It has been suggested that Adivasis of Orissa be merged into this article or section. (Discuss)

An Adivasi woman from the Kutia Kondh tribal group in Orissa

Ādivāsīs (in Devanagari script: आदिवासी), literally "original inhabitants", comprise a substantial indigenous minority of the population of India. Indian tribals are also called Atavika (forest dwellers, in Sanskrit texts), Vanvasis or Girijans (hill people, e.g. by Mahatma Gandhi).^[1] Image File history File links Mergefrom. ... About 62 distinct tribal groups of indigenous people once inhabited in Orissa. ... Khonds, or Kandhs, an aboriginal tribe of India, inhabiting the tributary states of Orissa and Srikakulam, Vizianagaram and Visakhapatnam districts of Andhra Pradesh. ... , Orissa   (Oriya: ଓଡ଼ିଶା), is a state situated on the east coast of India. ... च् + छ = च्छ Devanagari in Unicode The Unicode range for Devanagari is U+0900 . ... The term indigenous peoples has no universal, standard or fixed definition, but can be used about any ethnic group who inhabit the geographic region with which they have the earliest historical connection. ... “Gandhi” redirects here. ...

These autochthonous people, popularly known as the Tribal peoples are particularly numerous in the Indian states of Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal and in extreme northeastern states such as Mizoram. Officially recognized by the Indian government as "Scheduled Tribes" in the Fifth Schedule of the Constitution of India, they are often grouped together with scheduled castes in the category "Scheduled Castes and Tribes", which is eligible for certain affirmative action measures. India is a federal republic comprising twenty-eight states and seven union territories. ... , Orissa   (Oriya: ଓଡ଼ିଶା), is a state situated on the east coast of India. ... , Madhya Pradesh (abbreviated as MP)   (HindÄ«: मध्य प्रदेश, English: , IPA: ), often called the Heart of India, is a state in central India. ... Chhattisgarh (छत्तीसगढ़), a state in central India, formed when the sixteen southeastern districts of Madhya Pradesh gained statehood on November 1, 2000. ... , Rājasthān (DevanāgarÄ«: राजस्थान, IPA: )   is the largest state of the Republic of India in terms of area. ... This article is for the Indian state. ... , Maharashtra (Marathi: महाराष्ट्र , IPA  , translation: Great Nation) is Indias third largest state in area and second largest in population after Uttar Pradesh. ... Andhra redirects here. ... For other uses, see Bihar (disambiguation). ... , Jharkhand   (Hindi: झारखंड, Bengali: ঝাড়খণ্ড,IPA: ) is a state in eastern India. ... , West Bengal (Bengali: পশ্চিমবঙ্গ Poshchimbôŋgo) is a state in eastern India. ... , Mizoram   is one of the Seven Sister States in northeastern India on the border with Myanmar. ... The Constitution of India lays down the framework on which Indian polity is run. ... In South Asias caste system, an untouchable, dalit, or achuta is a person outside of the four castes, and considered below them. ... In India, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are communities that are accorded special status by the Constitution of India. ...

They have their own tribal religions which are different than Islam or VedicHinduism but more close to Tantric Shivasim. During the 19th century, substantial numbers converted to Christianity. For people named Islam, see Islam (name). ... Hinduism is a religious tradition[1] that originated in the Indian subcontinent. ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations Ecumenism · Relation to other religions Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Christianity Portal This box:      Christianity is a monotheistic[1] religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament. ...

Many smaller tribal groups are quite sensitive to ecological degradation caused by modernization. Both commercial forestry and intensive agriculture have proved destructive to the forests that had endured swidden agriculture for many centuries. Ecology is the branch of science that studies the distribution and abundance of living organisms, and the interactions between organisms and their environment. ... A decidous beech forest in Slovenia. ... This article is about a community of trees. ... This article is about the agricultural practice of slash and burn. ...

Geographic Overview

There is a substantial list of Scheduled Tribes in India recognized as tribal under the Constitution of India. Tribal peoples constitute 8.3% of the nation's total population, over 84 million people according to the 2001 census. One concentration lives in a belt along the Himalayas stretching through Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand in the west, to Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur, and Nagaland in the northeast. In the northeastern states of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland, more than 90% of the population is tribal. However, in the remaining northeast states of Assam, Manipur, Sikkim, and Tripura, tribal peoples form between 20 and 30% of the population. This is a full list of Scheduled Tribes in India, as recognised in Indias Constitution. ... The Constitution of India lays down the framework on which Indian polity is run. ... Year 2001 (MMI) was a common year starting on Monday (link displays the 2001 Gregorian calendar). ... Perspective view of the Himalaya and Mount Everest as seen from space looking south-south-east from over the Tibetan Plateau. ... This article is about the area administered by India. ... , Himachal Pradesh (Hindi: हिमाचल प्रदेश, IPA:  ) is a state in the north-west of India. ... , Uttarakhand (Hindi: उत्तराखंड), known as Uttaranchal from 2000 to 2006, became the 27th state of the Republic of India on November 9, 2000. ... , Assam (  ) (Assamese: অসম Ôxôm) is a north eastern state of India with its capital at Dispur, a suburb of the city Guwahati. ... , Meghalaya   is a small state in north-eastern India. ... Tripura   (Bengali: ত্রিপুরা, Hindi: त्रिपुरा) is a state in North East India. ... , Arunachal Pradesh   (Hindi:   ) is the easternmost state of India. ... , Mizoram   is one of the Seven Sister States in northeastern India on the border with Myanmar. ... , Manipur   (Bengali: মনিপুর, Meitei Mayek: mnipur) is a state in northeastern India making its capital in the city of Imphal. ... , Nagaland   is a hill state located in the far north-eastern part of India. ... , Arunachal Pradesh   (Hindi:   ) is the easternmost state of India. ... , Meghalaya   is a small state in north-eastern India. ... , Mizoram   is one of the Seven Sister States in northeastern India on the border with Myanmar. ... , Nagaland   is a hill state located in the far north-eastern part of India. ... , Assam (  ) (Assamese: অসম Ôxôm) is a north eastern state of India with its capital at Dispur, a suburb of the city Guwahati. ... , Manipur   (Bengali: মনিপুর, Meitei Mayek: mnipur) is a state in northeastern India making its capital in the city of Imphal. ... , Sikkim (Nepali:  , also Sikhim) is a landlocked Indian state nestled in the Himalayas. ... Tripura   (Bengali: ত্রিপুরা, Hindi: त्रिपुरा) is a state in North East India. ...

Another concentration lives in the hilly areas of central India (Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, and, to a lesser extent, Andhra Pradesh); in this belt, which is bounded by the Narmada River to the north and the Godavari River to the southeast, tribal peoples occupy the slopes of the region's mountains. Other tribals, including the Santals, live in Jharkhand and West Bengal. Central Indian states have the country's largest tribes, and, taken as a whole, roughly 75% of the total tribal population live there, although the tribal population there accounts for only around 10% of the region's total population. , Chhattisgarh (Chhattisgarhi/Hindi: छत्तीसगढ़, IPA: )  , a state in central India, formed when the sixteen Chhattisgarhi-speaking southeastern districts of Madhya Pradesh gained statehood on November 1, 2000. ... , Madhya Pradesh (abbreviated as MP)   (HindÄ«: मध्य प्रदेश, English: , IPA: ), often called the Heart of India, is a state in central India. ... , Orissa   (Oriya: ଓଡ଼ିଶା), is a state situated on the east coast of India. ... Andhra redirects here. ... The Narmada River in central India The Narmada (Gujarati: નર્મદા Devanagri: नर्मदा or Nerbudda (Narbada) is a river in central India in Indian subcontinent. ... Godavari river map The Godavari River, adjacent to the town of Kovvur This article is about Godavari River in India. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... , Jharkhand   (Hindi: झारखंड, Bengali: ঝাড়খণ্ড,IPA: ) is a state in eastern India. ... , West Bengal (Bengali: পশ্চিমবঙ্গ Poshchimbôŋgo) is a state in eastern India. ...

There are smaller numbers of tribal people in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala in south India; in western India in Gujarat and Rajasthan, and in the union territories of Lakshadweep and the Andaman Islands and Nicobar Islands. About one percent of the populations of Kerala and Tamil Nadu are tribal, whereas about six percent in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka are members of tribes. This article is about the Indian region. ... Tamil Nadu (தமிழ் நாடு, Land of the Tamils) is a state at the southern tip of India. ... , Kerala ( ; Malayalam: കേരളം; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of southwestern India. ... The geographical south of India includes all Indian territory below the 20th parallel. ... This article is for the Indian state. ... , Rājasthān (DevanāgarÄ«: राजस्थान, IPA: )   is the largest state of the Republic of India in terms of area. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Andaman Islands The Andaman Islands are a group of islands in the Bay of Bengal, and are part of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands Union Territory of India. ... Map of Nicobar Islands The Nicobar Islands are an island chain in the eastern Indian Ocean, and are part of the Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India. ... , Kerala ( ; Malayalam: കേരളം; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of southwestern India. ... Tamil Nadu (தமிழ் நாடு, Land of the Tamils) is a state at the southern tip of India. ... Andhra redirects here. ... This article is about the Indian region. ...

Criteria of 'Tribalness'

Apart from the use of strictly legal criteria, however, the problem of determining which groups and individuals are tribal is both subtle and complex. Because it concerns economic interests and voting blocs, the question of who are members of Scheduled Tribes rather than Backward Classes or Scheduled Castes is often controversial. Scholarly opinions also remain divided on this matter. In other parts of the world the Adivasis or Indigenous people are those who predate the colonizers. Many scholars, especially the westerners, claim that the Adivasis of India predate other communities of India. Indian scholars remain divided on this issue, for reasons best known to them. If one accepts that Adivasis predate all other mainstream societies one has to accept that other communities, including Hindus, are migrants in India. It would function as proof-text on "Aryan Invasion Theory" which most scholars (being its members) would vehemently deny it. At best, Adivasis have no say about their own identity. It is decided politically as "Scheduled tribe." But even this title is controversial since it accepts as tribe. Will the Adivasis lose their tribe if they lose there Scheduled tribe status? The issue requires further clarification. Despite all these challenges there are specific traits of Adivasis that distinguish them from other Indian communities. The Other Backward Classes (or OBCs) in India are a group of castes officially recognized as having been traditionally subject to exclusion. ... In South Asias caste system, a Dalit; often called an untouchable; is a person of shudra; the lowest of the four castes. ...

A number of traits have customarily been seen as establishing tribal rather than caste identity. These include language, social organization, religious affiliation, economic patterns, geographic location, and self-identification. Recognized tribes typically live in hilly regions somewhat remote from caste settlements; they generally speak a language recognized as tribal.

Unlike castes, which form part of a complex and interrelated local economic exchange system, tribes tend to form self-sufficient economic units. For most tribal people, land-use rights traditionally derive simply from tribal membership. Tribal society tends to the egalitarian, with its leadership based on ties of kinship and personality rather than on hereditary status. Tribes typically consist of segmentary lineages whose extended families provide the basis for social organization and control. Tribal religion recognizes no authority outside the tribe. Leader redirects here. ... A segmentary lineage society is characterized by the organization of the society into segments. ...

Any of these criteria may not apply in specific instances. Language does not always give an accurate indicator of tribal or caste status. Especially in regions of mixed population, many tribal groups have lost their mother tongues and simply speak local or regional languages. In parts of Assam - an area historically divided between warring tribes and villages - increased contact among villagers began during the colonial period, and has accelerated since independence in 1947. A pidgin Assamese developed while educated tribal members learned Hindi and, in the late twentieth century, English. Year 1947 (MCMXLVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1947 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... This article is about simplified languages. ... Assamese ( ) (IPA: ) is a language spoken in the state of Assam in northeast India. ... Hindi (हिन्दी) is a language spoken mainly in North and Central India. ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ...

Self-identification and group loyalty do not provide unfailing markers of tribal identity either. In the case of stratified tribes, the loyalties of clan, kin, and family may well predominate over those of tribe. In addition, tribes cannot always be viewed as people living apart; the degree of isolation of various tribes has varied tremendously. The Gonds, Santals, and Bhils traditionally have dominated the regions in which they have lived. Moreover, tribal society is not always more egalitarian than the rest of the rural populace; some of the larger tribes, such as the Gonds, are highly stratified. Gondi refers to a people and their language in Central India. ... The Santals are a tribal people of India, residing mainly in states of Jharkhand, Bihar and West Bengal. ... Bhils are a tribal people of central India. ...

The apparently wide fluctuation in estimates of South Asia's tribal population through the twentieth century gives a sense of how unclear the distinction between tribal and nontribal can be. India's 1931 census enumerated 22 million tribal people, in 1941 only 10 million were counted, but by 1961 some 30 million and in 1991 nearly 68 million tribal members were included. The differences among the figures reflect changing census criteria and the economic incentives individuals have to maintain or reject classification as a tribal member. Year 1931 (MCMXXXI) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1931 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... For other uses, see 1941 (disambiguation). ... Year 1961 (MCMLXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1991 (MCMXCI) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the 1991 Gregorian calendar). ...

These gyrations of census data serve to underline the complex relationship between caste and tribe. Although, in theory, these terms represent different ways of life and ideal types, in reality they stand for a continuum of social groups. In areas of substantial contact between tribes and castes, social and cultural pressures have often tended to move tribes in the direction of becoming castes over a period of years. Tribal peoples with ambitions for social advancement in Indian society at large have tried to gain the classification of caste for their tribes. On occasion, an entire tribe or part of a tribe joined a Hindu sect and thus entered the caste system en masse. If a specific tribe engaged in practices that Hindus deemed polluting, the tribe's status when it was assimilated into the caste hierarchy would be affected.

Since independence, however, the special benefits available to Scheduled Tribes have convinced many groups, even Hindus and Muslims, that they will enjoy greater advantages if so designated. The schedule gives tribal people incentives to maintain their identity. By the same token, the schedule also includes a number of groups whose 'tribal' status, in cultural terms, is dubious at best. This article discusses the adherents of Hinduism. ... There is also a collection of Hadith called Sahih Muslim A Muslim (Arabic: مسلم, Persian: Mosalman or Mosalmon Urdu: مسلمان, Turkish: Müslüman, Albanian: Mysliman, Bosnian: Musliman) is an adherent of the religion of Islam. ...

During the 1990s, a number of political adivasi movements also introduced a more political rather than 'scientific' understanding of the term adivasi, sometimes linking the notion of adivasiness to the international indigenous peoples' movement, sometimes more to Dalit or Dravidian themes (see Gail Omvedt 2006: Dalit voices). Dalit is a demeaning term referred to the so-called outcast people of India in a hindu religion. ... For other uses, see Dravidian (disambiguation). ...

Religion

Main article: Tribal religions in India

Saints in Hinduism

• Sant Buddhu Bhagat, led the Kol Insurrection (1831-1832) aimed against against tax imposed on Mundas by Islamists.
• Sant Dhira or Kannappa Nayanar[1], one of 63 Nayanar Shaivite saints, a hunter from whom Lord Shiva gladly accepted food offerings. It is said that he poured water from his mouth on the Shivlingam and offered the Lord swine flesh.[2]
• Sant Dhudhalinath, Koli, Gujarati, a 17th or 18th century devotee (P. 4, The Story of Historic People of India-The Kolis)
• Sant Ganga Narain, led the Bhumij Revolt (1832-1833) aimed against missionaries and British colonialists.
• Sant Girnari Velnathji, Koli, Gujarati of Junagadh, a 17th or 18th century devotee ^[2]
• Sant Gurudev Kalicharan Brahma or Guru Brahma, a Bodo whose founded the Brahma Dharma aimed against missionaries and colonialists. The Brahma Dharma movement sought to unite peoples of all religions to worship God together and survives even today.
• Sant Jatra Oraon, Oraon, led the Tana Bhagat Movement (1914-1919) aimed against the missionaries and British colonialists
• Sant Sri Koya Bhagat, Koli, Gujarati, a 17th or 18th century devotee ^[3]
• Sant Tantya Mama (Bhil), a Bhil after whom a movement is named after - the "Jananayak Tantya Bhil"
• Sant Tirumangai Alvar, Kallar, composed the six Vedangas in beautiful Tamil verse[3]

Other Sages

• Bhaktaraj Bhadurdas, Koli, Gujarati, a 17th or 18th century devotee ^[4]
• Bhakta Shabari, a Bhil woman that offered Shri Rama and Shri Laxmana her half-eaten ber, which they greatly accepted when they were searching for Shri Sita Devi in the forest.
• Madan Bhagat, Koli, Gujarati, a 17th or 18th century devotee ^[5]
• Sany Kanji Swami, Koli, Gujarati, a 17th or 18th century devotee ^[6]
• Bhaktaraj Valram, Koli, Gujarati, a 17th or 18th century devotee ^[7]

Shabari (Sanskrit: सबरी or शबरी, śabarī) is a minor character in the Hindu epic Ramayana. ... Bhils are a tribal people of central India. ... Lord Rama (center) with wife Sita, brother Lakshmana and devotee Hanuman. ...

Maharishis

• Maharshi Matanga[4], Matanga Bhil, Guru of Bhakta Shabari. In fact, Chandalas are often addressed as ‘Matanga ’in passages like Varaha Purana 1.139.91
• Maharshi Valmiki, Kirata Bhil, composed the Ramayana. He is considered to be an avatar in the Balmiki community. Furthermore, during Mahatma Gandhi's visit to Delhi, he stayed in a Harijan colony called Valmiki Mandir.

Valmiki composes the Ramayana Valmiki (Sanskrit: वाल्मीकि, vālmīki) born as Ratnakar is a legendary Hindu sage (maharishi) traditionally regarded as the author of the epic, Ramayana, based on the attribution in the text of the epic itself[1]. He was the tenth child of Pracheta. ... For the television series by Ramanand Sagar, see Ramayan (TV series). ...

Avatars

• Birsa Bhagwan or Birsa Munda, considered an avatar of Khasra Kora. People approached him as Singbonga, the sun-god. He converted even Christians to his own sect.[5] He was against conversions by missionaries. He wanted not only political, but religious freedom as well![6] He and his clan, the Mundas, were connected with Vaishnavite traditions as they were influenced by Sri Chaitanya.[7] Birsa was very close to the Panre brothers Vaishnavites.
• Kirata - the form of Lord Shiva as a hunter. It is mentioned in the Mahabharata. The Karppillikkavu Sree Mahadeva Temple, Kerala adores Lord Shiva in this avatar and is known to be one of the oldest surviving temples in Bharat.
• Vettakkorumakan, the son of Lord Kirata.
• Kaladutaka or 'Vaikunthanatha', Kallar (robber), avatar of Lord Vishnu.[8]

Birsa Munda (1875 – June 9, 1900) was a Munda leader in the late 19th century political independence movement during the British Raj in India. ... The Munda are a tribal (Adivasi) people of the Jharkhand region, which is spread over on five states of India (Jharkhand, Bihar, West Bengal, Chhatisgarh and Orissa), and in parts of Bangladesh. ... Deities of Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu (right) and Sri Nityananda (left) at Radha-Krishna temple in Radhadesh, Belgium Caitanya Mahaprabhu (also transliterated Chaitanya) (1486 - 1534), was an ascetic Hindu monk and social reformer in 16th century Bengal, India (present-day West Bengal and Bangladesh). ...

Religion: Sarna

Strictly speaking Adivasis have no name for their religion. Some western authors and Indian sociologists wrongly called them animists and spirit worshipers. Actually Adivasis are monotheists. In central India like Jharkhand, Chattisgarh and Orissa their religion is called Sarna, a name given from the Sacred Grove which functions as a place of worship. , Jharkhand   (Hindi: झारखंड, Bengali: ঝাড়খণ্ড,IPA: ) is a state in eastern India. ... Chhattisgarh (छत्तीसगढ़), a state in central India, formed when the sixteen southeastern districts of Madhya Pradesh gained statehood on November 1, 2000. ... , Orissa   (Oriya: ଓଡ଼ିଶା), is a state situated on the east coast of India. ...

Other Tribals and Hinduism

Some Hindus believe that Indian tribals are close to the romantic ideal of the ancient silvan culture^[8] of the Vedic people. Golwalkar said:

"The tribals "can be given yajñopavîta (…) They should be given equal rights and footings in the matter of religious rights, in temple worship, in the study of Vedas, and in general, in all our social and religious affairs. This is the only right solution for all the problems of casteism found nowadays in our Hindu society.”^[9]

At the Lingaraja temple in Bhubaneswar (11th century), there are Brahmin and Badu (tribal) priests. The Badus have the most intimate contact with the deity of the temple, and only they can bathe and adorn it.^[10] , Bhubaneswar   (Oriya: ଭୁବେନଶ୍ବର, Hindi: भुवनेश्वर, in Sanskrit and Oriya/oDiA, The Lord of the Universe) is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of state of Orissa, India. ... The Sanskrit word denotes the scholar/teacher, priest, caste, class (), or tribe, that has been traditionally enjoined to live a life of learning, teaching and non-possessivenes . ...

The Bhil tribe is mentioned in the Mahabharata. The Bhil boy Eklavya's teacher was Drona, and he had the honour to be invited to Yudhisthira's Rajasuya Yajna at Indraprastha.^[11] Indian tribals were also part of royal armies in the Ramayana and in the Arthasastra.^[12] Bhils are a tribal people of central India. ... For the film by Peter Brook, see The Mahabharata (1989 film). ... In the epic Mahabharata, Drona (Sanskrit: द्रोण, droNa) or Dronacharya (द्रोणाचार्य, droNāchārya) is the royal guru to the Kauravas and the Pandavas. ... In the great Hindu epic Mahabharata, Yudhisthira (Sanskrit: युधिष्ठिर, yudhiṣṭhira) was the eldest son of King Pandu and Queen Kunti, king of Hastinapura and Indraprastha, and World Emperor. ... Rajasuya was a sacrifice performed by the ancient kings of India. ... In Hinduism, Yajna (Devanagari यज्ञ IAST ; also anglicized as Yagna or Yagya) is a ritual of sacrifice (Monier-Williams gives the meanings worship, prayer, praise; offering, oblation, sacrifice) more commonly practised during Vedic times. ... The first city of Delhi is believed to be founded by the legendary Pandavas of the Mahabharata around 1400 BC. It was called Indraprastha. ... For the television series by Ramanand Sagar, see Ramayan (TV series). ... Arthashastra is an ancient Indian treatise on economics and politics written by king maker Chanakya (also known as Kautilya) in the 4th century B.C during the rule of the Mauryan dynasty. ...

Bhakta Shabari was a Bhil woman that offered Shri Rama and Shri Laxmana 'ber' when they were searching for Shri Sita in the forest. Maharishi Matanga, a Bhil became a Brahmana. Bhakti (DevanāgarÄ«: भक्ति) is a word of Sanskrit origin meaning devotion and also the path of devotion itself, as in Bhakti-Yoga. ... Shabari (Sanskrit: सबरी or शबरी, Å›abarÄ«) is a minor character in the Hindu epic Ramayana. ... Sri or Shri (Śrī), —pronounced halfway between sree and shree—is a Sanskrit title of veneration, a Hindu honorific stemming from the Vedic conception of prosperity (see Lakshmi below). ... Rama ( in IAST, in DevanāgarÄ«) or Ramachandra is a legendary or historical king of ancient India. ... Sri or Shri (Śrī), —pronounced halfway between sree and shree—is a Sanskrit title of veneration, a Hindu honorific stemming from the Vedic conception of prosperity (see Lakshmi below). ... Binomial name Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. ... Sri or Shri (Śrī), —pronounced halfway between sree and shree—is a Sanskrit title of veneration, a Hindu honorific stemming from the Vedic conception of prosperity (see Lakshmi below). ... Lord Rama (center) with wife Sita, brother Lakshmana and devotee Hanuman. ... Maharishi is a Rishi who has mastered many arts and is just before the stage of becoming a Brahmarishi. ... The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter. ... // Hinduism is religion founded 5,000 years ago with traditions dating back 10,000 years. ...

Tribal system

Tribals are not part of the caste system. This is an eglitarian society. Christian tribals do not automatically lose their traditional tribal rules.

When in 1891 a missionary asked 150 Munda Christians to "inter-dine" with people of different rank, only 20 Christians did so, and many converts lost their new faith. Father Haghenbeek concluded on this episode that these rules are not "pagan", but a sign of "national sentiment and pride", and wrote: The Munda are a tribal (Adivasi) people of the Jharkhand region, which is spread over on five states of India (Jharkhand, Bihar, West Bengal, Chhatisgarh and Orissa), and in parts of Bangladesh. ... For other uses, see Christian (disambiguation). ...

“On the contrary, while proclaiming the equality of all men before God, we now tell them: preserve your race pure, keep your customs, refrain from eating with Lohars (blacksmiths), Turis (bamboo workers) and other people of lower rank. To become good Christians, it (inter-dining) is not required.”^[13]

However, many scholars argue that the claim that tribals are an egalitarian society in contrast to a caste-based society is a part of a larger political agenda by some to maximize any differences from tribal and urban societies. According to scholar Koenraad Elst, caste practices and social taboos among Indian tribals date back to antiquity:

"The Munda tribals not only practise tribal endogamy and commensality, but also observe a jâti division within the tribe, buttressed by notions of social pollution, a mythological explanation and harsh punishments. A Munda Catholic theologian testifies: The tribals of Chhotanagpur are an endogamous tribe. They usually do not marry outside the tribal community, because to them the tribe is sacred. The way to salvation is the tribe. Among the Santals, it is tabooed to marry outside the tribe or inside ones clan, just as Hindus marry inside their caste and outside their gotra. More precisely: To protect their tribal solidarity, the Santals have very stringent marriage laws. A Santal cannot marry a non-Santal or a member of his own clan. The former is considered as a threat to the tribe's integrity, while the latter is considered incestuous. Among the Ho of Chhotanagpur, the trespasses which occasion the exclusion from the tribe without chance of appeal, are essentially those concerning endogamy and exogamy." Endogamy is the practice of marrying within a social group. ... Chhotanagpur is an area including the tribal areas of Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal states in India. ... pertaining to or characterized by the custom of marrying only within the limits of a clan or tribe ... Caste systems are traditional, hereditary systems of social classification, that evolved due to the enormous diversity in India (where all three primary races met, not by forced slavery but by immigration). ... A gotra is the lineage or clan assigned to a Hindu at birth. ... The Santals are a tribal people of India, residing mainly in states of Jharkhand, Bihar and West Bengal. ... Ho is a Munda (Austroasiatic language) spoken primarily in India by about 1,077,000 people. ... Exogamy has two related definitions, both biological and cultural. ...

Inter-dining has also been prohibited by many Indian tribal peoples.

Education

Extending the system of primary education into tribal areas and reserving places for tribal children in middle and high schools and higher education institutions are central to government policy, but efforts to improve a tribe's educational status have had mixed results. Recruitment of qualified teachers and determination of the appropriate language of instruction also remain troublesome. Commission after commission on the "language question" has called for instruction, at least at the primary level, in the students' native tongue. In some regions, tribal children entering school must begin by learning the official regional language, often one completely unrelated to their tribal tongue.

Many tribal schools are plagued by high dropout rates. Children attend for the first three to four years of primary school and gain a smattering of knowledge, only to lapse into illiteracy later. Few who enter continue up to the tenth grade; of those who do, few manage to finish high school. Therefore, very few are eligible to attend institutions of higher education, where the high rate of attrition continues. Members of agrarian tribes like the Gonds often are reluctant to send their children to school, needing them, they say, to work in the fields. On the other hand, in those parts of the northeast where tribes have generally been spared the wholesale onslaught of outsiders, schooling has helped tribal people to secure political and economic benefits. The education system there has provided a corps of highly trained tribal members in the professions and high-ranking administrative posts.

Economy

Most tribes are concentrated in heavily forested areas that combine inaccessibility with limited political or economic significance. Historically, the economy of most tribes was subsistence agriculture or hunting and gathering. Tribal members traded with outsiders for the few necessities they lacked, such as salt and iron. A few local Hindu craftsmen might provide such items as cooking utensils. This article is about common table salt. ... General Name, symbol, number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Standard atomic weight 55. ...

In the early 20th century, however, large areas fell into the hands of non-tribals, on account of improved transportation and communications. Around 1900, many regions were opened by the government to settlement through a scheme by which inward migrants received ownership of land free in return for cultivating it. For tribal people, however, land was often viewed as a common resource, free to whoever needed it. By the time tribals accepted the necessity of obtaining formal land titles, they had lost the opportunity to lay claim to lands that might rightfully have been considered theirs. The colonial and post-independence regimes belatedly realized the necessity of protecting tribals from the predations of outsiders and prohibited the sale of tribal lands. Although an important loophole in the form of land leases was left open, tribes made some gains in the mid-twentieth century, and some land was returned to tribal peoples despite obstruction by local police and land officials. (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999 in the... Äž: For the film, see: 1900 (film). ...

In the 1970s, tribal peoples came again under intense land pressure, especially in central India. Migration into tribal lands increased dramatically, as tribal people lost title to their lands in many ways – lease, forfeiture from debts, or bribery of land registry officials. Other non-tribals simply squatted, or even lobbied governments to classify them as tribal to allow them to compete with the formerly established tribes. In any case, many tribal members became landless labourers in the 1960s and 1970s, and regions that a few years earlier had been the exclusive domain of tribes had an increasingly mixed population of tribals and non-tribals. Government efforts to evict nontribal members from illegal occupation have proceeded slowly; when evictions occur at all, those ejected are usually members of poor, lower castes. Year 1970 (MCMLXX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link shows full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1960 (MCMLX) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1970 (MCMLXX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link shows full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Improved communications, roads with motorized traffic, and more frequent government intervention figured in the increased contact that tribal peoples had with outsiders. Commercial highways and cash crops frequently drew non-tribal people into remote areas. By the 1960s and 1970s, the resident nontribal shopkeeper was a permanent feature of many tribal villages. Since shopkeepers often sell goods on credit (demanding high interest), many tribal members have been drawn deeply into debt or mortgaged their land. Merchants also encourage tribals to grow cash crops (such as cotton or castor-oil plants), which increases tribal dependence on the market for basic necessities. Indebtedness is so extensive that although such transactions are illegal, traders sometimes 'sell' their debtors to other merchants, much like indentured peons. Castor oil is a vegetable oil obtained from the castor bean (technically castor seed as the castor plant, Ricinus communis, is not a member of the bean family). ...

The final blow for some tribes has come when nontribals, through political jockeying, have managed to gain legal tribal status, that is, to be listed as a Scheduled Tribe.

Tribes in the Himalayan foothills have not been as hard-pressed by the intrusions of non-tribals. Historically, their political status was always distinct from the rest of India. Until the British colonial period, there was little effective control by any of the empires centered in peninsular India; the region was populated by autonomous feuding tribes. The British, in efforts to protect the sensitive northeast frontier, followed a policy dubbed the "Inner Line"; nontribal people were allowed into the areas only with special permission. Postindependence governments have continued the policy, protecting the Himalayan tribes as part of the strategy to secure the border with China.

Government policies on forest reserves have affected tribal peoples profoundly. Government efforts to reserve forests have precipitated armed (if futile) resistance on the part of the tribal peoples involved. Intensive exploitation of forests has often meant allowing outsiders to cut large areas of trees (while the original tribal inhabitants were restricted from cutting), and ultimately replacing mixed forests capable of sustaining tribal life with single-product plantations. Nontribals have frequently bribed local officials to secure effective use of reserved forest lands.

The northern tribes have thus been sheltered from the kind of exploitation that those elsewhere in South Asia have suffered. In Arunachal Pradesh (formerly part of the North-East Frontier Agency), for example, tribal members control commerce and most lower-level administrative posts. Government construction projects in the region have provided tribes with a significant source of cash. Some tribes have made rapid progress through the education system (the role of early missionaries was significant in this regard). Instruction was begun in Assamese but was eventually changed to Hindi; by the early 1980s, English was taught at most levels. Northeastern tribal people have thus enjoyed a certain measure of social mobility. , Arunachal Pradesh   (Hindi:   ) is the easternmost state of India. ... North Eastern Frontier Agency was one of the British agencies in British India. ...

Participation in Indian independence movement

There were tribal reform and rebellion movements during the period of the British Empire, some of which also participated in the Indian freedom struggle or attacked mission posts.^[14] There were several Adivasis in the Indian independence movement including Khajya Naik, Bhima Naik, Jantya Bhil and Rehma Vasave. The British Empire in 1897, marked in pink, the traditional colour for Imperial British dominions on maps. ... The term Indian independence movement is diffused, incorporating various national and regional campaigns, agitations and efforts of both Nonviolent and Militant philosophy and involved a wide spectrum of Indian political organizations, philosophies, and movements which had the common aim of ending the British Colonial Authority as well as other colonial...

List of rebellions against British rule

During the period of British rule, India saw the rebellions of several backward-castes, mainly tribals that revolted against British rule. These were:^[15].

1. Halba rebellion (1774-79)
2. Chamka rebellion (1776-1787)^[16]
3. Chuar rebellion in Bengal (1795-1800)^[17]
4. Bhopalpatnam Struggle (1795)
5. Khurda Rebellion in Orissa (1817)^[18]
6. Bhil rebellion (1822-1857)^[19]
7. Paralkot rebellion (1825)
8. Tarapur rebellion (1842-54)
9. Maria rebellion (1842-63)
10. First Freedom Struggle (1856-57)
11. Bhil rebellion, begun by Tantya Tope in Banswara (1858)^[20]
12. Koi revolt (1859)
13. Gond rebellion, begun by Ramji Gond in Adilabad (1860)^[21]
14. Muria rebellion (1876)
15. Rani rebellion (1878-82)
16. Bhumkal (1910)

Some notable Scheduled Tribes

• Andamanese
• Bodos
• Bhils
• CHAKMA
• Dhodia Tribes of Gujarat
• Gonds
• Khasis
• indigenous people of Lakshadweep
• Kurichiya
• Kurumbar
• Tripuris
• Mizos
• Mundaris
• Nagas
• Nicobarese
• Oraon
• Santals
• Todas
• Maldharis of Gujarat.
• Cholanaikkan
• Warli
• Kisan Tribe
• Dongria Kondh
• Bonda
• Kutia Kondh
• [[Bishapus A'Mishapus]}

Comparative map showing the distributions of the various Andamanese peoples in the Andaman Islands- early 1800s versus present-day (2004). ... A Bodo girl in the traditional Bodo dokhna The Bodos, also called the Boros, are an ethnic community that is concentrated mostly in the north-western parts of Assam in India. ... Bhils are a tribal people of central India. ... The majority of the Dhodia tribes are located in the southern part of Gujarat, Surat and Valsad districts, Daman and Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Rajasthan of India. ... Gondi refers to a people and their language in central India. ... The Khasi are a tribe in Meghalaya, India and in parts of Bangladesh, who call themselves Hynniew trep (which means the seven huts in the Khasi language). ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... There are very few or no other articles that link to this one. ... Kurumbar or Kurumans or Kurubaru caste are shepherds of South India. ... Tripuri childrens in traditional attire grouping up for song presentation A beautiful and colourful pattern of rigwnai. ... This article is about the Mizo people. ... The Munda are a tribal (Adivasi) people of the Jharkhand region, which is spread over on five states of India (Jharkhand, Bihar, West Bengal, Chhatisgarh and Orissa), and in parts of Bangladesh. ... The Naga people of about two and half million are found in Nagaland, parts of Manipur, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Myanmar. ... Nicobarese is an isolated group of six closely related Mon-Khmer languages spoken in the Nicobar Islands of India. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The Toda (Tudavar) people are a tribe living in the Nilgiri Mountains of Tamil Nadu in southern India. ... Maldharis are nomadic herdsmen who live in the Gujarat state of India. ... The Cholanaikkans are one of the most primitive tribes in South India, numbering only 360 in 1991. ... Based in the Thane District, about 150 km north of Mumbai, the Warli tribe numbers over 300,000 members. ... Kisan Tribe in Orissa are found in Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj, Sambalpur and Keonjhar. ... Bonda ia a typical South Indian snack. ...

See also

• Tribal religions in India
• List of Scheduled Tribes in India; according to the constitution
• Scheduled castes
• Caste system
• C. K. Janu
• Chakma

This is a full list of Scheduled Tribes in India, as recognised in Indias Constitution. ... In South Asias caste system, an untouchable, dalit, or achuta is a person outside of the four castes, and considered below them. ... The word Caste is derived from the Portuguese word casta, meaning lineage, breed or race. ... This article or section is not written in the formal tone expected of an encyclopedia article. ... The Chakma, who are also known as the Changma, is a Mongoloid tribe inhabiting in the Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh. ...

References

1. ^ Elst, Koenraad: Who is a Hindu (2001)
2. ^ (P. 4, The Story of Historic People of India-The Kolis)
3. ^ (P. 4, The Story of Historic People of India-The Kolis)
4. ^ (P. 4, The Story of Historic People of India-The Kolis)
5. ^ (P. 4, The Story of Historic People of India-The Kolis)
6. ^ (P. 4, The Story of Historic People of India-The Kolis)
7. ^ (P. 4, The Story of Historic People of India-The Kolis)
8. ^ Thomas Parkhill: The Forest Setting in Hindu Epics.
9. ^ M.S. Golwalkar: Bunch of Thoughts, p.479.
10. ^ JAIN, Girilal: The Hindu Phenomenon. UBSPD, Delhi 1994. Eschmann, Kulke and Tripathi, eds.: Cult of Jagannath, p.97. Elst 2001
11. ^ Mahabharata (I.31-54) (II.37.47; II.44.21) Elst 2001
12. ^ Kautilya: The Arthashastra 9:2:13-20, Penguin edition, p. 685. Elst 2001
13. ^ A. Van Exem: “The Mistake, reviewed after a century”, Sevartham 1991. Elst 2001
14. ^ HEUZE, Gérard: Où Va l’Inde Moderne? L’Harmattan, Paris 1993. A. Tirkey: “Evangelization among the Uraons”, Indian Missiological Review, June 1997, esp. p. 30-32. Elst 2001
15. ^ [http://www.chhattisgarhnris.com/chhattisgarh_heaven.htm "Tribal Protests and Rebellions']
16. ^ Page 63 Tagore Without Illusions by Hitendra Mitra
17. ^ Sameeksha Trust, P. 1229 Economic and Political Weekly
18. ^ P. 4 “Freedom Movement in Khurda” Dr. Atul Chandra Pradhan
19. ^ P. 111 The Freedom Struggle in Hyderabad: A Connected Account By Hyderabad (India : State)
20. ^ P. 32 Social and Political Awakening Among the Tribals of Rajasthan By Gopi Nath Sharma
21. ^ P. 420 Who's who of Freedom Struggle in Andhra Pradesh By Sarojini Regani

Further reading

• Elst, Koenraad. Who is a Hindu? (2001) ISBN 8185990743
• Raj, Aditya & Papia Raj (2004) “Linguistic Deculturation and the Importance of Popular Education among the Gonds in India” Adult Education and Development 62: 55-61
• Vindicated by Time: The Niyogi Committee Report (edited by S.R. Goel, 1998) (1955)

External links

• Video of a tribal colony at Wayanad, Kerala
• Adivasis in Orissa
• Adivasi Coordination Group in Germany (engl. website)
• Adivasi Picture Collection at Kamat.com
• Songs of the Tribes of Orissa