NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Translation

Translation is the action of interpretation of the meaning of a text, and subsequent production of an equivalent text, also called a translation, that communicates the same message in another language. The text to be translated is called the source text, and the language it is to be translated into is called the target language; the final product is sometimes called the "target text." Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Wiktionary (a portmanteau of wiki and dictionary) is a multilingual, Web-based project to create a free content dictionary, available in over 151 languages. ... translation ... Hermeneutics may be described as the development and study of theories of the interpretation and understanding of texts. ... In linguistics, meaning is the content carried by the words or signs exchanged by people when communicating through language. ... Dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence are two approaches to translation. ... Messages redirects here. ... A source text is text (usually written but sometimes oral) from which information or ideas are derived. ... Translation is an activity comprising the interpretation of the meaning of a text in one language—the source text—and the production of a new, equivalent text in another language—the target text, also called the translation. ...

Translation must take into account constraints that include context, the rules of grammar of the two languages, their writing conventions, and their idioms. A common misconception is that there exists a simple word-for-word correspondence between any two languages, and that translation is a straightforward mechanical process. A word-for-word translation does not take into account context, grammar, conventions, and idioms. For the rules of the English language, see English grammar. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... An idiom is an expression (i. ... A misconception happens when a person believes in a concept that is objectively false. ... Literal translation refers to the result of translating text from one language to another; translating each word independently as opposed to translating the entire phrase. ... The word mechanical can mean one of several things: A device or principle described as mechanical relates to a mechanism or machine, or the realm of Newtonian mechanics. ...

Translation is fraught with the potential for "spilling over" of idioms and usages from one language into the other, since both languages repose within the single brain of the translator. Such spilling-over easily produces linguistic hybrids such as "Franglais" (French-English), "Spanglish" (Spanish-English), "Poglish" (Polish-English) and "Portuñol" (Portuguese-Spanish). Language contact occurs when speakers of distinct speech varieties interact. ... An idiom is an expression (i. ... An Identity Standards Manual pageâ€”for the graphic design branch of corporate identity design and branding. ... A mixed language is a language that arises when speakers of different languages are in contact and show a high degree of bilingualism. ... Franglais (slang), a portmanteau combining the words franÃ§ais (French) and anglais (English), also called Frenglish, is a slang term for types of speech, although the word has different overtones in French and English. ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... For the James L. Brooks motion picture, see Spanglish (film). ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... Poglish, a portmanteau word combining the words Polish and English, designates the product of mixing Polish and English language elements (words, grammatical structures, syntactic elements, etc. ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... PortuÃ±ol or Portunhol ( ) is a portmanteau of the words PortuguÃªs/PortuguÃ©s (Portuguese) and EspaÃ±ol/Espanhol (Spanish). ...

The art of translation is as old as written literature. Parts of the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh, among the oldest known literary works, have been found in translations into several Asiatic languages of the second millennium BCE. The Epic of Gilgamesh may have been read, in their own languages, by early authors of the Bible and of the Iliad.^[1] For other uses, see Literature (disambiguation). ... Sumer ( Sumerian: KI-EN-GIR, Land of the Lords of Brightness[1], or land of the Sumerian tongue[2][3], Akkadian: Å umeru; possibly Biblical Shinar ), located in southern Mesopotamia, is the earliest known civilization in the world. ... The Epic of Gilgamesh is an epic poem from Babylonia and is among the earliest known literary works. ... For other uses, see Asia (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Bible (disambiguation). ... title page of the Rihel edition of ca. ...

With the advent of computers, attempts have been made to computerize or otherwise automate the translation of natural-language texts (machine translation) or to use computers as an aid to translation (computer-assisted translation). This article is about the machine. ... Automation (ancient Greek: = self dictated) or Industrial Automation is the use of computers to control industrial machinery and processes, replacing human operators. ... In the philosophy of language, a natural language (or ordinary language) is a language that is spoken, written, or signed by humans for general-purpose communication, as distinguished from formal languages (such as computer-programming languages or the languages used in the study of formal logic, especially mathematical logic) and... Machine translation, sometimes referred to by the acronym MT, is a sub-field of computational linguistics that investigates the use of computer software to translate text or speech from one natural language to another. ... Computer-assisted translation, computer-aided translation, or CAT is a form of translation wherein a human translator translates texts using computer software designed to support and facilitate the translation process. ...

The term

Etymologically, "translation" is a "carrying across" or "bringing across." The Latin "translatio" derives from the perfect passive participle, "translatum," of "transferre" ("to transfer" — from "trans," "across" + "ferre," "to carry" or "to bring"). The modern Romance, Germanic and Slavic European languages have generally formed their own equivalent terms for this concept after the Latin model — after "transferre" or after the kindred "traducere" ("to bring across" or "to lead across").^[2] Download high resolution version (768x1024, 151 KB)The Rosetta Stone in British Museum, photo by User:Matijap File links The following pages link to this file: Rosetta Stone Categories: GFDL images ... Download high resolution version (768x1024, 151 KB)The Rosetta Stone in British Museum, photo by User:Matijap File links The following pages link to this file: Rosetta Stone Categories: GFDL images ... This article is about the ancient Rosetta Stone . ... Etymologies redirects here. ... For other uses, see Latins and Latin (disambiguation). ... The perfect aspect is a grammatical aspect that refers to a state resulting from a previous action (also described as a previous action with relevance to a particular time, or a previous action viewed from the perspective of a later time). ... In grammar, the voice of a verb describes the relationship between the action (or state) that the verb expresses and the participants identified by its arguments (subject, object, etc. ... In linguistics, a participle (from Latin participium, a calque of Greek Î¼ÎµÏ„Î¿Ï‡Î· partaking) is a non-finite verb form that can be used in compound tenses or voices, or as a modifier. ... The Romance languages (sometimes referred to as Romanic languages) are a branch of the Indo-European language family that comprises all the languages that descend from Latin, the language of the Roman Empire. ... The Slavic languages (also called Slavonic languages) comprise the languages of the Slavic peoples. ... European languages are the object of Eurolinguistics. ... Dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence are two approaches to translation. ...

Additionally, the Greek term for "translation," "metaphrasis" ("a speaking across"), has supplied English with "metaphrase" (a "literal translation," or "word-for-word" translation)—as contrasted with "paraphrase" ("a saying in other words," from the Greek "paraphrasis").^[3] "Metaphrase" equates, in one of the more recent terminologies, to "formal equivalence," and "paraphrase"—to "dynamic equivalence." The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... Literal translation refers to the result of translating text from one language to another; translating each word independently as opposed to translating the entire phrase. ... Look up Paraphrase in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Look up translate in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Look up translate in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Misconceptions

Newcomers to translation sometimes proceed as if translation were an exact science — as if consistent, one-to-one correlations existed between the words and phrases of different languages, rendering translations fixed and identically reproducible, much as in cryptography. Such novices may assume that all that is needed to translate a text is to "encode" and "decode" equivalents between the two languages, using a translation dictionary as the "codebook."^[4] Exact science refers to systematized knowledge. ... Several sets of (x, y) points, with the correlation coefficient of x and y for each set. ... The German Lorenz cipher machine, used in World War II for encryption of very high-level general staff messages Cryptography (or cryptology; derived from Greek ÎºÏÏ…Ï€Ï„ÏŒÏ‚ kryptÃ³s hidden, and the verb Î³ÏÎ¬Ï†Ï‰ grÃ¡fo write or Î»ÎµÎ³ÎµÎ¹Î½ legein to speak) is the study of message secrecy. ... // Main article: Buddhist Novitiate In many Buddhist orders, a man or woman who intends to take ordination must first become a novice, adopting part of the monastic code indicated in the vinaya and studying in preparation for full ordination. ... For other senses of the word code, see code (disambiguation). ... There are very few or no other articles that link to this one. ... A translation dictionary (or sometimes translator) is a specialized lexicon designed for giving users rough equivalences of words and phrase equivalences between two distinct languages. ... Categories: Cryptography stubs | Cryptography ...

On the contrary, such a fixed relationship would only exist were a new language synthesized and simultaneously matched to a pre-existing language's scopes of meaning, etymologies, and lexical ecological niches. ^[5] A constructed or artificial language â€” known colloquially as a conlang â€” is a language whose phonology, grammar, and/or vocabulary have been devised by an individual or group, instead of having naturally evolved as part of a culture. ... In linguistics, meaning is the content carried by the words or signs exchanged by people when communicating through language. ... Etymology is the study of the origins of words. ... Look up lexicon in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Two lichens on a rock, in two different ecological niches In ecology, a niche (pronounced nich, neesh or nish)[1] is a term describing the relational position of a species or population in its ecosystem[1]. A shorthand definition is that a niche is how an organism makes a living. ...

If the new language were subsequently to take on a life apart from such cryptographic use, each word would spontaneously begin to assume new shades of meaning and cast off previous associations, thereby vitiating any such artificial synchronization. Henceforth translation would require the disciplines described in this article. In psychology and marketing, two concepts or stimuli are associated when the experience of one leads to the effects of another, due to repeated pairing. ...

Another common misconception is that anyone who can speak a second language will make a good translator. In the translation community, it is generally accepted that the best translations are produced by persons who are translating into their own native languages,^[6] as it is rare for someone who has learned a second language to have total fluency in that language. A good translator understands the source language well, has specific experience in the subject matter of the text, and is a good writer in the target language. A second language (L2) is any language learned after the first language or mother tongue (L1). ... Native Language Music, founded in 1996 by musicians Joe Sherbanee and Theo Bishop, is an independent adult contemporary record company based in Southern California that produces, markets, and distributes premium jazz, world, and new age music. ...

It has been debated whether translation is art or craft. Literary translators, such as Gregory Rabassa in If This Be Treason, argue that translation is an art—a teachable one. Other translators, mostly technical, commercial, and legal, regard their métier as a craft—again, a teachable one, subject to linguistic analysis, that benefits from academic study. This article is about the philosophical concept of Art. ... For other uses, see Craft (disambiguation). ... Gregory Rabassa (b. ... Discourse analysis (DA), or discourse studies, is a general term for a number of approaches to analyzing written, spoken or signed language use. ... Academia is a collective term for the scientific and cultural community engaged in higher education and research, taken as a whole. ...

As with other human activities, the distinction between art and craft may be largely a matter of degree.^[7] Even a document which appears simple, e.g. a product brochure, requires a certain level of linguistic skill that goes beyond mere technical terminology. Any material used for marketing purposes reflects on the company that produces the product and the brochure. The best translations are obtained through the combined application of good technical-terminology skills and good writing skills. A brochure is a flyer or other paper material distributed for the purposes of advertising. ...

Translation has served as a writing school for many recognized writers. Translators, including the early modern European translators of the Bible, in the course of their work have shaped the very languages into which they have translated. They have acted as bridges for conveying knowledge and ideas between cultures and civilizations. Along with ideas, they have imported into their own languages, calques of grammatical structures and of vocabulary from the source languages. For other uses, see Bible (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Culture (disambiguation). ... Central New York City. ... IDEA may refer to: Electronic Directory of the European Institutions IDEA League Improvement and Development Agency Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Indian Distance Education Association Integrated Data Environments Australia Intelligent Database Environment for Advanced Applications IntelliJ IDEA - a Java IDE Interactive Database for Energy-efficient Architecture International IDEA (International Institute... // In linguistics, a calque (pronounced ) or loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal, word-for-word (Latin: verbum pro verbo) or root-for-root translation. ... For the rules of the English language, see English grammar. ... The vocabulary of a person is defined either as the set of all words that are understood by that person or the set of all words likely to be used by that person when constructing new sentences. ... Translation is an activity comprising the interpretation of the meaning of a text in one language—the source text—and the production of a new, equivalent text in another language—the target text, also called the translation. ...

Interpreting

Interpreting, or "interpretation," is the intellectual activity that consists of facilitating oral or sign-language communication, either simultaneously or consecutively, between two or among three or more speakers who are not speaking, or signing, the same language. For other uses, see Interpretation (disambiguation). ... Bold text This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Two sign language Intepreters working as a team for a school. ... For other uses, see Communication (disambiguation). ...

The words "interpreting" and "interpretation" both can be used to refer to this activity; the word "interpreting" is commonly used in the profession and in the translation-studies field to avoid confusion with other meanings of the word "interpretation." Look up interpret in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Not all languages employ, as English does, two separate words to denote the activities of written and live-communication (oral or sign-language) translators.^[8] The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ...

Fidelity vs. transparency

Fidelity (or "faithfulness") and transparency are two qualities that, for millennia, have been regarded as ideals to be striven for in translation, particularly literary translation. These two ideals are often at odds. Thus a 17th-century French critic coined the phrase, "les belles infidèles," to suggest that translations, like women, could be either faithful or beautiful, but not both at the same time.^[9] For the financial services company, see Fidelity Investments. ... Linguistic transparency is a phrase which is used in multiple, overlapping subjects in the fields of linguistics and the philosophy of language. ... Literature is literally an acquaintance with letters as in the first sense given in the Oxford English Dictionary (from the Latin littera meaning an individual written character (letter)). The term has, however, generally come to identify a collection of texts. ...

Fidelity pertains to the extent to which a translation accurately renders the meaning of the source text, without adding to or subtracting from it, without intensifying or weakening any part of the meaning, and otherwise without distorting it. A source text is text (usually written but sometimes oral) from which information or ideas are derived. ...

Transparency pertains to the extent to which a translation appears to a native speaker of the target language to have originally been written in that language, and conforms to the language's grammatical, syntactic and idiomatic conventions. Linguistic transparency is a phrase which is used in multiple, overlapping subjects in the fields of linguistics and the philosophy of language. ...

A translation that meets the first criterion is said to be a "faithful translation"; a translation that meets the second criterion, an "idiomatic translation." The two qualities are not necessarily mutually exclusive. An idiom is an expression whose meaning is not compositional — that is, whose meaning does not follow from the meaning of the individual words of which it is composed. ...

The criteria used to judge the faithfulness of a translation vary according to the subject, the precision of the original contents, the type, function and use of the text, its literary qualities, its social or historical context, and so forth.

The criteria for judging the transparency of a translation would appear more straightforward: an unidiomatic translation "sounds wrong," and in the extreme case of word-for-word translations generated by many machine-translation systems, often results in patent nonsense with only a humorous value (see "round-trip translation"). Linguistic transparency is a phrase which is used in multiple, overlapping subjects in the fields of linguistics and the philosophy of language. ... Literal translation refers to the result of translating text from one language to another; translating each word independently as opposed to translating the entire phrase. ... Machine translation, sometimes referred to by the acronym MT, is a sub-field of computational linguistics that investigates the use of computer software to translate text or speech from one natural language to another. ... Look up Humour in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... A Round-Trip Translation is a recreational spin off of machine translation and computer-assisted translation software, such as Systrans and Altavista/Yahoos Babel Fish language translation tools. ...

Nevertheless, in certain contexts a translator may consciously strive to produce a literal translation. Literary translators and translators of religious or historic texts often adhere as closely as possible to the source text. In doing so, they often deliberately stretch the boundaries of the target language to produce an unidiomatic text. Similarly, a literary translator may wish to adopt words or expressions from the source language in order to provide "local color" in the translation. Literature is literally an acquaintance with letters as in the first sense given in the Oxford English Dictionary (from the Latin littera meaning an individual written character (letter)). The term has, however, generally come to identify a collection of texts. ... Religious is a term with both a technical definition and folk use. ... History is often used as a generic term for information about the past, such as in geologic history of the Earth. When used as the name of a field of study, history refers to the study and interpretation of the record of human societies. ... Translation is an activity comprising the interpretation of the meaning of a text in one language—the source text—and the production of a new, equivalent text in another language—the target text, also called the translation. ...

In recent decades, prominent advocates of such "non-transparent" translation have included the French scholar Antoine Berman, who identified twelve deforming tendencies inherent in most prose translations,^[10] and the American theorist Lawrence Venuti, who has called upon translators to apply "foreignizing" translation strategies instead of domesticating ones.^[11] Antoine Berman (1942â€”1991) â€” was a French translator, acclaimed historian and theorist of translation. ...

Many non-transparent-translation theories draw on concepts from German Romanticism, the most obvious influence on latter-day theories of "foreignization" being the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher. In his seminal lecture "On the Different Methods of Translation" (1813) he distinguished between translation methods that move "the writer toward [the reader]," i.e., transparency, and those that move the "reader toward [the author]," i.e., an extreme fidelity to the foreignness of the source text. Schleiermacher clearly favored the latter approach. His preference was motivated, however, not so much by a desire to embrace the foreign, as by a nationalist desire to oppose France's cultural domination and to promote German literature. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (612x838, 181 KB) File links The following pages link to this file: Friedrich Schleiermacher User:Chris 73/PublicDomain Gallery 003 ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (612x838, 181 KB) File links The following pages link to this file: Friedrich Schleiermacher User:Chris 73/PublicDomain Gallery 003 ... Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher (IPA [ËˆÊƒlaÉªÉ™maxÉ™]) (November 21, 1768 â€“ February 12, 1834) was a German theologian and philosopher known for his impressive attempt to reconcile the criticisms of the Enlightenment with traditional Protestant orthodoxy. ... For the general context, see Romanticism. ... Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher (November 21, 1768 - February 12, 1834) was a theologian and philosopher. ... Linguistic transparency is a phrase which is used in multiple, overlapping subjects in the fields of linguistics and the philosophy of language. ... For the financial services company, see Fidelity Investments. ... A source text is text (usually written but sometimes oral) from which information or ideas are derived. ... German literature comprises those literary texts originating within Germany proper and written in the German language. ...

For the most part, current Western practices in translation are dominated by the concepts of "fidelity" and "transparency." This has not always been the case. There have been periods, especially in pre-Classical Rome and in the 18th century, when many translators stepped beyond the bounds of translation proper into the realm of adaptation.

Adapted translation retains currency in some non-Western traditions. Thus the Indian epic, the Ramayana, appears in many versions in the various Indian languages, and the stories are different in each. If one considers the words used for translating into the Indian languages, whether those be Aryan or Dravidian languages, he is struck by the freedom that is granted to the translators. This may relate to a devotion to prophetic passages that strike a deep religious chord, or to a vocation to instruct unbelievers. Similar examples are to be found in medieval Christian literature, which adjusted the text to the customs and values of the audience. For the television series by Ramanand Sagar, see Ramayan (TV series). ... languages redirects here. ... Aryan (/eÉ™rjÉ™n/ or /É‘ËrjÉ™n/, Sanskrit: ) is a Sanskrit and Avestan word meaning noble/spiritual one. ... Dravidian may refer to: Dravidian languages, including the Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, and Kannada languages spoken especially in southern India and Sri Lanka. ... For other uses, see Prophecy (disambiguation). ... An infidel (literally, one without faith) is one who doubts or rejects central tenets of a religion, especially those regarding its deities. ... This article outlines the history of Christianity and provides links to relevant topics. ...

Equivalence

The question of fidelity vs. transparency has also been formulated in terms of, respectively, "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence." The latter two expressions are associated with the translator Eugene Nida and were originally coined to describe ways of translating the Bible, but the two approaches are applicable to any translation. Dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence are two approaches to translation. ... For the financial services company, see Fidelity Investments. ... Linguistic transparency is a phrase which is used in multiple, overlapping subjects in the fields of linguistics and the philosophy of language. ... Eugene A. Nida is the developer of the dynamic equivalence translation theory. ... For other uses, see Bible (disambiguation). ...

"Formal equivalence" equates to "metaphrase," and "dynamic equivalence"—to "paraphrase." Look up Paraphrase in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

"Dynamic equivalence" (or "functional equivalence") conveys the essential thought expressed in a source text — if necessary, at the expense of literality, original sememe and word order, the source text's active vs. passive voice, etc. Personification of thought (Greek Î•Î½Î½Î¿Î¹Î±) in Celsus Library in Ephesos, Turkey Thought or thinking is a mental process which allows beings to model the world, and so to deal with it effectively according to their goals, plans, ends and desires. ... Look up literal, literally in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... A Sememe is a proposed unit of transmitted or intended meaning; it is atomic or indivisible. ... In linguistic typology, word order, or more precisely constituent order refers to the permitted combinations of words or larger constituents. ... In grammar, voice is the relationship between the action or state expressed by a verb, and its arguments (subject, object, etc. ...

By contrast, "formal equivalence" (sought via "literal" translation) attempts to render the text "literally," or "word for word" (the latter expression being itself a word-for-word rendering of the classical Latin "verbum pro verbo") — if necessary, at the expense of features natural to the target language. Literal translation refers to the result of translating text from one language to another; translating each word independently as opposed to translating the entire phrase. ... Look up literal, literally in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Classical Latin is the language used by the principal exponents of that language in what is usually regarded as classical Latin literature. ... Translation is an activity comprising the interpretation of the meaning of a text in one language—the source text—and the production of a new, equivalent text in another language—the target text, also called the translation. ...

There is, however, no sharp boundary between dynamic and formal equivalence. On the contrary, they represent a spectrum of translation approaches. Each is used at various times and in various contexts by the same translator, and at various points within the same text — sometimes simultaneously. Competent translation entails the judicious blending of dynamic and formal equivalents.^[12] Dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence are two approaches to translation. ...

Back-translation

If one text is a translation of another, a back-translation is a translation of the translated text back into the language of the original text, made without reference to the original text. In the context of machine translation, this is also called a "round-trip translation." Machine translation, sometimes referred to by the acronym MT, is a sub-field of computational linguistics that investigates the use of computer software to translate text or speech from one natural language to another. ...

Comparison of a back-translation to the original text is sometimes used as a quality check on the original translation, but it is certainly far from infallible and the reliability of this technique has been disputed.^[13] For the Jurassic 5 album, see Quality Control (album) In engineering and manufacturing, quality control and quality engineering are involved in developing systems to ensure products or services are designed and produced to meet or exceed customer requirements. ...

Literary translation

Translation of literary works (novels, short stories, plays, poems, etc.) is considered a literary pursuit in its own right. Notable in Canadian literature specifically as translators are figures such as Sheila Fischman, Robert Dickson and Linda Gaboriau, and the Governor General's Awards present prizes for the year's best English-to-French and French-to-English literary translations. For other uses, see Literature (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Novel (disambiguation). ... This article is in need of attention. ... Serge Sudeikins poster for the Bat Theatre (1922). ... This article is about the art form. ... Canadian literature may be divided into two parts, based on their separate roots: one stems from the culture and literature from France; the other from Britain. ... Sheila Leah Fischman (born in Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan in 1937) is a Canadian translator who specializes in the translation of works of contemporary Quebec literature. ... Robert Dickson is a Canadian poet, translator and academic. ... Linda Gaboriau is a Canadian playwright and literary translator. ... Since their creation in 1937, the Governor Generals Literary Awards have become one of Canadas most prestigious prizes, awarded in both French and English in seven categories: Fiction, Non-fiction, Poetry, Drama, Childrens Literature-Text, Childrens Literature-Illustration, and Translation. ...

Other writers, among many who have made a name for themselves as literary translators, include Vasily Zhukovsky, Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński, Vladimir Nabokov, Jorge Luis Borges, Robert Stiller and Haruki Murakami. On the publication of Pushkins first major work in 1820, Zhukovsky presented the younger poet with this famous portrait of himself, over the inscription: To the victorious disciple from his vanquished tutor Vasily Andreyevich Zhukovsky (b. ... Tadeusz Å»eleÅ„ski (better known under his pseudonym Tadeusz Boy-Å»eleÅ„ski; 1874-1941) was a Polish gynaecologist, writer, poet, art critic, translator of French literary classics and journalist. ... This page is about the novelist. ... Borges redirects here. ... // Robert Stiller (born Warsaw, Poland, 1928) is a Polish polyglot, writer, poet, translator and editor. ... Haruki Murakami , born January 12, 1949) is a popular contemporary Japanese writer and translator. ...

History

The first important translation in the West was that of the Septuagint,^[14] a collection of Jewish Scriptures translated into Koine Greek in Alexandria between the 3rd and 1st centuries BCE. The dispersed Jews had forgotten their ancestral language and needed Greek versions (translations) of their Scriptures. The Septuagint: A column of uncial text from 1 Esdras in the Codex Vaticanus, the basis of Sir Lancelot Charles Lee Brentons Greek edition and English translation. ... For other uses, see Jew (disambiguation). ... Koine redirects here. ... This article is about the city in Egypt. ...

Throughout the Middle Ages, Latin was the lingua franca of the learned world. The 9th-century Alfred the Great, king of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning vernacular Anglo-Saxon translations of Bede's Ecclesiastical History and Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy. Meanwhile the Christian Church frowned on even partial adaptations of the standard Latin Bible, St. Jerome's Vulgate of ca. 384 CE.^[15] The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... For other uses, see Latins and Latin (disambiguation). ... Lingua franca, literally Frankish language in Italian, was originally a mixed language consisting largely of Italian plus a vocabulary drawn from Turkish, Persian, French, Greek and Arabic and used for communication throughout the Middle East. ... For the 10th century Bishop of Sherborne, see Alfred (bishop). ... For the helicopter, see Westland Wessex. ... For other uses, see England (disambiguation). ... Look up Vernacular in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Note: This page contains phonetic information presented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) using Unicode. ... For other uses, see Bede (disambiguation). ... The Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (in English: Ecclesiastical History of the English People) is a work in Latin by the Venerable Bede on the history of the Christian church in England, and of England generally. ... There are several persons called Bo thius: Philosophers: Anicius Manlius Severinus thius - to many scholars this is the Bo thius, a late-Roman writer best known for his works in philosophy and theology. ... This early printed book has many hand-painted illustrations depicting Lady Philosophy and scenes of daily life in fifteenth-century Ghent (1485) Consolation of Philosophy (Latin: Consolatio Philosophiae) is a philosophical work by Boethius written in about the year 524 AD. It has been described as the single most important... For other uses, see Latins and Latin (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Bible (disambiguation). ... For other uses see: Jerome (disambiguation) Jerome (about 340 - September 30, 420), (full name Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus) is best known as the translator of the Bible from Greek and Hebrew into Latin. ... The Vulgate Bible is an early 5th century translation of the Bible into Latin made by St. ...

The first large-scale efforts at translation were undertaken by the Arabs. Having conquered the Greek world, they made Arabic versions of its philosophical and scientific works. During the Middle Ages, some translations of these Arabic versions were made into Latin, chiefly at Córdoba in Spain.^[16] Such Latin translations of Greek and original Arab works of scholarship and science would help advance the development of European Scholasticism. Languages Arabic other minority languages Religions Predominantly Sunni Islam, as well as Shia Islam, Greek Orthodoxy, Greek Catholicism, Roman Catholicism, Alawite Islam, Druzism, Ibadi Islam, and Judaism Footnotes a Mainly in Antakya. ... Arabic can mean: From or related to Arabia From or related to the Arabs The Arabic language; see also Arabic grammar The Arabic alphabet, used for expressing the languages of Arabic, Persian, Malay ( Jawi), Kurdish, Panjabi, Pashto, Sindhi and Urdu, among others. ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... // The name of the Spanish city CÃ³rdoba had been spread all over the world: homonymous places etc. ... Scholasticism comes from the Latin word scholasticus, which means that [which] belongs to the school, and is the school of philosophy taught by the academics (or schoolmen) of medieval universities circa 1100â€“1500. ...

The broad historic trends in Western translation practice may be illustrated on the example of translation into the English language. The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ...

The first fine translations into English were made by England's first great poet, the 14th-century Geoffrey Chaucer, who adapted from the Italian of Giovanni Boccaccio in his own Knight's Tale and Troilus and Criseyde; began a translation of the French-language Roman de la Rose; and completed a translation of Boethius from the Latin. Chaucer founded an English poetic tradition on adaptations and translations from those earlier-established literary languages.^[16] Chaucer redirects here. ... Giovanni Boccaccio (June 16, 1313 â€“ December 21, 1375) was an Italian author and poet, a friend and correspondent of Petrarch, an important Renaissance humanist in his own right and author of a number of notable works including On Famous Women, the Decameron and his poetry in the vernacular. ... Troilus and Criseyde is Geoffrey Chaucers poem in rhyme royal re-telling the tragic love story of Troilus, a Trojan prince, and Criseyde. ... French (franÃ§ais, pronounced ) is today spoken by about 350 million people around the world as either a native or a second language,[7] with significant populations in 54 countries. ... Mirth and Gladness lead a Dance in this miniature from a manuscript of the Roman de la Rose in the Bodleian Library (MS Douce 364, folio 8r). ... There are several persons called Bo thius: Philosophers: Anicius Manlius Severinus thius - to many scholars this is the Bo thius, a late-Roman writer best known for his works in philosophy and theology. ... For other uses, see Latins and Latin (disambiguation). ... This article is about the art form. ... â€¹ The template below (Expand) is being considered for deletion. ... A literary language is a register of a language that is used in writing, and which often differs in lexicon and syntax from the language used in speech. ...

The first great English translation was the Wycliffe Bible (ca. 1382), which showed the weaknesses of an underdeveloped English prose. Only at the end of the 15th century would the great age of English prose translation begin with Thomas Malory's Le Morte Darthur—an adaptation of Arthurian romances so free that it can, in fact, hardly be called a true translation. The first great Tudor translations are, accordingly, the Tyndale New Testament (1525), which would influence the Authorized Version (1611), and Lord Berners' version of Jean Froissart's Chronicles (1523–25).^[16] Prose is writing distinguished from poetry by its greater variety of rhythm and its closer resemblance to everyday speech. ... Sir Thomas Malory (c. ... Le Morte dArthur (The Death of Arthur)—the title is actually spelled as Le Morte Darthur in the first printing and also in many many modern editions—is Sir Thomas Malorys compilation of some French and English Arthurian romances. ... King Arthur is an important figure in the mythology of Britain. ... Tudor usually relates to the Tudor period in English history, which refers to the period of time between 1485 and 1558/1603 when the Tudor dynasty held the English throne. ... The Tyndale Bible generally refers to the body of biblical translations by William Tyndale. ... This page is about the version of the Bible; for the Harvey Danger album, see King James Version (album). ... The Barony of Berners is a barony by writ in the Peerage of England. ... Jean Froissart (~1337 - ~1405) was one of the most important of the chroniclers of medieval France. ...

Meanwhile, in Renaissance Italy, a new period in the history of translation had opened in Florence with the arrival, at the court of Cosimo de' Medici, of the Byzantine scholar Georgius Gemistus Pletho shortly before the fall of Constantinople to the Turks (1453). A Latin translation of Plato's works was undertaken by Marsilio Ficino. This and Erasmus' Latin edition of the New Testament led to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of Plato, Aristotle and Jesus.^[16] This article is about the European Renaissance of the 14th-17th centuries. ... Florence (or Firenze, Florentia and Fiorenza) is the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany, and of the province of Florence. ... Jacopo Pontormo: posthumous portrait of Cosimo de Medici, 1518-1519: the laurel branch, il Broncone, was an impresa used also by his heirs. ... The Byzantine Empire is the term conventionally used to describe the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages, centered at its capital in Constantinople. ... This article is about the city before the Fall of Constantinople (1453). ... For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation). ... Marsilio Ficino (Latin name: Marsilius Ficinus; Figline Valdarno, October 19, 1433 - Careggi, October 1, 1499) was one of the most influential humanist philosophers of the early Italian Renaissance, an astrologer, a reviver of Neoplatonism who was in touch with every major academic thinker and writer of his day, and the... Desiderius Erasmus in 1523 Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus (also Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam) (October 27, probably 1466 â€“ July 12, 1536) was a Dutch humanist and theologian. ... This article is about the Christian scriptures. ... For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Aristotle (disambiguation). ... This article is about Jesus of Nazareth. ...

Non-scholarly literature, however, continued to rely on adaptation. France's Pléiade, England's Tudor poets, and the Elizabethan translators adapted themes by Horace, Ovid, Petrarch and modern Latin writers, forming a new poetic style on those models. The English poets and translators sought to supply a new public, created by the rise of a middle class and the development of printing, with works such as the original authors would have written, had they been writing in England in that day.^[16] The PlÃ©iade was a group of 16th-century French poets whose principal members were Pierre de Ronsard, Joachim du Bellay and Jean-Antoine de BaÃ¯f. ... For other uses, see England (disambiguation). ... Tudor usually relates to the Tudor period in English history, which refers to the period of time between 1485 and 1558/1603 when the Tudor dynasty held the English throne. ... The Elizabethan Era is the period associated with the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558 - 1603) and is often considered to be a golden age in English history. ... For other people named Horace, see Horace (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Ovid (disambiguation). ... From the c. ... The middle class (or middle classes) comprises a social group once defined by exception as an intermediate social class between the nobility and the peasantry. ... For other uses, see Print. ...

The Elizabethan period of translation saw considerable progress beyond mere paraphrase toward an ideal of stylistic equivalence, but even to the end of this period—which actually reached to the middle of the 17th century—there was no concern for verbal accuracy.^[17] The Elizabethan Era is the period associated with the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558 - 1603) and is often considered to be a golden age in English history. ... Look up Paraphrase in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Stylistics is the study of style used in literary, and verbal language and the effect the writer/speaker wishes to communicate to the reader/hearer. ... Broadly conceived, linguistics is the study of human language, and a linguist is someone who engages in this study. ... In the fields of science, engineering, industry and statistics, accuracy is the degree of conformity of a measured or calculated quantity to its actual (true) value. ...

In the second half of the 17th century, the poet John Dryden sought to make Virgil speak "in words such as he would probably have written if he were living and an Englishman." Dryden, however, discerned no need to emulate the Roman poet's subtlety and concision. Similarly, Homer suffered from Alexander Pope's endeavor to reduce the Greek poet's "wild paradise" to order.^[17] John Dryden John Dryden (August 19 {August 9 O.S.}, 1631 - May 12 {May 1 O.S.}, 1700) was an influential English poet, literary critic, translator and playwright, who dominated the literary life of Restoration England to such a point that the period came to be known in literary circles... For other uses, see Virgil (disambiguation). ... This article is about the Greek poet Homer and the works attributed to him. ... For other uses, see Alexander Pope (disambiguation). ...

Throughout the 18th century, the watchword of translators was ease of reading. Whatever they did not understand in a text, or thought might bore readers, they omitted. They cheerfully assumed that their own style of expression was the best, and that texts should be made to conform to it in translation. For scholarship they cared no more than had their predecessors, and they did not shrink from making translations from translations in third languages, or from languages that they hardly knew, or—as in the case of James Macpherson's "translations" of Ossian—from texts that were actually of the "translator's" own composition.^[17] (17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ... James Macpherson (October 27, 1736â€“February 17, 1796), was a Scottish poet, known as the translator of the Ossian cycle of poems (also known as the OisÃn cycle). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with OisÃn. ...

The 19th century brought new standards of accuracy and style. In regard to accuracy, observes J.M. Cohen, the policy became "the text, the whole text, and nothing but the text," except for any bawdy passages and the addition of copious explanatory footnotes. In regard to style, the Victorians' aim, achieved through far-reaching metaphrase (literality) or pseudo-metaphrase, was to constantly remind readers that they were reading a foreign classic. An exception was the outstanding translation in this period, Edward FitzGerald's Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam (1859), which achieved its Oriental flavor largely by using Persian names and discreet Biblical echoes and actually drew little of its material from the Persian original.^[17] Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... This page is a candidate for speedy deletion, because: it is just a definition; Wiktionary already has it If you disagree with its speedy deletion, please explain why on its talk page or at Wikipedia:Speedy deletions. ... Endnote redirects here. ... Queen Victoria (shown here on the morning of her Accession to the Throne, June 20, 1837) gave her name to the historic era. ... Edward Marlborough FitzGerald (March 31, 1809–June 14, 1883) was an English writer, best known as the poet of the English translation of Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám. ... Rubaiyat is a common shorthand name for the collection of Persian verses known more formally as the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. ... Tomb of Omar Khayam, Neishapur, Iran. ...

In advance of the 20th century, a new pattern was set in 1871 by Benjamin Jowett, who translated Plato into simple, straightforward language. Jowett's example was not followed, however, until well into the new century, when accuracy rather than style became the principal criterion.^[17] (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999 in the... Benjamin Jowett (April 15, 1817 â€“ October 1, 1893) was an English scholar and theologian, Master of Balliol College, Oxford. ... For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation). ...

Poetry

Poetry presents special challenges to translators, given the importance of a text's formal aspects, in addition to its content. In his influential 1959 paper "On Linguistic Aspects of Translation," the Russian-born linguist and semiotician Roman Jakobson went so far as to declare that "poetry by definition [is] untranslatable." This article is about the art form. ... It has been suggested that this article be split into multiple articles accessible from a disambiguation page. ... The following is a list of linguists, those who study linguistics. ... ... Roman Osipovich Jakobson, (Russian, Ð Ð¾Ð¼Ð°Ð½ ÐžÑÐ¸Ð¿Ð¾Ð²Ð¸Ñ‡ Ð¯ÐºÐ¾Ð±ÑÐ¾Ð½), (October 11, 1896 â€“ July 18, 1982) was a Russian thinker who became one of the most influential linguists of the 20th century by pioneering the development of structural analysis of language, poetry, and art. ...

In 1974 the American poet James Merrill wrote a poem, "Lost in Translation," which in part explores this idea. The question was also discussed in Douglas Hofstadter's 1997 book, Le Ton beau de Marot. poet James Merrill, age 30, in a 1957 publicity photograph for The Seraglio James Ingram Merrill (March 3, 1926 - February 6, 1995) was a Pulitzer Prize winning American writer, increasingly regarded as one of the most important 20th century poets in the English language. ... James Merrills childhood home was a 50-room mansion called The Orchard, located in Southampton, New York Lost in Translation is a poem by James Merrill, originally published in The New Yorker magazine on April 8, 1974. ... Douglas Richard Hofstadter (born February 15, 1945 in New York, New York) is an American academic. ... Book cover Le Ton beau de Marot: In Praise of the Music of Language (ISBN 0-465-08645-4), published by Basic Books in 1997, is a book by Douglas Hofstadter in which he explores the meaning, strengths, failings, and beauty of translation. ...

Sung texts

Translation of a text that is sung in vocal music for the purpose of singing in another language — sometimes called "singing translation" — is closely linked to translation of poetry because most vocal music, at least in the Western tradition, is set to verse, especially verse in regular patterns with rhyme. (Since the late 19th century, musical setting of prose and free verse has also been practiced in some art music, though popular music tends to remain conservative in its retention of stanzaic forms with or without refrains.) A rudimentary example of translating poetry for singing is church hymns, such as the German chorales translated into English by Catherine Winkworth. ^[18] Vocal music is music performed by one or more singers, with or without non-vocal instrumental accompaniment, in which singing provides the main focus of the piece. ... Verse is a writing that uses meter as its primary organisational mode, as opposed to prose, which uses grammatical and discoursal units like sentences and paragraphs. ... A rhyme is a repetition of identical or similar sounds in two or more different words and is most often used in poetry. ... Prose is writing distinguished from poetry by its greater variety of rhythm and its closer resemblance to everyday speech. ... For the software company, see Freeverse. ... This article is about the broad genre of classical music in the Western musical tradition. ... For the music genre, see Pop music. ... In poetry, a stanza is a unit within a larger poem. ... A refrain (from the Old French refraindre to repeat, likely from Vulgar Latin refringere) is the line or lines that are repeated in music or in verse; the chorus of a song. ... For other uses, see Hymn (disambiguation). ... A chorale was originally a hymn of the Lutheran church sung by the entire congregation. ... Catherine Winkworth (September 13, 1827 _ July 1, 1878) was an English translator best known for bringing the German chorale tradition to many English speakers with her translations of many hymns. ...

Translation of sung texts is generally much more restrictive than translation of poetry, because in the former there is little or no freedom to choose between a versified translation and a translation that dispenses with verse structure. One might modify or omit rhyme in a singing translation, but the assignment of syllables to specific notes in the original musical setting places great challenges on the translator. There is the option in prose sung texts, less so in verse, of adding or deleting a syllable here and there by subdividing or combining notes, respectively, but even with prose the process is almost like strict verse translation because of the need to stick as closely as possible to the original prosody of the sung melodic line.

Other considerations in writing a singing translation include repetition of words and phrases, the placement of rests and/or punctuation, the quality of vowels sung on high notes, and rhythmic features of the vocal line that may be more natural to the original language than to the target language. A sung translation may be considerably or completely different from the original, thus resulting in a contrafactum. In vocal music, contrafactum refers to the substitution of one text for another without substantial change to the music.[1] // The Star Spangled Banner vs To Anacreon in Heaven? Modern parody and filk Happy Birthday copyright situation (see Happy Birthday) Irving Berlin et al. ...

Translations of sung texts — whether of the above type meant to be sung or of a more or less literal type meant to be read — are also used as aids to audiences, singers and conductors, when a work is being sung in a language not known to them. The most familiar types are translations presented as subtitles projected during opera performances, those inserted into concert programs, and those that accompany commercial audio CDs of vocal music. In addition, professional and amateur singers often sing works in languages they do not know (or do not know well), and translations are then used to enable them to understand the meaning of the words they are singing. For other uses, see Opera (disambiguation). ...

History of theory

Discussions of the theory and practice of translation reach back into antiquity and show remarkable continuities. The distinction that had been drawn by the ancient Greeks between "metaphrase" ("literal" translation) and "paraphrase" would be adopted by the English poet and translator John Dryden (1631-1700), who represented translation as the judicious blending of these two modes of phrasing when selecting, in the target language, "counterparts," or equivalents, for the expressions used in the source language: John Dryden This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... John Dryden This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... John Dryden John Dryden (August 19 {August 9 O.S.}, 1631 - May 12 {May 1 O.S.}, 1700) was an influential English poet, literary critic, translator and playwright, who dominated the literary life of Restoration England to such a point that the period came to be known in literary circles... Antiquity means different things: Generally it means ancient history, and may be used of any period before the Middle Ages. ... Ancient Greece is the term used to describe the Greek_speaking world in ancient times. ... Look up Paraphrase in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... A poet is a person who writes poetry. ... Look up Translator in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... John Dryden John Dryden (August 19 {August 9 O.S.}, 1631 - May 12 {May 1 O.S.}, 1700) was an influential English poet, literary critic, translator and playwright, who dominated the literary life of Restoration England to such a point that the period came to be known in literary circles... Dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence are two approaches to translation. ...

"When [words] appear... literally graceful, it were an injury to the author that they should be changed. But since... what is beautiful in one [language] is often barbarous, nay sometimes nonsense, in another, it would be unreasonable to limit a translator to the narrow compass of his author's words: 'tis enough if he choose out some expression which does not vitiate the sense."^[19]

Dryden cautioned, however, against the license of "imitation," i.e. of adapted translation: "When a painter copies from the life... he has no privilege to alter features and lineaments..."

This general formulation of the central concept of translation — equivalence — is probably as adequate as any that has been proposed ever since Cicero and Horace, in first-century-BCE Rome, famously and literally cautioned against translating "word for word" ("verbum pro verbo").^[20] Scanned from a book dated 1900. ... Scanned from a book dated 1900. ... For other uses, see Cicero (disambiguation). ... Dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence are two approaches to translation. ... For other uses, see Cicero (disambiguation). ... For other people named Horace, see Horace (disambiguation). ... Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula circa the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. ...

Despite occasional theoretical diversities, the actual practice of translators has hardly changed since antiquity. Except for some extreme metaphrasers in the early Christian period and the Middle Ages, and adapters in various periods (especially pre-Classical Rome, and the 18th century), translators have generally shown prudent flexibility in seeking equivalents — "literal" where possible, paraphrastic where necessary — for the original meaning and other crucial "values" (e.g., style, verse form, concordance with musical accompaniment or, in films, with speech articulatory movements) as determined from context. Antiquity means different things: Generally it means ancient history, and may be used of any period before the Middle Ages. ... For other uses, see Christian (disambiguation). ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... Dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence are two approaches to translation. ... Look up Paraphrase in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... In linguistics, meaning is the content carried by the words or signs exchanged by people when communicating through language. ... Poetry (ancient Greek: poieo = create) is an art form in which human language is used for its aesthetic qualities in addition to, or instead of, its notional and semantic content. ... For other uses, see Music (disambiguation). ... This article is about motion pictures. ... In linguistics, manner of articulation describes how the tongue, lips, and other speech organs involved in making a sound make contact. ...

In general, translators have sought to preserve the context itself by reproducing the original order of sememes, and hence word order — when necessary, reinterpreting the actual grammatical structure. The grammatical differences between "fixed-word-order" languages^[21] (e.g., English, French, German) and "free-word-order" languages^[22] (e.g., Greek, Latin, Polish, Russian) have been no impediment in this regard. A Sememe is a proposed unit of transmitted or intended meaning; it is atomic or indivisible. ... In linguistic typology, word order, or more precisely constituent order refers to the permitted combinations of words or larger constituents. ... This article is about grammar from a linguistic perspective. ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... For other uses, see Latins and Latin (disambiguation). ...

When a target language has lacked terms that are found in a source language, translators have borrowed them, thereby enriching the target language. Thanks in great measure to the exchange of "calques" (French for "tracings") between languages, and to their importation from Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Arabic and other languages, there are few concepts that are "untranslatable" among the modern European languages.^[23] Terminology is the study of terms and their use â€” of words and compound words that are used in specific contexts. ... // In linguistics, a calque (pronounced ) or loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal, word-for-word (Latin: verbum pro verbo) or root-for-root translation. ... Tracing paper is a type of translucent paper. ... Hebrew redirects here. ... Arabic redirects here. ... For other uses, see Concept (disambiguation). ... Untranslatability is a property of a text, or of any utterance, in one language, for which no equivalent text or utterance can be found in another language. ...

In general, the greater the contact and exchange that has existed between two languages, or between both and a third one, the greater is the ratio of metaphrase to paraphrase that may be used in translating between them. However, due to shifts in "ecological niches" of words, a common etymology is sometimes misleading as a guide to current meaning in one or the other language. The English "actual," for example, should not be confused with the cognate French "actuel" (meaning "present," "current") or the Polish "aktualny" ("present," "current").^[24] Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (832x1119, 534 KB) Summary A portrait of Samuel Johnson by Joshua Reynolds showing Johnson pulling a books cover back and concentrating intensely on its words. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (832x1119, 534 KB) Summary A portrait of Samuel Johnson by Joshua Reynolds showing Johnson pulling a books cover back and concentrating intensely on its words. ... For other persons named Samuel Johnson, see Samuel Johnson (disambiguation). ... Look up Paraphrase in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Two lichens on a rock, in two different ecological niches In ecology, a niche (pronounced nich, neesh or nish)[1] is a term describing the relational position of a species or population in its ecosystem[1]. A shorthand definition is that a niche is how an organism makes a living. ... Etymologies redirects here. ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... Look up cognate in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

The translator's role as a bridge for "carrying across" values between cultures has been discussed at least since Terence, Roman adapter of Greek comedies, in the second century BCE. The translator's role is, however, by no means a passive and mechanical one, and so has also been compared to that of an artist. The main ground seems to be the concept of parallel creation found in critics as early as Cicero. Dryden observed that "Translation is a type of drawing after life..." Comparison of the translator with a musician or actor goes back at least to Samuel Johnson's remark about Alexander Pope playing Homer on a flageolet, while Homer himself used a bassoon.^[25] This article is about the structure. ... For other uses, see Culture (disambiguation). ... Publius Terentius Afer, better known as Terence, was a comic playwright of the Roman Republic. ... The definition of an artist is wide-ranging and covers a broad spectrum of activities to do with creating art, practicing the arts and/or demonstrating an art. ... For other uses, see Cicero (disambiguation). ... John Dryden John Dryden (August 19 {August 9 O.S.}, 1631 - May 12 {May 1 O.S.}, 1700) was an influential English poet, literary critic, translator and playwright, who dominated the literary life of Restoration England to such a point that the period came to be known in literary circles... For the popular-music magazine, see Musician (magazine). ... Actors in period costume sharing a joke whilst waiting between takes during location filming. ... For other persons named Samuel Johnson, see Samuel Johnson (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Alexander Pope (disambiguation). ... This article is about the Greek poet Homer and the works attributed to him. ... A Flageolet is a woodwind musical instrument and a member of the fipple flute family. ... The bassoon is a woodwind instrument in the double reed family that typically plays music written in the bass and tenor registers and occasionally even higher. ...

If translation be an art, it is no easy one. In the 13th century, Roger Bacon wrote that if a translation is to be true, the translator must know both languages, as well as the science that he is to translate; and finding that few translators did, he wanted to do away with translation and translators altogether.^[26] Download high resolution version (700x694, 48 KB)Statue of Roger Bacon in the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. ... Download high resolution version (700x694, 48 KB)Statue of Roger Bacon in the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. ... For the Nova Scotia premier see Roger Bacon (politician). ... For the Nova Scotia premier see Roger Bacon (politician). ... A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor demonstrates the Meissner effect. ...

The first European to assume that one translates satisfactorily only toward his own language may have been Martin Luther, translator of the Bible into German. According to L.G. Kelly, since Johann Gottfried Herder in the 18th century, "it has been axiomatic" that one works only toward his own language.^[27] Download high resolution version (600x645, 471 KB)Print quality version of Luther46. ... Download high resolution version (600x645, 471 KB)Print quality version of Luther46. ... Martin Luther (November 10, 1483 â€“ February 18, 1546) was a German monk,[1] priest, professor, theologian, and church reformer. ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ... Martin Luther (November 10, 1483 â€“ February 18, 1546) was a German monk,[1] priest, professor, theologian, and church reformer. ... For other uses, see Bible (disambiguation). ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

Compounding these demands upon the translator is the fact that not even the most complete dictionary or thesaurus can ever be a fully adequate guide in translation. Alexander Tytler, in his Essay on the Principles of Translation (1790), emphasized that assiduous reading is a more comprehensive guide to a language than are dictionaries. The same point, but also including listening to the spoken language, had earlier been made in 1783 by Onufry Andrzej Kopczyński, member of Poland's Society for Elementary Books, who was called "the last Latin poet."^[28] For other uses, see Dictionary (disambiguation). ... For the American rapper, see TheSaurus (rapper). ... Alexander Fraser Tytler, Lord Woodhouselee (October 15, 1747 - January 5, 1813) Scottish-born British lawyer and writer. ... Reading is a process of retrieving and comprehending some form of stored information or ideas. ... ... Spoken language is a language that people utter words of the language. ... Onufry Kopczynski (1736â€“1817) was an important educator and grammarian of the Polish language. ...

The special role of the translator in society was well described in an essay, published posthumously in 1803, by Ignacy Krasicki — "Poland's La Fontaine", Primate of Poland, poet, encyclopedist, author of the first Polish novel, and translator from French and Greek: This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Image File history File links Ignacy_Krasicki_1. ... Image File history File links Ignacy_Krasicki_1. ... Ignacy Krasicki Ignacy Krasicki (February 3, 1735, in Galicia â€” March 14, 1801, in Berlin) was a Polish prince of the Roman Catholic Church, a social critic, a leading writer, and the outstanding poet of the Polish Enlightenment, hailed by contemporaries as the Prince of Poets. ... Ignacy Krasicki Ignacy Krasicki (February 3, 1735, in Galicia â€” March 14, 1801, in Berlin) was a Polish prince of the Roman Catholic Church, a social critic, a leading writer, and the outstanding poet of the Polish Enlightenment, hailed by contemporaries as the Prince of Poets. ... Jean de La Fontaine. ... Archbishops of Gniezno and simultaneously Primates of Poland since 1412. ...

Religious texts

Translation of religious works has played an important role in history. Buddhist monks who translated the Indian sutras into Chinese often skewed their translations to better reflect China's very different culture, emphasizing notions such as filial piety. SÅ«tra (sex) (Sanskrit) or Sutta (PÄli) literally means a rope or thread that holds things together, and more metaphorically refers to an aphorism (or line, rule, formula), or a collection of such aphorisms in the form of a manual. ... For other uses, see Culture (disambiguation). ... Filial piety is extended into the afterlife. ...

A famous mistranslation of the Bible is the rendering of the Hebrew word "keren," which has several meanings, as "horn" in a context where it actually means "beam of light." As a result, artists have for centuries depicted Moses the Lawgiver with horns growing out of his forehead. An example is Michelangelo's famous sculpture. Christian anti-Semites used such depictions to spread hatred of the Jews, claiming that they were devils with horns. For other uses, see Bible (disambiguation). ... Hebrew redirects here. ... 1975 TV movie directed by Gianfranco De Bosio and starring Burt Lancaster, with screenplay by Vittorio Bonicelli and Anthony Burgess, and music by Ennio Morricone. ... For other uses, see Michelangelo (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Christian (disambiguation). ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Languages Historical Jewish languages Hebrew, Yiddish, Ladino, others Liturgical languages: Hebrew and Aramaic Predominant spoken languages: The vernacular language of the home nation in the Diaspora, significantly including English, Hebrew, Yiddish, and Russian Religions Judaism Related ethnic groups Arabs and other Semitic groups For the Jewish religion, see Judaism. ... This is an overview of the Devil. ...

One of the first recorded instances of translation in the West was the rendering of the Old Testament into Greek in the third century B.C.E. The resulting translation is known as the Septuagint, a name that alludes to the "seventy" translators (seventy-two in some versions) who were commissioned to translate the Bible in Alexandria. Each translator worked in solitary confinement in a separate cell, and legend has it that all seventy versions were identical. The Septuagint became the source text for later translations into many languages, including Latin, Coptic, Armenian and Georgian. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (516x800, 112 KB) File links The following pages link to this file: Jerome ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (516x800, 112 KB) File links The following pages link to this file: Jerome ... For other uses, see Jerome (disambiguation). ... Saint Quentin is the patron saint of locksmiths and is also invoked against coughs and sneezes. ... Topics in Christianity Movements Â· Denominations Â· Other religions Ecumenism Â· Preaching Â· Prayer Music Â· Liturgy Â· Calendar Symbols Â· Art Â· Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul Â· Church Fathers Constantine Â· Athanasius Â· Augustine Anselm Â· Aquinas Â· Palamas Â· Luther Calvin Â· Wesley Arius Â· Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury Â· Catholic Pope Coptic Pope Â· Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box: Note: Judaism... The Septuagint: A column of uncial text from 1 Esdras in the Codex Vaticanus, the basis of Sir Lancelot Charles Lee Brentons Greek edition and English translation. ... For other uses, see Bible (disambiguation). ... This article is about the city in Egypt. ... A source text is text (usually written but sometimes oral) from which information or ideas are derived. ... For other uses, see Latins and Latin (disambiguation). ... The Coptic language is a direct descendant of the ancient Egyptian language which was once written in Egyptian hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic scripts. ...

Saint Jerome, the patron saint of translation, is still considered one of the greatest translators in history for rendering the Bible into Latin. The Roman Catholic Church used his translation (known as the Vulgate) for centuries, but even this translation at first stirred much controversy. For other uses, see Jerome (disambiguation). ... Saint Quentin is the patron saint of locksmiths and is also invoked against coughs and sneezes. ... For other uses, see Bible (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Latins and Latin (disambiguation). ... Catholic Church redirects here. ... The Vulgate Bible is an early 5th century version in Latin, partly revised and partly translated by Jerome on the orders of Pope Damasus I in 382. ...

The period preceding and contemporary with the Protestant Reformation saw the translation of the Bible into local European languages, a development that greatly affected Western Christianity's split into Roman Catholicism and Protestantism, due to disparities between Catholic and Protestant versions of crucial words and passages. Reformation redirects here. ... For other uses, see Bible (disambiguation). ... Topics in Christianity Movements Â· Denominations Â· Other religions Ecumenism Â· Preaching Â· Prayer Music Â· Liturgy Â· Calendar Symbols Â· Art Â· Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul Â· Church Fathers Constantine Â· Athanasius Â· Augustine Anselm Â· Aquinas Â· Palamas Â· Luther Calvin Â· Wesley Arius Â· Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury Â· Catholic Pope Coptic Pope Â· Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box: Western Christianity... Catholic Church redirects here. ... Topics in Christianity Movements Â· Denominations Ecumenism Â· Relation to other religions Preaching Â· Prayer Music Â· Liturgy Â· Calendar Symbols Â· Art Â· Criticism Christianity Portal This box: Protestantism encompasses the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated with the doctrines of the Reformation. ...

Martin Luther's Bible in German, Jakub Wujek's in Polish, and the King James Bible in English had lasting effects on the religions, cultures and languages of those countries. Martin Luther (November 10, 1483 â€“ February 18, 1546) was a German monk,[1] priest, professor, theologian, and church reformer. ... For other uses, see Bible (disambiguation). ... Jakub Wujek (1541-97) was a Polish Jesuit, religious writer, and translator of the Bible into Polish. ... This page is about the version of the Bible; for the Harvey Danger album, see King James Version (album). ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ...

The Bible has been translated into many languages. ... Translations of the QurÃ¡n are versions of the book of Islam in languages other than Arabic. ...

Machine translation

Machine translation (MT) is a procedure whereby a computer program analyzes a source text and produces a target text without further human intervention. In reality, however, machine translation typically does involve human intervention, in the form of pre-editing and post-editing. An exception to that rule might be, e.g., the translation of technical specifications (strings of technical terms and adjectives), using a dictionary-based machine-translation system. Machine translation, sometimes referred to by the acronym MT, is a sub-field of computational linguistics that investigates the use of computer software to translate text or speech from one natural language to another. ... A source text is text (usually written but sometimes oral) from which information or ideas are derived. ... Terminology is the study of terms and their use â€” of words and compound words that are used in specific contexts. ... Machine translation can use a method based on dictionary entries, which means that the words will be translated as a dictionary does â€” word by word, usually without much correlation of meaning between them. ...

To date, machine translation—a major goal of natural-language processing—has met with limited success. A November 6, 2007, example illustrates the hazards of uncritical reliance on machine translation.^[30] Natural language processing (NLP) is a subfield of artificial intelligence and computational linguistics. ... is the 310th day of the year (311th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... Machine translation, sometimes referred to by the acronym MT, is a sub-field of computational linguistics that investigates the use of computer software to translate text or speech from one natural language to another. ...

Machine translation has been brought to a large public by tools available on the Internet, such as Yahoo!'s Babel Fish, Babylon, and StarDict. These tools produce a "gisting translation" — a rough translation that, with luck, "gives the gist" of the source text. Yahoo redirects here. ... // Babel Fish is a web-based application developed by AltaVista (now part of Yahoo!) which machine translates text or web pages from one of several languages into another. ... Babylon is a single-click translation utility and also information source tool. ... StarDict is a free GPL desktop dictionary that serves as a user interface to StarDict dictionary files. ...

With proper terminology work, with preparation of the source text for machine translation (pre-editing), and with re-working of the machine translation by a professional human translator (post-editing), commercial machine-translation tools can produce useful results, especially if the machine-translation system is integrated with a translation-memory or globalization-management system. ^[31] Terminology is the study of terms and their use â€” of words and compound words that are used in specific contexts. ... A translation memory, or TM, is a type of database that is used in software programs designed to aid human translators. ... A globalization management system (GMS) is a type of software for automating many parts of the human language translation process and maximizing translator efficiency. ...

In regard to texts (e.g., weather reports) with limited ranges of vocabulary and simple sentence structure, machine translation can deliver results that do not require much human intervention to be useful. Also, the use of a controlled language, combined with a machine-translation tool, will typically generate largely comprehensible translations. // Meteorology (from Greek: Î¼ÎµÏ„ÎÏ‰ÏÎ¿Î½, meteoron, high in the sky; and Î»ÏŒÎ³Î¿Ï‚, logos, knowledge) is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere that focuses on weather processes and forecasting. ... The vocabulary of a person is defined either as the set of all words that are understood by that person or the set of all words likely to be used by that person when constructing new sentences. ... In linguistics, a sentence is a unit of language, characterized in most languages by the presence of a finite verb. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Controlled Natural Languages are subsets of natural languages whose grammars and dictionaries have been restricted in order to reduce or eliminate both ambiguity and complexity. ...

Relying on machine translation exclusively ignores the fact that communication in human language is context-embedded and that it takes a person to comprehend the context of the original text with a reasonable degree of probability. It is certainly true that even purely human-generated translations are prone to error. Therefore, to ensure that a machine-generated translation will be useful to a human being and that publishable-quality translation is achieved, such translations must be reviewed and edited by a human.^[32] In the philosophy of language, a natural language (or ordinary language) is a language that is spoken, written, or signed by humans for general-purpose communication, as distinguished from formal languages (such as computer-programming languages or the languages used in the study of formal logic, especially mathematical logic) and...

Computer-assisted translation

Computer-assisted translation (CAT), also called computer-aided translation, machine-aided human translation (MAHT) or interactive translation, is a form of translation wherein a human translator creates a target text with the assistance of a computer program. The machine supports a human translator. Computer-assisted translation, computer-aided translation, or CAT is a form of translation wherein a human translator translates texts using computer software designed to support and facilitate the translation process. ...

Computer-assisted translation can include standard dictionary and grammar software. The term, however, normally refers to a range of specialized programs available to the translator, including translation-memory, terminology-management, concordance, and alignment programs. For other uses, see Dictionary (disambiguation). ... A translation memory, or TM, is a type of database that is used in software programs designed to aid human translators. ... Terminology is the study of terms and their use â€” of words and compound words that are used in specific contexts. ... A concordancer is a computer program that automatically constructs a concordance. ...

With the Internet, translation software can be very helpful for non-native individuals to understand web pages published in different languages. Whole page translation tools can be limited since they only have a limited understanding of the original author's intent or context. As a result, translated pages tend to be more humorous and confusing rather than useful.

Interactive translations with pop-up windows are becoming more popular. These tools show several possible translations of each word or phrase. Human operators merely need to select the correct translation as the mouse glides over the foreign text. Possible definitions can be grouped by pronunciation. Pinyin, more formally called Hanyu Pinyin (Simplified Chinese: ; Traditional Chinese: ; Pinyin: ), is the most common variant of Standard Mandarin romanization system in use. ...

Contents

The term

Misconceptions

Interpreting

Fidelity vs. transparency

Equivalence

Back-translation

Literary translation

History

Poetry

Sung texts

History of theory

Religious texts

Machine translation

Computer-assisted translation

See also

Notes

References

External links

Resources

Associations and Federations

Publications

Contents

The term GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");

Misconceptions

Interpreting

Fidelity vs. transparency

Equivalence

Back-translation

Literary translation

History

Poetry

Sung texts

History of theory

Religious texts

Machine translation

Computer-assisted translation

See also

Notes

References

External links

Resources

Associations and Federations

Publications

The term