Magnification of grains of sugar, showing their monoclinic hemihedral crystalline structure.

Magnified crystals of refined sugar.

Sugar (the word stems from the Sanskrit sharkara) consists of a class of edible crystalline substances including sucrose, lactose, and fructose. Human taste-buds interpret its flavor as sweet. Sugar as a basic food carbohydrate primarily comes from sugar cane and from sugar beet, but also appears in fruit, honey, sorghum, sugar maple (in maple syrup), and in many other sources. It forms the main ingredient in much candy. Excessive consumption of sugar has been associated with increased incidences of type-2 diabetes, obesity and tooth-decay. Look up Sugar in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (3456x2304, 1476 KB) Summary The sugar was on a ruler, and the black marks are 1mm apart. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (3456x2304, 1476 KB) Summary The sugar was on a ruler, and the black marks are 1mm apart. ... In crystallography, the monoclinic crystal system is one of the 7 lattice point groups. ... Lactose is a disaccharide found in milk. ... Dietary fibers are the indigestible portion of plant foods that move food through the digestive system, absorbing water and making defecation easier. ... In chemistry, especially biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid often with a long unbranched aliphatic tail (chain), which is either saturated or unsaturated. ... A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin showing coloured alpha helices. ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... Riboflavin (E101), also known as vitamin B2, is an easily absorbed micronutrient with a key role in maintaining health in animals. ... For other uses, see Calcium (disambiguation). ... General Name, symbol, number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Standard atomic weight 55. ... General Name, symbol, number potassium, K, 19 Chemical series alkali metals Group, period, block 1, 4, s Appearance silvery white Standard atomic weight 39. ... Reference Daily Intake (RDI) is the daily dietary intake level of a nutrient considered sufficient to meet the requirements of nearly all (97–98%) healthy individuals in each life-stage and gender group. ... Lactose is a disaccharide found in milk. ... Dietary fibers are the indigestible portion of plant foods that move food through the digestive system, absorbing water and making defecation easier. ... In chemistry, especially biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid often with a long unbranched aliphatic tail (chain), which is either saturated or unsaturated. ... A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin showing coloured alpha helices. ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... Thiamine mononitrate Thiamine or thiamin, also known as vitamin B1, is a colorless compound with chemical formula C12H17ClN4OS. It is soluble in water and insoluble in alcohol. ... Riboflavin (E101), also known as vitamin B2, is an easily absorbed micronutrient with a key role in maintaining health in animals. ... Niacin, also known as nicotinic acid or vitamin B3, is a water-soluble vitamin whose derivatives such as NADH, NAD, NAD+, and NADP play essential roles in energy metabolism in the living cell and DNA repair. ... Pyridoxine Pyridoxal phosphate Vitamin B6 is a water-soluble vitamin. ... Folic acid (the anion form is called folate) is a B-complex vitamin (once called vitamin M) that is important in preventing neural tube defects (NTDs) in the developing human fetus. ... For other uses, see Calcium (disambiguation). ... General Name, symbol, number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Standard atomic weight 55. ... Introduction Magnesium is an essential element in biological systems. ... General Name, symbol, number phosphorus, P, 15 Chemical series nonmetals Group, period, block 15, 3, p Appearance waxy white/ red/ black/ colorless Standard atomic weight 30. ... General Name, symbol, number potassium, K, 19 Chemical series alkali metals Group, period, block 1, 4, s Appearance silvery white Standard atomic weight 39. ... R-phrases 36 S-phrases none Flash point Non-flammable Related Compounds Other anions NaF, NaBr, NaI Other cations LiCl, KCl, RbCl, CsCl, MgCl2, CaCl2 Related salts Sodium acetate Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ... General Name, symbol, number zinc, Zn, 30 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 12, 4, d Appearance bluish pale gray Standard atomic weight 65. ... Reference Daily Intake (RDI) is the daily dietary intake level of a nutrient considered sufficient to meet the requirements of nearly all (97–98%) healthy individuals in each life-stage and gender group. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Sanskrit ( , for short ) is a classical language of India, a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism, and one of the 23 official languages of India. ... For other uses, see Crystal (disambiguation). ... Flash point N/A Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 Â°C, 100 kPa) Infobox disclaimer and references Sucrose (common name: table sugar, also called saccharose) is a disaccharide (glucose + fructose) with the molecular formula C12H22O11. ... Lactose is a disaccharide that consists of β-D-galactose and β-D-glucose molecules bonded through a β1-4 glycosidic linkage. ... Fructose (or levulose) is a simple sugar (monosaccharide) found in many foods and is one of the three most important blood sugars along with glucose and galactose. ... Taste buds are small structures on the upper surface of the tongue, soft palate, and epiglottis that provide information about the taste of food being eaten. ... This article is about flavor as a sensory impression. ... Look up Sweet in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Lactose is a disaccharide found in milk. ... Species Ref: ITIS 42058 as of 2004-05-05 Sugarcane is one of six species of a tall tropical southeast Asian grass (Family Poaceae) having stout fibrous jointed stalks whose sap at one time was the primary source of sugar. ... Two sugar beets - the one on the left has been cultivated to be smoother than the traditional beet, so that it traps less soil. ... For other uses, see Fruit (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Honey (disambiguation). ... Species About 30 species, see text Sorghum is a genus of numerous species of grasses, some of which are raised for grain and many of which are utilised as fodder plants either cultivated or as part of pasture. ... Binomial name Acer saccharum Marshall The Sugar Maple Acer saccharum is a prominent tree in the hardwood forests of eastern North America. ... Bottled maple syrup produced in Quebec. ... For other uses, see Candy (disambiguation). ... This article is about the disease that features high blood sugar. ... Types of teeth Molars are used for grinding up foods Carnassials are used for slicing food. ...

Terminology

Popular

In non-scientific use, the term sugar refers to sucrose (also called "table sugar" or "saccharose") — a white crystalline solid disaccharide. In this informal sense, the word "sugar" principally refers to crystalline sugars. Flash point N/A Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 Â°C, 100 kPa) Infobox disclaimer and references Sucrose (common name: table sugar, also called saccharose) is a disaccharide (glucose + fructose) with the molecular formula C12H22O11. ... For other uses, see Crystal (disambiguation). ... This box:      For other uses, see Solid (disambiguation). ... Sucrose, a common disaccharide A disaccharide is a sugar (a carbohydrate) composed of two monosaccharides. ...

Humans most commonly use sucrose as their sugar of choice for altering the flavor and properties (such as mouthfeel, preservation, and texture) of beverages and food. Commercially-produced table-sugar comes either from sugar cane or from sugar beet. Manufacturing and preparing food may involve other sugars, including palm sugar and fructose, generally obtained from corn (maize) or from fruit. This article is about flavor as a sensory impression. ... In many areas related to the testing and evaluating of foodstuffs,such as wine-tasting and rheology, mouthfeel is a product’s physical and chemical interaction in the mouth from initial perception on the palate, to first bite, through mastication to swallowing. ... The word drink is primarily a verb, meaning to ingest liquids, see Drinking. ... Species Ref: ITIS 42058 as of 2004-05-05 Sugarcane is one of six species of a tall tropical southeast Asian grass (Family Poaceae) having stout fibrous jointed stalks whose sap at one time was the primary source of sugar. ... Two sugar beets - the one on the left has been cultivated to be smoother than the traditional beet, so that it traps less soil. ... Palm sugar was originally made from the sugary sap of the Palmyra palm or the date palm. ... Fructose (or levulose) is a simple sugar (monosaccharide) found in many foods and is one of the three most important blood sugars along with glucose and galactose. ... This article is about the maize plant. ...

Sugar may dissolve in water to form a syrup. A great many foods exist which principally contain dissolved sugar. Generically known as "syrups", they may also have other more specific names such as "honey" or "molasses". In cooking, a syrup (from Arabic شراب sharab, beverage, via Latin siropus) is a thick, viscous liquid, containing a large amount of dissolved sugars, but showing little tendency to deposit crystals. ... For other uses, see Honey (disambiguation). ... Molasses or treacle is a thick syrup by-product from the processing of the sugarcane or sugar beet into sugar. ...

Scientific

Scientifically, sugar refers to any monosaccharide or disaccharide. Monosaccharides (also called "simple sugars"), such as glucose, store chemical energy which biological cells convert to other types of energy. Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates. ... Sucrose, a common disaccharide A disaccharide is a sugar (a carbohydrate) composed of two monosaccharides. ... Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. ... For the song by Girls Aloud see Biology (song) Biology studies the variety of life (clockwise from top-left) E. coli, tree fern, gazelle, Goliath beetle Biology (from Greek: βίος, bio, life; and λόγος, logos, speech lit. ... Drawing of the structure of cork as it appeared under the microscope to Robert Hooke from Micrographia which is the origin of the word cell being used to describe the smallest unit of a living organism Cells in culture, stained for keratin (red) and DNA (green) The cell is the...

In a list of ingredients, any word that ends with "ose" will likely denote a sugar. Sometimes such words may also refer to any types of carbohydrates soluble in water. Carbohydrates (literally hydrates of carbon) are chemical compounds that act as the primary biological means of storing or consuming energy, other forms being fat and protein. ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ...

Glucose (a type of sugar found in human blood-plasma) has the molecular formula C₆ H₁₂ O₆. Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. ... Blood plasma is the liquid component of blood, in which the blood cells are suspended. ... A chemical formula (also called molecular formula) is a concise way of expressing information about the atoms that constitute a particular chemical compound. ...

Culinary/nutritional

In culinary terms, the foodstuff known as sugar delivers a primary taste sensation of sweetness. Apart from the many forms of sugar and of sugar-containing foodstuffs, alternative non-sugar-based sweeteners exist, and these particularly attract interest from people who have problems with their blood-sugar level (such as diabetics) and people who wish to limit their calorie-intake while still enjoying sweet foods. Both natural and synthetic substitutes exist with no significant carbohydrate (and thus low-calorie) content: for instance stevia (a herb), and saccharin (produced from naturally occurring but not necessarily naturally edible substances by inducing appropriate chemical reactions). Sour redirects here. ... For other uses, see Sweetness (disambiguation). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Sugar substitute. ... In medicine, blood sugar is a term used to refer to levels of glucose in the blood. ... This article is about the disease that features high blood sugar. ... Etymology: French calorie, from Latin calor (heat), from calere (to be warm). ... Lactose is a disaccharide found in milk. ... Species About 150 species, including: Stevia eupatoria Stevia ovata Stevia plummerae Stevia rebaudiana Stevia salicifolia Stevia serrata Stevia is a genus of about 150 species of herbs and shrubs in the sunflower family (Asteraceae), native to subtropical and tropical South America and Central America. ... For other uses, see Herb (disambiguation). ... Saccharin[2] is the oldest artificial sweetener. ... In general terms, eating is the process of consuming something edible. ... Chemical reactions are also known as chemical changes. ...

History

Early use of sugar-cane in Asia

Originally, people chewed the cane raw to extract its sweetness. Later, the Indians discovered how to crystallize sugar during the Gupta dynasty, around 350 AD.^[1] John F. Robyt (1998) locates the two most probable origins of sugar cultivation as North East India or the South Pacific, which provide evidence of sugarcane cultivation as early as 10,000 BC and 6,000 BC respectively.^[2] Further archaeological evidence associates sugar with the Indus valley.^[2] The Gupta dynasty ruled the Gupta Empire of India, from around 320 to 550. ... North-East India is the easternmost region of India consisting of the following states: Nagaland Arunachal Pradesh Mizoram Manipur Meghalaya Tripura Sikkim Assam Sikkim became an Indian protectorate in 1947 and a full state in 1975. ... For other uses, see Oceania (disambiguation). ... The Indus (सिन्‍धु नदी) (known as Sindhu in ancient times) is the principal river of Pakistan. ...

This cultivation spread to the Indian subcontinent during early antiquity.^[1] Sugar culture spread from India to China, and from China it spread even further.^[2] However, sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals which would prove easier to store and to transport.^[1] Indian sailors, consumers of clarified butter and sugar, spread this food through various trade routes.^[1] In South Asia, the Middle East and China, sugar became a staple of cooking and desserts. Map of South Asia (see note) This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia. ... Sugarcane juice is a type of drink commonly found in Hong Kong, Singapore, and also in countries where sugarcane is grown commercially. ... A trade route is a commonly used path of travel for those (e. ... A map showing countries commonly considered to be part of the Middle East The Middle East is a region comprising the lands around the southern and eastern parts of the Mediterranean Sea, a territory that extends from the eastern Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. ... Not to be confused with Desert. ...

Some evidence suggests that the Greeks under Alexander the Great may have taken sugar from India during their retreat.^[3] It would later spread to Europe and to Africa.^[3] For the film of the same name, see Alexander the Great (1956 film). ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ... A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ...

Early refining methods involved grinding or pounding the cane in order to extract the juice, and then boiling down the juice or drying it in the sun to yield sugary solids that looked like gravel. The Sanskrit word for "sugar" (sharkara), also means "gravel". Similarly, the Chinese use the term "gravel sugar" (Traditional Chinese: 砂糖) for table sugar. Gravel (largest fragment in this photo is about 4 cm) Gravel is rock that is of a certain particle size range. ... Traditional Chinese (Traditional Chinese: 正體字/繁體字, Simplified Chinese: 正体字/繁体字) refers to one of two standard sets of printed Chinese characters. ...

Cane sugar outside Asia

A sugar-cane cutter in Cuba.

During the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, Arab entrepreneurs adopted the techniques of sugar production from India and then refined and transformed them into a large-scale industry. Arabs set up the first sugar mills, refineries, factories and plantations. The Arabs and Berbers diffused sugar throughout the Arab Empire and beyond across much of the Old World, including Western Europe after they conquered the Iberian Peninsula in the 8th century AD.^[4] Crusaders also brought sugar home with them to Europe after their campaigns in the Holy Land, where they encountered caravans carrying "sweet salt". Crusade chronicler William of Tyre, writing in the late 12th century, described sugar as "very necessary for the use and health of mankind". Image File history File linksMetadata Evstafiev-zafra. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Evstafiev-zafra. ... The Islamic Golden Age from the 8th century to the 13th century witnessed a fundamental transformation in agriculture known as the Muslim Agricultural Revolution,[1] Arab Agricultural Revolution,[2] or Green Revolution. ... For other uses, see Arab (disambiguation). ... Two sugar beets - the one on the left has been cultivated to be smoother than the traditional beet, so that it traps less soil. ... This article is about crop plantations. ... The Berbers (also called Imazighen, free men, singular Amazigh) are a predominantly Muslim ethnic group indigenous to the Maghreb, speaking the Berber languages of the Afroasiatic family. ... The Arab Empire at its greatest extent The Arab Empire usually refers to the following Caliphates: Rashidun Caliphate (632 - 661) Umayyad Caliphate (661 - 750) - Successor of the Rashidun Caliphate Umayyad Emirate in Islamic Spain (750 - 929) Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba in Islamic Spain (929 - 1031) Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258... The Old World consists of those parts of Earth known to Europeans, Asians, and Africans before the voyages of Christopher Columbus; it includes Europe, Asia, and Africa (collectively known as Africa-Eurasia), plus surrounding islands. ... A current understanding of Western Europe. ... The Umayyad conquest of Hispania (711–718) commenced when an army of the Umayyad Caliphate consisting largely of Moors, the Muslim inhabitants of Northwest Africa, invaded Visigothic Christian Hispania (Portugal and Spain) in the year 711. ... This article is about the medieval crusades. ... For other uses, see Holy Land (disambiguation). ... William of Tyre (c. ...

The 1390s saw the development of a better press, which doubled the juice obtained from the cane. This permitted economic expansion of sugar plantations to Andalucia and to the Algarve. The 1420s saw sugar-production extended to the Canary Islands, Madeira and the Azores. For other uses, see Andalusia (disambiguation). ... Algarve NUTS II region, and the district of Faro in Portugal. ... Anthem: Arrorró Capital Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife Official language(s) Spanish Area  â€“ Total  â€“ % of Spain Ranked 13th  7,447 km²  1. ... For other uses, see Madeira (disambiguation). ... Motto (Portuguese for Rather die free than in peace subjugated) Anthem  (national)  (local) Capital Ponta Delgada1 Angra do Heroísmo2 Horta3 Largest city Ponta Delgada Official languages Portuguese Government Autonomous region  -  President Carlos César Establishment  -  Settled 1439   -  Autonomy 1976  Area  -  Total 2,333 km² (n/a) 911 sq mi...

In August 1492 Christopher Columbus stopped at Gomera in the Canary Islands, for wine and water, intending to stay only four days. He became romantically involved with the Governor of the island, Beatrice de Bobadilla, and stayed a month. When he finally sailed she gave him cuttings of sugar-cane, which became the first to reach the New World. Christopher Columbus (1451 – May 20, 1506) was a navigator, colonizer, and explorer and one of the first Europeans to explore the Americas after the Vikings. ... La Gomera is also a Guatemalan city in the department of Escuintla, see La Gomera, Guatemala La Gomera is a Spanish island, the second smallest island of the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Africa. ... Anthem: Arrorró Capital Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife Official language(s) Spanish Area  â€“ Total  â€“ % of Spain Ranked 13th  7,447 km²  1. ...

The Portuguese took sugar to Brazil. Hans Staden, published in 1555, writes that by 1540 Santa Catalina Island had 800 sugar-mills and that the north coast of Brazil, Demarara and Surinam had another 2000. Approximately 3000 small mills built before 1550 in the New World created an unprecedented demand for cast iron gears, levers, axles and other implements. Specialist trades in mold-making and iron-casting developed in Europe due to the expansion of sugar-production. Sugar-mill construction developed technological skills needed for a nascent industrial revolution in the early 17th-century.^{[citation needed]} Hans Staden (with beard) watching an indigenous tribe in Brazil practicing cannibalism. ... Categories: Philippines geography stubs | Municipalities in the Philippines ... Brown sugar typical of that bought in Western supermarkets Brown sugar is a sucrose sugar product with a distinctive brown color due to the presence of molasses. ... The Republic of Suriname, more commonly known as Suriname or Surinam, (formerly known as Netherlands Guiana and Dutch Guiana) is a country in northern South America, in between French Guiana to the east and Guyana to the west. ... Cast iron usually refers to grey cast iron, but can mean any of a group of iron-based alloys containing more than 2% carbon (alloys with less carbon are carbon steel by definition). ... For other uses, see Gear (disambiguation). ... A Watt steam engine, the steam engine that propelled the Industrial Revolution in Britain and the world. ...

After 1625 the Dutch carried sugar-cane from South America to the Caribbean islands — where it became grown from Barbados to the Virgin Islands. The years 1625 to 1750 saw sugar become worth its weight in gold.^{[citation needed]} Contemporaries often compared^{[citation needed]} the worth of sugar with valuable commodities including musk, pearls, and spices. Prices declined slowly as production became multi-sourced, especially through British colonial policy. Formerly an indulgence of the rich, sugar became increasingly common among the poor. Sugar-production increased in mainland North American colonies, in Cuba, and in Brazil. African slaves became the dominant source of plantation-workers, as they proved resistant to the diseases of malaria and yellow fever. (European indentured servants remained in shorter supply, susceptible to disease and overall forming a less economic investment. European diseases such as smallpox had reduced the numbers of local Native Americans.) But replacement of Native American with African slaves also occurred because of the high death-rates on sugar-plantations. The British West Indies imported almost 4 million slaves, but had only 400,000 Blacks left after slavery ended in the British Empire in 1838. Slave redirects here. ... Malaria is a vector-borne infectious disease caused by protozoan parasites. ... An indentured servant (also called a bonded laborer) is a labourer unde from the employer in exchange for an extension to the period of their indenture, which could thereby continue indefinitely. ... Smallpox (also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera) is a contagious disease unique to humans. ... Brazilian Indian chiefs The scope of this indigenous peoples of the Americas article encompasses the definitions of indigenous peoples and the Americas as established in their respective articles. ... The abolition of slavery must rank as one of the greatest achievements of recorded history. ...

With the European colonization of the Americas, the Caribbean became the world's largest source of sugar. These islands could supply sugar-cane using slave-labor and produce sugar at prices vastly lower than those of cane-sugar imported from the East. Thus the economies of entire islands such as Guadaloupe and Barbados became based on sugar-production. By 1750 the French colony known as Saint-Domingue (subsequently the independent country of Haiti) became the largest sugar-producer in the world. Jamaica too became a major producer in the 18th century. Sugar-plantations fueled a demand for manpower; between 1701 and 1810 ships brought nearly one million slaves to work in Jamaica and in Barbados. Territories in the Americas colonized or claimed by a European great power in 1750. ... The Caribbean The history of the Caribbean reveals the significant role the region played in the colonial struggles of the European powers between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries. ... Guadeloupe, in the Caribbean Sea, is an archipelago with a total area of 1,704 km² located in the Eastern Caribbean. ... Saint-Domingue was a French colony from 1697 to 1804 that is today the independent nation of Haiti. ... A sugarcane plantation at Ribeirão Preto, Brazil, 2005 A plantation is a large tract of monoculture, as a tree plantation, a cotton plantation, a tea plantation or a tobacco plantation. ...

During the eighteenth century, sugar became enormously popular and the sugar-market went through a series of booms. The heightened demand and production of sugar came about to a large extent due to a great change in the eating habits of many Europeans. For example, they began consuming jams, candy, tea, coffee, cocoa, processed foods, and other sweet victuals in much greater numbers. Reacting to this increasing craze, the islands took advantage of the situation and began producing more sugar. In fact, they produced up to ninety percent of the sugar that the western Europeans consumed. Some islands proved more successful than others when it came to producing the product. And in Barbados and the British Leeward Islands sugar provided 93% and 97% respectively of exports. In economics, the term boom and bust refers to the movement of an economy through economic cycles due to changes in aggregate demand. ... Jam from berries Jam (also known as jelly or preserves) is a type of sweet spread or condiment made with fruits or sometimes vegetables, sugar, and sometimes pectin if the fruits natural pectin content is insufficient to produce a thick product. ... For other uses, see Candy (disambiguation). ... The Leeward Islands are the northern islands of the Lesser Antilles. ...

Planters later began developing ways to boost production even more. For example, they began using more manure when growing their crops. They also developed more advanced mills and began using better types of sugar-cane. Despite these and other improvements, the price of sugar reached soaring heights, especially during events such as the revolt against the Dutch^{[citation needed]} and the Napoleonic Wars. Sugar remained in high demand, and the islands' planters knew exactly how to take advantage of the situation. Animal manure is often a mixture of animals feces and bedding straw, as in this example from a stable. ... Combatants Austria[a] Portugal Prussia[a] Russia[b] Sicily[c] Sardinia  Spain[d]  Sweden[e] United Kingdom French Empire Holland[f] Italy Etruria[g] Naples[h] Duchy of Warsaw[i] Confederation of the Rhine[j] Bavaria Saxony Westphalia Württemberg Denmark-Norway[k] Commanders Archduke Charles Prince Schwarzenberg Karl Mack...

As Europeans established sugar-plantations on the larger Caribbean islands, prices fell, especially in Britain. By the eighteenth century all levels of society had become common consumers of the former luxury product. At first most sugar in Britain went into tea, but later confectionery and chocolates became extremely popular. Many Britons (especially children) also ate jams.^{[citation needed]} Suppliers commonly sold sugar in solid cones and consumers required a sugar nip, a pliers-like tool, to break off pieces. (17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ... For other uses, see Candy (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Chocolate (disambiguation). ...

Sugar-cane quickly exhausts the soil in which it grows, and planters pressed larger islands with fresher soil into production in the nineteenth century. In this century, for example, Cuba rose to become the richest land in the Caribbean (with sugar as its dominant crop) because it formed the only major island land-mass free of mountainous terrain. Instead, nearly three-quarters of its land formed a rolling plain — ideal for planting crops. Cuba also prospered above other islands because Cubans used better methods when harvesting the sugar crops: they adopted modern milling-methods such as water-mills, enclosed furnaces, steam-engines, and vacuum-pans. All these technologies increased productivity. Loess field in Germany Surface-water-gley developed in glacial till, Northern Ireland For the American hard rock band, see SOiL. For the System of a Down song, see Soil (song). ...

After the Haïtian Revolution established the independent state of Haiti, sugar production in that country declined and Cuba replaced Saint-Domingue as the world's largest producer. The Haïtian Revolution (1791-1804) was the most successful of the many African slave rebellions in the Western Hemisphere and established Haïti as a free, black republic, the first of its kind. ...

Long established in Brazil, sugar-production spread to other parts of South America, as well as to newer European colonies in Africa and in the Pacific, where it became especially important in Fiji. South America South America is a continent crossed by the equator, with most of its area in the Southern Hemisphere. ... A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ...

In Colombia, the planting of sugar started very early on, and entrepreneurs imported many African slaves to cultivate the fields. The industrialization of the Colombian industry started in 1901 with the establishment of the first steam-powered sugar mill by Santiago Eder. This article is considered orphaned, since there are very few or no other articles that link to this one. ...

While no longer grown by slaves, sugar from developing countries has an on-going association with workers earning minimal wages and living in extreme poverty.

The rise of beet sugar

In 1747 the German chemist Andreas Marggraf identified sucrose in beet-root. This discovery remained a mere curiosity for some time, but eventually Marggraf's student Franz Achard built a sugarbeet-processing factory at Cunern in Silesia (in present-day Poland), under the patronage of King Frederick William III of Prussia (reigned 1797 - 1840). While never profitable, this plant operated from 1801 until it suffered destruction during the Napoleonic Wars (ca 1802 - 1815). This German man was credited (in the West) with discovering a pure form of Zinc ... Binomial name Carolus Linnaeus Beta vulgaris, commonly known as beet is a flowering plant species in the family Chenopodiaceae. ... Franz Karl Achard Franz Karl Achard (April 28, 1753, Berlin - April 20, 1821, Wohlau-Cunern) was a Prussian chemist, physicist and biologist. ... ... Silesia (English pronunciation [], Czech: ; German: ; Latin: ; Polish: ; Silesian: Ślůnsk) is a historical region in central Europe, located along the upper and middle Oder River, upper Vistula River, and along the Sudetes, Carpathian (Silesian Beskids) mountain range. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Frederick William III (German: , August 3, 1770 – June 7, 1840) was king of Prussia from 1797 to 1840. ... The Napoleonic Wars lasted from 1804 until 1815. ...

Napoleon, cut off from Caribbean imports by a British blockade, and at any rate not wanting to fund British merchants, banned imports of sugar in 1813. The beet-sugar industry that emerged in consequence grew, and today sugar-beet provides approximately 30% of world sugar production. Napoléon I, Emperor of the French (born Napoleone di Buonaparte, changed his name to Napoléon Bonaparte)[1] (15 August 1769; Ajaccio, Corsica – 5 May 1821; Saint Helena) was a general during the French Revolution, the ruler of France as First Consul (Premier Consul) of the French Republic from... A blockade is any effort to prevent supplies, troops, information or aid from reaching an opposing force. ... 2007 is a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

In the developed countries, the sugar industry relies on machinery, with a low requirement for manpower. A large beet-refinery producing around 1,500 tonnes of sugar a day needs a permanent workforce of about 150 for 24-hour production.

Mechanization

Beginning in the late 18th century, the production of sugar became increasingly mechanized. The steam engine first powered a sugar-mill in Jamaica in 1768, and soon after, steam replaced direct firing as the source of process heat. // The term steam engine may also refer to an entire railroad steam locomotive. ...

In 1813 the British chemist Edward Charles Howard invented a method of refining sugar that involved boiling the cane juice not in an open kettle, but in a closed vessel heated by steam and held under partial vacuum. At reduced pressure, water boils at a lower temperature, and this development both saved fuel and reduced the amount of sugar lost through caramelization. Further gains in fuel-efficiency came from the multiple-effect evaporator, designed by the African-American engineer Norbert Rillieux (perhaps as early as the 1820s, although the first working model dates from 1845). This system consisted of a series of vacuum pans, each held at a lower pressure than the previous one. The vapors from each pan served to heat the next, with minimal heat wasted. Today, many industries use multiple-effect evaporators for evaporating water. Edward Charles Howard was a Brittish chemist. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... In chemical engineering, a multiple-effect evaporator is an apparatus for efficiently using the heat of steam to evaporate water. ... Languages Predominantly American English Religions Protestantism (chiefly Baptist and Methodist); Roman Catholicism; Islam Related ethnic groups Sub-Saharan Africans and other African groups, some with Native American groups. ... Robert Norbert Rillieux (March 18, 1806-October 8, 1894), inventor and engineer, is most noted for inventing the multiple-effect evaporator, an energy-efficient means of evaporating water. ... 2007 is a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

The process of separating sugar from molasses also received mechanical attention: David Weston first applied the centrifuge to this task in Hawaii in 1852. Molasses or treacle is a thick syrup by-product from the processing of the sugarcane or sugar beet into sugar. ... This article is about the scientific device. ... This article is about the U.S. State. ...

Etymology

In the case of sugar, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word "sugar" originates from the Arabic and Persian word shakar,^[5] itself derived from Sanskrit Sharkara.^[4] It came to English by way of French, Spanish and/or Italian, which derived their word for sugar from the Arabic and Persian shakar (whence the Portuguese word açúcar, the Spanish word azúcar, the Italian word zucchero, the Old French word zuchre and the contemporary French word sucre). (Compare the OED.) The Greek word for "sugar", zahari, means "sugar" or "pebble". Note that the English word jaggery (meaning "coarse brown Indian sugar") has similar ultimate etymological origins (presumably in Sanskrit). Etymologies redirects here. ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... Arabic redirects here. ... Farsi redirects here. ... Sanskrit ( , for short ) is a classical language of India, a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism, and one of the 23 official languages of India. ... The Oxford English Dictionary print set The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) is a dictionary published by the Oxford University Press (OUP), and is the most successful dictionary of the English language, (not to be confused with the one-volume Oxford Dictionary of English, formerly New Oxford Dictionary of English, of... Sanskrit ( , for short ) is a classical language of India, a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism, and one of the 23 official languages of India. ...

As a food

Originally a luxury, sugar eventually became sufficiently cheap and common to influence standard cuisine. Britain and the Caribbean islands have cuisines where the use of sugar became particularly prominent. This is a list of inhabited islands in the Caribbean. ...

Sugar forms a major element in confectionery and in desserts. Cooks use it as a food preservative as well as for sweetening. It has been suggested that Candy be merged into this article or section. ... Not to be confused with Desert. ... A cook is a person that prepares food for consumption. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

Human health

This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. WikiProject Health or the Health Portal may be able to help recruit one. Image File history File links Emblem-important. ... If a more appropriate WikiProject or portal exists, please adjust this template accordingly.

Some commentators^{[attribution needed]} have suggested links between sugar-consumption and health hazards, including obesity and tooth-decay.

Tooth-decay

Tooth-decay has arguably become the most prominent health-hazard associated with the consumption of sugar. Oral bacteria such as Streptococcus mutans live in dental plaque and metabolize sugars into lactic acid. High concentrations of acid may result on the surface of a tooth, leading to tooth demineralization.^[6][7] Types of teeth Molars are used for grinding up foods Carnassials are used for slicing food. ... Binomial name Streptococcus mutans Clarke 1924 Streptococcus mutans is a Gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic bacteria commonly found in the human oral cavity and is a significant contributor to tooth decay. ... For the production of milk by mammals, see Lactation. ...

The American Dental Association sees^{[citation needed]} tooth decay as caused "mostly" by starchy foods like breadsticks, cereals and potato-chips that linger on teeth and prolong acid-production, not by simple sugars that dissolve rapidly in the mouth. The American Dental Association (ADA) is an American advocacy group that promotes Oral Health Care and the field of dentistry. ...

Diabetes

Diabetes, a disease that causes the body to metabolize sugar poorly, occurs when either: This article is about the disease that features high blood sugar. ...

1. the body's cells ignore insulin, a chemical that allows the metabolizing of sugar (Type 2 diabetes)
2. the body attacks the cells producing the insulin (Type 1 diabetes)

When glucose builds up in the bloodstream, it can cause two problems: Not to be confused with inulin. ...

1. in the short term, cells become starved for energy because they do not have access to the glucose
2. in the long term, frequent glucose build-up can damage many of the body's organs, including the eyes, kidneys, nerves and/or heart

Authorities advise diabetics to avoid sugar-rich foods to prevent adverse reactions.^[8]

Obesity

In the United States of America, a scientific/health debate has started^{[citation needed]} over the causes of a steep rise in obesity in the general population — and one view posits increased consumption of carbohydrates in recent decades as a major factor.^[9] Motto: (traditional) In God We Trust (official, 1956–present) Anthem: The Star-Spangled Banner Capital Washington, D.C. Largest city New York City Official language(s) None at the federal level; English de facto Government Federal Republic  - President George W. Bush (R)  - Vice President Dick Cheney (R) Independence - Declared - Recognized... 2007 is a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Obesity can result from a number of factors including:

• an increased intake of energy-dense foods — high in fat and sugars but low in vitamins, minerals and other micronutrients (see United Nations advice below); and
• decreased physical activity.^[10]

The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey I and Continuous indicates that the population in the United States has increased its proportion of energy-consumption from carbohydrates and decreased its proportion from total fat while obesity has increased. This implies, along with the United Nations report cited below, that obesity may correlate better with sugar-consumption than with fat-consumption, and that reducing fat-consumption while increasing sugar-consumption actually increases the level of obesity. The following table summarizes this study (based on the proportion of energy-intake from different food sources for US Adults 20-74 years old, as carried out by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, Hyattsville, MD^[11]):

Another study^{[citation needed]} published in 2002 and conducted by the National Academy of Sciences over a 3-year period concluded: “There is no clear and consistent association between increased intakes of added sugars and BMI.” (BMI or "body-mass Index" measures body-weight and height.) President Harding and the National Academy of Sciences at the White House, Washington, DC, April 1921 The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) is a corporation in the United States whose members serve pro bono as advisers to the nation on science, engineering, and medicine. ... A graph of body mass index is shown above. ...

Gout

Researchers have implicated sugary drinks high in fructose in a surge in cases of the painful joint-disease gout.^[12]

United Nations nutritional advice

In 2003, four United Nations agencies, (including the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)) commissioned a report compiled by a panel of 30 international experts. The panel stated that the total of free sugars (all monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods by manufacturers, cooks or consumers, plus sugars naturally present in honey, syrups and fruit juices) should not account for more than 10% of the energy intake of a healthy diet, while carbohydrates in total should represent between 55% and 75% of the energy-intake.^[13] UN and U.N. redirect here. ... WHO redirects here. ... FAO redirects here. ... Lactose is a disaccharide found in milk. ...

Debate on extrinsic sugar

Argument continues as to the value of extrinsic sugar (sugar added to food) compared to that of intrinsic sugar (naturally present in food). Adding sugar to food particularly enhances taste, but does increase the total number of calories, among other negative effects on health and physiology. Etymology: French calorie, from Latin calor (heat), from calere (to be warm). ...

In the United States of America, sugar has become increasingly evident in food products, as more food-manufacturers add sugar or high-fructose corn-syrup to a wide variety of consumables. Candy-bars, soft drinks, chips, snacks, fruit-juice, peanut-butter, soups, ice-cream, jams, jellies, yogurt, and many breads have added sugars. Five Alive, for example, portrayed by its suppliers as "all natural" and featuring pictures of five different types of fruit on its label, comprises only 41% fruit juice, having high-fructose corn-syrup as its prime ingredient. Motto: (traditional) In God We Trust (official, 1956–present) Anthem: The Star-Spangled Banner Capital Washington, D.C. Largest city New York City Official language(s) None at the federal level; English de facto Government Federal Republic  - President George W. Bush (R)  - Vice President Dick Cheney (R) Independence - Declared - Recognized... High fructose corn syrup (HFCS) refers to a group of corn syrups which have undergone enzymatic processing in order to increase their fructose content and are then mixed with pure corn syrup (100% glucose) to reach their final form. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Many doctors argue that health authorities should classify sugar and high-fructose corn-syrup as food additives.^[14] A few MDs go so far as to call refined sugar a poison.^[15] Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavor or improve its taste and appearance. ... For other uses, see Poison (disambiguation). ...

The anthropologist and dentist Weston A. Price, writing in 1939,^[16] correlated the use of refined sugar (and refined grains) with malnutrition in pregnant women, malformation of the palate and jaw in their children, followed by cramping of teeth in adolescence (leading to crooked teeth and the removal of wisdom teeth molars). Price correlated other ailments and the impaired function of the pituitary or master gland with consumption of refined sugar, as well as rates of infant mortality, subnormal intelligence, delinquency, and incarceration. He also correlated the underdevelopment of the pelvis, which in women would lead to complications (pain, death, etc.) in childbirth. Wisdom teeth are third molars that usually appear between the ages of 16 and 24 (although they may appear when older or younger). ... | Latin = hypophysis, glandula pituitaria | GraySubject = 275 | GrayPage = 1275 | Image = Gray1180. ...

Virtually all of these symptoms became the norm in modern populations consuming typical amounts of refined sugar and other "modern foods of commerce".^{[citation needed]} Besides the rotting of teeth, interruptible or resumable merely by removing or re-introducing white sugar into a diet,^{[citation needed]} the correlations with consumption of refined sugar may relate less to the consumption of refined sugar itself than to the absence of the consumption of "nourishment",^{[original research?]} a category in which Price did not include refined sugar. Nutrition is interpreted as the study of the organic process by which an organism assimilates and uses food and liquids for normal functioning, growth and maintenance and to maintain the balance between health and disease. ...

A United Nations study^[17] directly creates a definition that includes all extrinsic sugars and separates them completely from intrinsic sugars, labeling them directly as a cause of obesity and of other preventable chronic diseases.

Concerns of vegetarians and vegans

The sugar-refining industry often uses bone-char (calcinated animal bones) for decolorizing.^[18] This concerns vegans and vegetarians; about a quarter of the sugar in the U.S. gets processed using bone-char as a filter and the rest gets processed with