Map showing European claimants to the African continent in 1913.

Map of West Africa, ca. 1736, "explaining what belongs to England, Holland, Denmark, etc."

The colonization of Africa has a long history, the most famous phase being the European Scramble for Africa of the nineteenth century. Map showing European claimants to the African continent in 1913 Turned Image:Colafrica. ... Map showing European claimants to the African continent in 1913 Turned Image:Colafrica. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1200x894, 1585 KB) Summary Full title: Negroland and Guinea with the European Settlements, Explaining what belongs to England, Holland, Denmark, etc. By H. Moll Geographer (Printed and sold by T. Bowles next ye Chapter House in St. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1200x894, 1585 KB) Summary Full title: Negroland and Guinea with the European Settlements, Explaining what belongs to England, Holland, Denmark, etc. By H. Moll Geographer (Printed and sold by T. Bowles next ye Chapter House in St. ... Cecil Rhodes: Cape-Cairo railway project. ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Ancient Colonisation

North Africa experienced colonisation from Europe and Western Asia in the early historical period, particularly Greeks and Phoenicians.  Northern Africa (UN subregion)  geographic, including above North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Africa. ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ... Phoenicia (or Phenicia ,[1] from Biblical Phenice [1]) was an ancient civilization centered in the north of ancient Canaan, with its heartland along the coast of modern day Lebanon and Syria. ...

Under Egypt's Pharaoh Amasis (570-526 BCE) a Greek mercantile colony was established at Naucratis, some fifty miles from the later Alexandria.^[1] Greeks also colonized Cyrenaica around the same time.^[2] On page 208 he records the attempt in 513 BCE to establish a Greek colony between Cyrene and Carthage and the combined local and Carthaginian expulsion two years later of these colonists.^[3]

Alexander the Great (356-323 BCE) founded Alexandria during his conquest of Egypt. This became one of the major cities of Hellenistic and Roman times. For the film of the same name, see Alexander the Great (1956 film). ... This article is about the city in Egypt. ...

Phoenicians founded a number of colonies along the North African coast. Some of these were founded relatively early. Utica, for example, was founded c. 1100 BCE. Carthage, which means New City, has a traditional foundation date of 801 BCE. It was established in what is now Tunisia and became a major power in the Mediterranean by the 4th century BC. The Carthaginians themselves sent out expeditions to explore and establish colonies along Africa's Atlantic coast. A surviving account of such is that of Hanno which Harden who quotes it places at c. 425 BCE.^[4] Roman Carthage with former military harbor Carthage (Greek: , Latin: , from the Phoenician meaning new town; Arabic: ) refers both to an ancient city in Tunisia and to the civilization that developed within the citys sphere of influence. ... The Mediterranean Sea is an intercontinental sea positioned between Europe to the north, Africa to the south and Asia to the east, covering an approximate area of 2. ... The 4th century BC started the first day of 400 BC and ended the last day of 301 BC. It is considered part of the Classical era, epoch, or historical period. ... Hanno is a name that can refer to the following entities: Hanno the elephant, Pope Leo Xs pet Hanno the Elder, Carthaginian general Hanno the Great, Carthaginian general Hanno the Navigator, Carthaginian explorer Hanno the Rab, Carthaginian politician Hanno von Sangerhausen, great master of the Teutonic Knights Hanno crater...

Carthage encountered and struggled with the Romans. After the third and final war between them, the Third Punic War (150-146 BCE), Rome completely destroyed Carthage. Scullard (p. 37, 150, 216) mentions plans by such as Gaius Gracchus in the late Second Century BCE, Julius Caesar and Augustus in the mid and late First Century BCE to establish a new Roman colony near the same site. This was established and under Augustus served as the capital city of the Roman province of Africa.^[5] For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ... Combatants Roman Republic Carthage Commanders Scipio Aemilianus Hasdrubal the Boetarch Strength 40,000 90,000 Casualties 17,000 62,000 The Third Punic War (149 BC to 146 BC) was the third and last of the Punic Wars fought between the former Phoenician colony of Carthage, and the Republic of... The Roman Empire ca. ...

Gothic Vandals briefly established a kingdom there in the 5th century, which shortly thereafter fell to the Romans again, this time the Byzantines. The whole of Roman/Byzantine North Africa eventually fell to the Arabs in the 7th century, who brought the Islamic religion and Arabic language (see History of Islam). Vandal and Vandali redirect here. ... For the documentary series, see Monarchy (TV series). ... Europe in 450 The 5th century is the period from 401 to 500 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian Era. ... “Byzantine” redirects here. ... Languages Arabic and other minority languages Religions Islam, Christianity, Druzism and Judaism Arab woman from Ramallah wearing traditional dress in 1915. ... The 7th century is the period from 601 - 700 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian Era. ... For people named Islam, see Islam (name). ... “Arabic” redirects here. ... The History of Islam involves the history of the Islamic faith as a religion and as a social institution. ...

Early modern period

Main article: European exploration of Africa

From the seventh century, Arab trade with sub-Saharan Africa led to a gradual colonisation of East Africa, around Zanzibar and other bases. Although trans-Saharan trade led to a small number of West African cities developing Arab quarters, these were not intended as colonies, and while Morroco attempted to conquer areas of the Sahel in the Moroccan war, it was soon forced to withdraw its troops after pillaging the area. Please wikify (format) this article or section as suggested in the Guide to layout and the Manual of Style. ... A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ...  Eastern Africa (UN subregion)  East African Community  Central African Federation (defunct)  geographic, including above East Africa or Eastern Africa is the easternmost region of the African continent, variably defined by geography or geopolitics. ... Map of Zanzibars main island Zanzibar is part of Tanzania Coordinates: , Country Tanzania Islands Unguja and Pemba Capital Zanzibar City Settled AD 1000 Government  - Type semi-autonomous part of Tanzania  - President Amani Abeid Karume Area  - Both Islands  637 sq mi (1,651 km²) Population (2004)  - Both Islands 1,070... The Great Mosque of Djenné, founded in 800, an important trading base, now a World Heritage Site Trans-Saharan trade, refers to trade across the Sahara between Mediterranean countries and West Africa. ...  Western Africa (UN subregion)  Maghreb[1] West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of the African continent. ... The Kingdom of Morocco is a country in northwest Africa. ...

Early European expeditions concentrated on colonising previously uninhabited islands such as the Cape Verdes and Sao Tome Island, or establishing coastal forts as a base for trade. These forts often developed areas of influence along coastal strips, but (with the exception of the River Senegal), the vast interior of Africa was not colonized and indeed little known to Europeans until the late nineteenth century. Rainforest trekking is one of the islands attractions São Tomé Island is, at 854 km², the largest island of São Tomé and Príncipe and is home to 96% of the nations population. ... Fortifications (Latin fortis, strong, and facere, to make) are military constructions designed for defensive warfare. ... The Sénégal River, in West Africa, forms the border between Senegal and Mauritania. ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Vincent Khapoya mentions Ali Masrui's three interrelated broad reasons for European exploration of Africa: to increase knowledge, to spread Christianity and to increase national esteem.^[6] Khapoya continues with a listing of reasons ("political/strategic, cultural and economic" for colonialism.^[7]

The Scramble for Africa

Main article: Scramble for Africa

Established empires, notably Britain, Portugal and France, had already expropriated vast areas of Africa and Asia, and emerging imperial powers like Italy and Germany had done likewise on a smaller scale. With the dismissal of the ageing Chancellor Bismarck by Kaiser Wilhelm II, the relatively orderly colonisation became a frantic scramble. The 1885 Berlin Conference, initiated by Bismarck to establish international guidelines for the acquisition of African territory, formalized this "New Imperialism". Between the Franco-Prussian War and the Great War, Europe added almost 9 million square miles (23,000,000 km²) — one-fifth of the land area of the globe — to its overseas colonial possessions. Cecil Rhodes: Cape-Cairo railway project. ... “Bismarck” redirects here. ... German Emperor Wilhelm (born Friedrich Wilhelm Viktor Albrecht, Prince of Prussia 27 January 1859–4 June 1941), was the last German Emperor and King of Prussia (de: Deutscher Kaiser und König von Preußen), ruling from 15 June 1888 to 9 November 1918. ... 1885 (MDCCCLXXXV) is a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Saturday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... The conference of Berlin The Berlin Conference (German: or Congo Conference) of 1884–85 regulated European colonization and trade in Africa during the New Imperialism period, and coincided with Germanys sudden emergence as an imperial power. ... The term New Imperialism refers to the colonial expansion adopted by Europes powers and, later, Japan and the United States, during the late 19th and early 20th centuries; approximately from the Franco-Prussian War to World War I (c. ... Combatants Second French Empire North German Confederation allied with south German states (later German Empire) Commanders Napoleon III Otto Von Bismarck, Helmuth von Moltke the Elder Strength 400,000 at the beginning of the war 1,200,000 Casualties 150,000 dead or wounded 284,000 captured 350,000 civilian... “The Great War ” redirects here. ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ...

Vincent Khapoya notes the great self esteem some European states felt at possessing territory many times larger than themselves. He adds the significant contribution made by Africans to struggles among the great powers. He states that one million people of African descent fought for the Allies in World War One and two million in World War Two.^[8]

The Europeans possessed attitudes of superiority and a sense of mission. Khapoya compares and contrasts three colonial powers: the French, the British and the Portuguese. The French were able to accept an African as French, if he gave up his African culture and adopted French ways, even including marriage with a French woman. The British were unable to accept full equality even for one adopting British ways and disapproved of interracial marriage. The Portuguese were more tolerant than the British concerning mixed marriages, though still viewing full blooded Portuguese as superior. Knowledge of Portuguese language and culture and abandonment of traditional ways defined one as civilized.

Khapoya considers the colonizers' administrative styles. "The French, the Portuguese, the Germans and the Belgians exercised a highly centralized type of administration called 'direct rule.'" The British sought to rule by identifying local power holders and encouraging or forcing these to administer for the British Empire. This was indirect rule.^[9]

France ruled from France, appointing chiefs individuals without considering traditional criteria, but rather loyalty to France. France established two large colonial federations in Africa, French West Africa and French Equatorial Africa. France appointed officials, passed laws and had to approve any measures passed by colonial assemblies. Location of French West Africa French West Africa (French: ) was a federation of eight French territories in Africa: Mauritania, Senegal, French Sudan (now Mali), French Guinea (now Guinea), Côte dIvoire, Niger, Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso) and Dahomey (now Benin). ... Location of French Equatorial Africa. ...

East Africans resisted German enforced labour and taxation. The Germans were almost driven out of the area in 1888.^[10] A decade later the colony seemed conquered, though, "It had been a long drawn-out struggle and inland administration centres were in reality little more than a series of small military fortresses." In 1905 the Germans were astonished by a widely supported uprising. At first this was successful. Within a year this was suppressed by reinforcing troops armed with machine guns. German attempts to seize control in Southwest Africa also produced ardent resistance which was very forcefully put down.^[11]

King Leopold II of Belgium called his vast private colony the Congo Free State. Effectively this meant those exploiting the area were free of all restraint and answerable only to the Belgian king.^[12] The treatment of the Africans under this system was harsh enough to cause the other colonial powers to plead with the Belgian king to exercise some moderating influence. Eventually the Belgian government annexed the territory as a Belgian colony.^[13] Leopold II (Léopold Louis Philippe Marie Victor (French) or Leopold Lodewijk Filips Marie Victor (Dutch) (April 9, 1835 – December 17, 1909) was King of the Belgians. ... Flag Capital Boma Government Monarchy Ruler and owner Leopold II of Belgium Historical era New Imperialism  - Established 1885  - Annexation by Belgium 15 November, 1908 The Congo Free State was a corporate state privately owned by King Leopold II of Belgium (not in his role as monarch) that included the entire...

"Belgian colonial rule saw massive transfers of wealth from Zaire [the Belgian Congo] to Belgium. Africans received only limited education, which would allow them to read the Bible, take orders efficiently from the missionaries, and function, at best, as clerks in the colonial bureaucracy." (p. 132) Khapoya notes that in 1960 Zaire had a relatively high literacy rate and one college graduate.^[14] Motto: Travail et Progres (Work and Progress) The Belgian Congo Capital Léopoldville/Leopoldstad Political structure Colony Governor  - 1908-1910 Baron Wahis  - 1946-1951 Eugène Jacques Pierre Louis Jungers  - 1958-1960 Henri Arthur Adolf Marie Christopher Cornelis History  - Established 15 November, 1908  - Congolese independence 30 June, 1960 The Belgian...

As Khapoya discusses (pp. 134-143) all colonial powers exercised significant attention to the economics of the situation. This included: acquisition of land, enforced labour, introduction of cash crops, even to the neglect of food crops, halting inter-African trading patterns of pre-colonial times, introduction of labourers from India, etc. and the continuation of Africa as a source of raw materials for European industry, therefore a continent not to be industrialized.^[15]

Decolonization

Main article: Decolonization of Africa

Vincent Khapoya (p. 148f) notes the significant resistance imperialist powers faced to their domination in Africa. Technical superiority enabled conquest and control. Africans recognized the value of European education in dealing with Europeans in Africa. They noticed the discrepancy between Christian teaching of universal brotherhood and the treatment they received from missionaries. Some established their own churches. Africans also noticed the unequal evidences of gratitude they received for their efforts to support Imperialist countries during the world wars:^[16] To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

"Many British veterans were rewarded for their part in saving Britain and her empire with generous pensions and offers of nearly free land in the colonies. The African soldiers were given handshakes and train tickets for the journey back home. They could keep their khaki uniforms and nothing else. These African soldiers, after returning home, were willing to use their new skills to assist nationalist movements fighting for freedom that were beginning to take shape in the colonies." (p. 158)^[17]

Khapoya notes that while European imposed borders did not correspond to traditional territories, such new territories provided entities to focus efforts by movements for increased political voice up to independence. Among local groups so concerned were professionals such as lawyers and doctors, the petite bourgeoisie (clerks, teachers, small merchants), urban workers, cash crop farmers, peasant farmers, etc. Trade unions and other initially non political associations evolved into political movements.

Khapoya (p. 177f) describes the differences in gaining independence by British and French colonies. England sought to follow a process of gradual transfer of power. The French policy of assimilation faced some resentment, especially in North Africa.^[18] Shillington (p. 380f) describes the granting of independence in March 1956 to Morocco and Tunisia to allow concentration on Algeria where there was a long (1954-1962) and bloody armed struggle to achieve independence.^[19] Khapoya writes (p. 183) that when President de Gaulle in 1958 held a referendum in its African colonies on the issue, only Guinea voted for outright independence. Nevertheless in 1959 France amended the constitution to allow other colonies this option.

As Shillington describes (p. 385f) farmers in British East Africa were upset by attempts to take their land and to impose agricultural methods against their wishes and experience. In Tanganyika Julius Nyerere exerted influence not only among Africans, united by the common Kiswahili language, but also on some White leaders whose disproportionate voice under a racially weighted constitution was significant. He became leader of an independent Tanganyika in 1961. In Kenya Whites had evicted African tenant farmers in the 1930s. Since the 40s there had been conflict. This intensified in 1952. By 1955 England had suppressed the revolt. By 1960 England accepted the principle of African majority rule. Kenya became independent three years later.^[20] British East Africa was a British protectorate in East Africa, covering generally the area of present-day Kenya and lasting from 1890 to 1920, when it became the colony of Kenya. ... Swahili (also called Kiswahili; see Kiswahili for a discussion of the nomenclature) is an agglutinative Bantu language widely spoken in East Africa. ... Flag of Tanganyika Tanganyika was an East African republic within the Commonwealth of Nations, named after Lake Tanganyika, which formed its western border. ...

Shillington (p. 391f) vividly portrays Belgium's initial opposition to independence, the demands by some urban Africans, the 1957 and 1958 local elections meant to calm this dissatisfaction, the general unrest that swept the colony, the rapid granting of independence and the civil strife that ensued.^[21]

The main period of decolonization in Africa began after World War II. Growing independence movements, indigeneous political parties and trade unions coupled with pressure from within the imperialist powers and from the United States ensured the decolonization of virtually the whole of the continent by 1980. While some areas, in particular South Africa, retain a large population of European descent, only the Spanish enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla and the islands of Réunion, the Canary Islands and Madeira remain under European control. Colonialism in 1945 Decolonization refers to the achievement of independence by the various Western colonies and protectorates in Asia and Africa following World War II. This conforms with an intellectual movement known as Post-Colonialism. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Capital Ceuta City Official language(s) Spanish Area  â€“ Total  â€“ % of Spain Ranked  28 km²   Population  â€“ Total (2006)  â€“ % of Spain  â€“ Density Ranked  75,861    2,709. ... Capital Official language(s) Spanish Area  â€“ Total  â€“ % of Spain Ranked  20 km²   Population  â€“ Total (2006)  â€“ % of Spain  â€“ Density Ranked  66,871    3,343. ... Anthem: Arrorró Capital Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife Official language(s) Spanish Area  â€“ Total  â€“ % of Spain Ranked 13th  7,447 km²  1. ... For other uses, see Madeira (disambiguation). ...

Bibliography

• John Boardman, The Greeks Overseas, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1973 (1964)
• Michael Crowther, The Story of Nigeria, Faber and Faber, London, 1978 (1962)
• Basil Davidson, The African Past, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1966 (1964)
• Donald Harden, The Phoenicians, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1971 (1962)
• Vincent B. Khapoya, The African Experience, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1998 (1994)
• H.H. Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero, Methuen and Co., London, 1976 (1959)
• Kevin Shillington, History of Africa, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1995 (1989)

See also

• European exploration of Africa
• Colonialism
• New Imperialism
• Neocolonialism
• Third world
• White African

Please wikify (format) this article or section as suggested in the Guide to layout and the Manual of Style. ... It has been suggested that Benign colonialism be merged into this article or section. ... The term New Imperialism refers to the colonial expansion adopted by Europes powers and, later, Japan and the United States, during the late 19th and early 20th centuries; approximately from the Franco-Prussian War to World War I (c. ... Neocolonialism is a term used by some intellectuals to describe international economic arrangements by which former colonial powers maintained control of their former colonies and new dependencies following World War II. The term itself can obfuscate current colonialism, as some governments continue to administer foreign territories and populations in violation... For the Jamaican reggae band, see Third World (band). ... White African people are descendants of Europeans who settled on the continent of Africa under colonial rule. ...

References

1. ^ Boardman, The Greeks Overseas, Penguin, Harmondsworth 1973 (1964) p. 114
2. ^ Boardman op. cit. p. 151f
3. ^ Boardman op. cit. p. 208
4. ^ Harden, Donald, The Phoenicians, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1971 (1962) pp 163-168
5. ^ Scullard, H.H. From the Gracchi to Nero, Methuen, London, 1976 (1963) pp. 37, 150, 216
6. ^ Khapoya, Vincent B., The African Experience, Prentice Hall, 1998 (1994) p. 112
7. ^ Khapoya, op. cit. p. 114
8. ^ Khapoya op. cit. p. 115f
9. ^ Khapoya, op. cit. p. 126f
10. ^ Shillington, Kevin, History of Africa, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1995 (1989)
11. ^ Shillington, Kevin, op. cit. p. 340f
12. ^ Khapoya, op. cit. p. 131
13. ^ ibid
14. ^ Khapoya, op. cit. p. 132
15. ^ Khapoya, op. cit. pp. 134-143
16. ^ Khapoya, op. cit. p. 148f
17. ^ Khapoya, op. cit. p. 158
18. ^ Khapoya, op. cit. p. 177f
19. ^ Shillington, op. cit. p. 380f
20. ^ Shillington, op. cit. p. 385f
21. ^ Shillington, oop. cit. p. 391f

External links

• Germany Refuses to Apologize for Herero Holocaust - from Africana.com
• Belgium exhumes its colonial demons - from guardian.co.uk
• An article on the continuing effects of the colonization of Africa