MCMXXXVIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will take you to calendar). ... Location of Karviná in the Czech Republic Coordinates: Country Czech Republic Region Moravian-Silesian District Karviná First mentioned 1268  - Mayor Tomáš Hanzel (ÄŒSSD) Area    - City 57. ...

Significant Polish minority in Zaolzie still persist to date. Polish minority in the Czech Republic (Polish: , Czech: ) is a Polish national minority living mainly in Zaolzie territory. ...

Census data

Ethnic structure of Zaolzie based on census results:

Sources: Zahradnik 1992, 178-179. Siwek 1996, 31-38. Year 1880 (MDCCCLXXX) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar). ... 1890 (MDCCCXC) was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar). ... Year 1900 (MCM) was an exceptional common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar, but a leap year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar. ... 1910 (MCMX) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display calendar) of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Sunday of the 13-day slower Julian calendar. ... Year 1921 (MCMXXI) was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for full calendar). ... Year 1930 (MCMXXX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link is to a full 1930 calendar). ... 1939 (MCMXXXIX) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display full year calendar). ... 1950 (MCML) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will take you to calendar). ... 1961 (MCMLXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (the link is to a full 1961 calendar). ... 1970 (MCMLXX) was a common year starting on Thursday. ... 1980 (MCMLXXX) was a leap year starting on Tuesday. ... 1991 (MCMXCI) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

See also

• History of Cieszyn and Těšín

This article is a short history of the towns of Cieszyn and Cesky Tesin as well as the Duchy of Cieszyn. ...

Footnotes

Logo of Česká televizes ČT1 channel. ...

References

• Długajczyk, Edward (1993). Tajny front na granicy cieszyńskiej. Wywiad i dywersja w latach 1919-1939. Katowice: Śląsk. ISBN 83-85831-03-7. 
• Kovtun, Jiří (2005). Republika v nebezpečném světě; Éra prezidenta Masaryka 1918-1933. Praha: Torst; published in co-operation with Ministry of Culture of the Czech Republic. ISBN 80-7215-254-8. 
• Gabal, Ivan; and collective (1999). Etnické menšiny ve Střední Evropě. Praha: G plus G; supported by the Nadace rozvoje občanské společnosti of the European Commission. ISBN 80-86-103-23-4. 
• Gawrecká, Marie (2004). Československé Slezsko mezi světovými válkami 1918-1938. Opava: Silesian University in Ostrava;. ISBN 80-7248-233-5. 
• Mamatey, Victor S.; and Radomír Luža (1973). A history of the Czechoslovak Republic 1918-1948. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-05205-0. 
• Siwek, Tadeusz (1996). Česko-polská etnická hranice. Ostrava: Filozofická fakulta Ostravské univerzity. ISBN 80-7042-457-5. 
• Watts, Richard M. (1998). Bitter Glory. Poland and its fate 1918-1939.. New York: Hippocrene Books, 511. ISBN 0-7818-0673-9. 
• Zahradnik, Stanisław; and Marek Ryczkowski (1992). Korzenie Zaolzia. Warszawa - Praga - Trzyniec: PAI-press. 
• "Zaolzie". Nowa Encyklopedia Powszechna PWN VI. (1997). Warszawa: PWN. ISBN 83-01-11969-1. 

Nickname: City of a Hundred Spires Motto: Praga Caput Rei publicae Location within the Czech Republic Coordinates: Country Czech Republic Region Capital City of Prague Founded 9th century Government  - Mayor Pavel Bém Area  - City 496 km²  (191. ... Nickname: Steel Heart of the Republic Coordinates: Country Czech Republic Region Moravian-Silesian District Ostrava Founded 1267  - Mayor Petr Kajnar (ÄŒSSD) Area    - City 214 km²  (82. ... Victor Samuel Mamatey (February 2, 1917 - January 18, 2007) was an American professor to history. ... Nassau Street, Princetons main street. ... The Princeton University Press is a publishing house, a division of Princeton University, that is highly respected in academic publishing. ... See official www pages ... Hippocrene Books are a US publishing press located at 171 Madison Avenue, New York City, NY 10016. ... Warszawa can refer to: Warsaw, capital city of Poland Warszawa, a song written by David Bowie and Brian Eno off the album Low. ... Nickname: City of a Hundred Spires Motto: Praga Caput Rei publicae Location within the Czech Republic Coordinates: Country Czech Republic Region Capital City of Prague Founded 9th century Government  - Mayor Pavel Bém Area  - City 496 km²  (191. ... Location of TÅ™inec in the Czech Republic Coordinates: Country Czech Republic Region Moravian-Silesian District Frýdek-Místek First mentioned 1444  - Mayor VÄ›ra Palkovská Area    - City 85. ... Nowa encyklopedia powszechna PWN (New Universal PWN Encyclopedia) is a Polish language encyclopedia published by Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. External link Encyclopedia website at pwn. ... Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN (Polish Scientific Publishers PWN, until 1991 PaÅ„stwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, PWN) is a Polish book publisher, founded in 1951. ...

Further reading

• Badziak, Kazimierz; Giennadij Matwiejew and Paweł Samuś (1997). "Powstanie" na Zaolziu w 1938 r.: Polska akcja specjalna w świetle dokumentów Oddziału II Sztabu Głównego WP. Warszawa: ADIUTOR. ISBN 83-86100-21-4. 

External links

• (Polish) Documents and photographs about the situation in Zaolzie in 1938
• (Czech) Interview of professor Jerzy Tomaszewski by Aleksander Kaczorowski