Sustainable development Portal

The definition of alternative fuel varies according to the context of its usage. In the context of petroleum substitutes, the term 'alternative fuel' can imply any available fuel or energy source, and does not necessarily refer to a source of renewable energy. In the context of environmental sustainability, 'alternative fuel' often implies an ecologically benign renewable fuel. Image File history File links Sustainable_development. ... Petro redirects here. ... Renewable energy effectively utilizes natural resources such as sunlight, wind, tides and geothermal heat, which are naturally replenished. ... World renewable energy in 2005 (except 2004 data for items marked* or **). Enlarge image to read exclusions. ...

Alternative fuels, also known as non-conventional fuels, are any materials or substances that can be used as a fuel, other than conventional fuels. Conventional fuels include: fossil fuels (petroleum (oil), coal, propane, and natural gas), and also in some instances nuclear materials such as uranium. Some well known alternative fuels include biodiesel, bioalcohol(ethanol, butanol), chemically stored electricity (batteries and fuel cells), hydrogen, non-fossil methane, non-fossil natural gas, vegetable oil and other biomass sources. For other uses, see Fuel (disambiguation). ... Look up material in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Water and steam are two different forms of the same chemical substance A chemical substance is a material with a definite chemical composition. ... For other uses, see Fuel (disambiguation). ... Fossil fuels are hydrocarbon-containing natural resources such as coal, petroleum and natural gas. ... Petro redirects here. ... Coal Example chemical structure of coal Coal (pronounced ) is a fossil fuel formed in swamp ecosystems where plant remains were saved by water and mud from oxidization and biodegradation. ... Propane is a three-carbon alkane, normally a gas, but compressible to a liquid that is transportable. ... For other uses, see Natural gas (disambiguation). ... This article is about the chemical element. ... For other uses, see Fuel (disambiguation). ... This article is about transesterified plant and animal oils. ... Bioalcohol is alcohol obtained from biological sources, not from petroleum. ... Grain alcohol redirects here. ... Butanol or butyl alcohol (sometimes also called biobutanol when produced biologically), is an alcohol with a 4 carbon structure and the molecular formula of C4H10O. It is primarily used as a solvent, as an intermediate in chemical synthesis, and as a fuel. ... Electricity (from New Latin Ä“lectricus, amberlike) is a general term for a variety of phenomena resulting from the presence and flow of electric charge. ... This article is about the chemistry of hydrogen. ... Methane is a chemical compound with the molecular formula . ... For other uses, see Natural gas (disambiguation). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with cooking oil. ... For the use of the term in ecology, see Biomass (ecology). ...

Demand for alternative fuels

In the year 2000, there were about eight million vehicles around the world that ran on alternative fuels, indicating a sustainability.^{[citation needed]}

The major environmental concern, according to an IPCC report, is that "Most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century is due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations" ^[1]. Since burning fossil fuels are known to increase greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere, they are a likely contributor to global warming. IPCC is the science authority for the UNFCCC The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), to evaluate the risk of climate change brought on by humans, based mainly on... Look up anthropogenic in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Top: Increasing atmospheric CO2 levels as measured in the atmosphere and ice cores. ... Fossil fuels are hydrocarbon-containing natural resources such as coal, petroleum and natural gas. ... Global warming refers to the increase in the average temperature of the Earths near-surface air and oceans in recent decades and its projected continuation. ...

Another concern is the peak oil theory, which predicts a rising cost of oil derived fuels caused by severe shortages of oil during an era of growing energy consumption. According to the 'peak oil' theory, the demand for oil will exceed supply and this gap will continue to grow, which could cause a growing energy crisis starting between 2010 and 2020. Lastly, the majority of the known petroleum reserves are located in the middle east. There is general concern that worldwide fuel shortages could intensify the unrest that exists in the region, leading to further conflict and war. (See future energy development for a general discussion) The Hubbert peak theory posits that for any given geographical area, from an individual oil field to the planet as a whole, the rate of petroleum production tends to follow a bell-shaped curve. ... This article is about energy crises in general. ... A map showing countries commonly considered to be part of the Middle East The Middle East is a region comprising the lands around the southern and eastern parts of the Mediterranean Sea, a territory that extends from the eastern Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. ... Future energy development, providing for the worlds future energy needs, currently faces great challenges. ...

The production of alternative fuels can have widespread effects. For example, the production of corn-based ethanol has created an increased demand for the feed stock, causing rising prices in almost everything made from corn.^[2] However, in a competitive free market, an increased supply of ethanol reduces the demand for conventional fuels, and thus lowers fuel prices. The ethanol industry enables agricultural surpluses to be used to mitigate fuel shortages. Grain alcohol redirects here. ... Perfect competition is an economic model that describes a hypothetical market form in which no producer or consumer has the market power to influence prices. ... A free market is an idealized market, where all economic decisions and actions by individuals regarding transfer of money, goods, and services are voluntary, and are therefore devoid of coercion and theft (some definitions of coercion are inclusive of theft). Colloquially and loosely, a free market economy is an economy...

This was pioneered by Brennan.

Alternatives to petroleum

Renewable energy

Main article: Renewable energy

A possible solution to a potential future energy shortage would be to use some of the world's remaining fossil fuel reserves as an investment in renewable energy infrastructure such as wind power, solar power, tidal power, geothermal power, hydropower, thermal depolymerization, methanol, ethanol and biodiesel, or in an oil lamp; try olive oil, canola oil, safflower oil, or sunflower oil which do not suffer from finite energy reserves, but do have a finite energy flow. The construction of sufficiently large renewable energy infrastructure might avoid the economic consequences of an extended period of decline in fossil fuel energy supply per capita. Renewable energy effectively utilizes natural resources such as sunlight, wind, tides and geothermal heat, which are naturally replenished. ... Renewable energy effectively utilizes natural resources such as sunlight, wind, tides and geothermal heat, which are naturally replenished. ... An example of a wind turbine. ... Solar power describes a number of methods of harnessing energy from the light of the sun. ... Tidal power, sometimes called tidal energy, is a form of hydropower that exploits the movement of water caused by tidal currents or the rise and fall in sea levels due to the tides. ... Krafla Geothermal Station in northeast Iceland Geothermal power (from the Greek words geo, meaning earth, and therme, meaning heat) is energy generated by heat stored beneath the Earths surface. ... Undershot water wheels on the Orontes River in Hama, Syria Saint Anthony Falls Hydropower is the capture of the energy of moving water for some useful purpose. ... Thermal depolymerization (TDP) is a process for the reduction of complex organic materials (usually waste products of various sorts, often known as biomass) into light crude oil. ... Methanol, also known as methyl alcohol, carbinol, wood alcohol, wood naptha or wood spirits, is a chemical compound with chemical formula CH3OH. It is the simplest alcohol, and is a light, volatile, colourless, flammable, poisonous liquid with a distinctive odor that is somewhat milder and sweeter than ethanol (ethyl alcohol). ... Grain alcohol redirects here. ... This article is about transesterified plant and animal oils. ... Antique bronze oil lamp with Christian symbol (replica) A terra-cotta oil lamp, Antique oil lamp (replica) An oil lamp is a simple vessel used to produce light continuously for a period of time from a fuel source. ... For the Popeye character, see Olive Oyl. ... For the figure in Celtic mythology see agriculture, canola are certain varieties of plants from which we get rapeseed oil, or the oil produced from those varieties. ... Safflower oil is an oil extracted from the safflower seed. ... Sunflower Oil is the non-volatile oil expressed from sunflower (Helianthus annuus) seeds. ...

Most alternative fuels assume a source of renewable energy or at least sustainable energy (such as nuclear power) as a source of the fuel. A few alternative fuels (for example, hydrogen) may be made by sustainable or non-sustainable means. If they are made by non-sustainable means, such fuels are offered as alternatives usually because they offer to cause less pollution at the point of use, and perhaps less pollution overall. Alternative fuel refers to methods of powering an engine that do not involve petroleum (oil). ... Renewable energy effectively utilizes natural resources such as sunlight, wind, tides and geothermal heat, which are naturally replenished. ... This article is about a concept related to renewable energy, of which sustainable energy is a superset. ...

Biomass

Switchgrass, a hardy plant used in the biofuel industry in the United States

Rice chaff.

Biomass, in the energy production industry, refers to living and recently dead biological material which can be used as fuel or for industrial production. Most commonly, biomass refers to plant matter grown for use as biofuel, but it also includes plant or animal matter used for production of fibres, chemicals or heat. Biomass may also include biodegradable wastes that can be burnt as fuel. It excludes organic material which has been transformed by geological processes into substances such as coal or petroleum. Renewable energy effectively utilizes natural resources such as sunlight, wind, tides and geothermal heat, which are naturally replenished. ... For articles on specific fuels used in vehicles, see Biogas, Bioethanol, Biobutanol, Biodiesel, and Straight vegetable oil. ... For the use of the term in ecology, see Biomass (ecology). ... Krafla Geothermal Station in northeast Iceland Geothermal power (from the Greek words geo, meaning earth, and therme, meaning heat) is energy generated by heat stored beneath the Earths surface. ... Hydroelectricity is electricity produced by hydropower. ... Ultraviolet image of the Sun. ... Tidal power, sometimes called tidal energy, is a form of hydropower that exploits the movement of water caused by tidal currents or the rise and fall in sea levels due to the tides. ... Wave power refers to the energy of ocean surface waves and the capture of that energy to do useful work - including electricity generation, desalination, and the pumping of water (into reservoirs). ... An example of a wind turbine. ... Image File history File links Panicum_virgatum. ... Image File history File links Panicum_virgatum. ... Binomial name Panicum virgatum L. Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) is a warm season grass and is one of the dominant species of the central North American tallgrass prairie. ... Image File history File linksMetadata No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File linksMetadata No higher resolution available. ... Chaff is the seed casings and other inedible plant matter harvested with cereal grains such as wheat. ... Biological material may refer to: Biological tissue, or just tissue Biomass, living or dead biological matter, often plants grown as fuel Biomass (ecology), the total mass of living biological matter Biomolecule, a chemical compound that naturally occurs in living organisms Biotic material, from living things Bio-based material, a processed... For articles on specific fuels used in vehicles, see Biogas, Bioethanol, Biobutanol, Biodiesel, and Straight vegetable oil. ... A chemical substance is any material substance used in or obtained by a process in chemistry: A chemical compound is a substance consisting of two or more chemical elements that are chemically combined in fixed proportions. ... Biodegradable waste is a type of waste, typically originating from plant or animal sources, which may be broken down by other living organisms. ... Organic material or organic matter is informally used to denote a material that originated as a living organism; most such materials contain carbon and are capable of decay. ... Metamorphism can be defined as the solid state recrystallisation of pre-existing rocks due to changes in heat and/or pressure and/or introduction of fluids i. ... Coal Example chemical structure of coal Coal (pronounced ) is a fossil fuel formed in swamp ecosystems where plant remains were saved by water and mud from oxidization and biodegradation. ... Petro redirects here. ...

There are very large quantities of biomass which can be obtained economically and used in place of coal and petroleum. Coal Example chemical structure of coal Coal (pronounced ) is a fossil fuel formed in swamp ecosystems where plant remains were saved by water and mud from oxidization and biodegradation. ... Petro redirects here. ...

Non-conventional oil

Non-conventional oil is a fossil fuel chemically identical and with the same origin as conventional or traditional oil, but existing in a different form. They often contain more contaminants and are more energy intensive to produce, thus raising environmental concerns about the sustainability of these fuels. Non-conventional oil sources include tar sands, oil shale and bitumen. Enormous deposits of non-conventional oil include the Athabasca Oil Sands site in northwestern (Alberta) Canada and the Venezuelan Orinoco tar sands. Oil companies estimate that the Athabasca and Orinoco sites (both of similar size) have as much as two-thirds of total global oil deposits. However, the ability to 'see' underground is limited, so as with all oil reserves, the quantity of available oil is uncertain, even for so-called 'proven' reserves. Large mining operations are currently producing oil, and to some people, this proves the viability of the entire process. Others argue that since the technology is still relatively new, it remains unclear whether it is feasible for a significant percentage of world oil production to be extracted from tar sands. One fact that is agreed upon, is that the current extraction process takes a great deal of energy for heat and electrical power, presently coming from local natural gas, which itself is in short supply. There are some proposals to build a series of nuclear reactors to supply this energy. Non-conventional oil production is currently less energy-efficient, and has a larger environmental impact than conventional oil production. Non-conventional oil is oil extracted using techniques other than the traditional oil well method. ... Athabasca Oil Sands Tar sands is a common name of what are more properly called bituminous sands, but also commonly referred to as oil sands or (in Venezuela) extra-heavy oil. ... Oil shale Oil shale is a general term applied to a fine-grained sedimentary rock containing significant traces of kerogen (a solid mixture of organic chemical compounds) that have not been buried for sufficient time to produce conventional fossil fuels. ... Ewer from Iran, dated 1180-1210CE. Composed of brass worked in repoussé and inlaid with silver and bitumen. ... The Athabasca Oil Sands in Alberta, Canada. ... For other uses, see Alberta (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Orinoco (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Natural gas (disambiguation). ... Core of a small nuclear reactor used for research. ...

Other fossil fuels and the Fischer-Tropsch process

It's expected by geologists that natural gas will peak 5-15 years after oil does^{[citation needed]}. There are large but finite coal reserves which may increasingly be used as a fuel source during oil depletion. The Fischer-Tropsch process converts carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide into heavier hydrocarbons, including synthetic oil. It is used today in South Africa to produce most of that country's diesel from coal. The Karrick process is an improved methodology for coal liquefaction, with higher efficiency. Since there are large but finite coal reserves in the world, this technology could be used as an interim transportation fuel if conventional oil were to become scarce. There are several companies developing the process to enable practical exploitation of so-called stranded gas reserves, those reserves which are impractical to exploit with conventional gas pipelines and LNG technology. For other uses, see Natural gas (disambiguation). ... Coal Example chemical structure of coal Coal (pronounced ) is a fossil fuel formed in swamp ecosystems where plant remains were saved by water and mud from oxidization and biodegradation. ... // The Fischer-Tropsch process is a catalyzed chemical reaction in which carbon monoxide and hydrogen are converted into liquid hydrocarbons of various forms. ... Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom. ... Carbon monoxide, with the chemical formula CO, is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas. ... Oil refineries are key to obtaining hydrocarbons; crude oil is processed through several stages to form desirable hydrocarbons, used in fuel and other commercial products. ... This article is about the fuel. ... Karrick Process, from U.S. Patent #1,958,918. ... A stranded gas reserve is a natural gas field that has been discovered, but remains unusable for either physicial or economic reasons. ... Liquefied natural gas or LNG is natural gas that has been cooled until it becomes liquid, and it is stored in tanks. ...

Methane hydrate is a form of natural gas. This substance consists of methane molecules trapped within the crystalline structure of water ice and is found in deposits under ocean sediments or within continental sedimentary rock formations. It is estimated that the global inventory of methane hydrate may equal as much as 10x the amount of natural gas. With current technology, most gas hydrate deposits are unlikely to be commercially exploited as an energy source. In addition, the combustion of methane results in the formation of carbon dioxide and would thus continue to contribute to global warming. Methane itself is also a greenhouse gas, so if it is "spilled" or released it will contribute to global warming. In other respects methane hydrate has the same problems of fossil fuel). Burning ice. Methane released by heating burns, water drips. ... For other uses, see Natural gas (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Natural gas (disambiguation). ... Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom. ... Global warming refers to the increase in the average temperature of the Earths near-surface air and oceans in recent decades and its projected continuation. ... Global warming refers to the increase in the average temperature of the Earths near-surface air and oceans in recent decades and its projected continuation. ... Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source fuels, this is, hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the earth’s crust. ...

Methanol (methanol economy) from any source can be used in internal combustion engines with minor modifications. It usually is made from natural gas, sometimes from coal, and could be made from any carbon source including CO₂. Flexible fuel vehicles may run with a high percentage of ethanol (ethanol economy) (up to 85% Ethanol plus 15% gasoline for cold-starting vapor pressure). Methanol, also known as methyl alcohol, carbinol, wood alcohol, wood naptha or wood spirits, is a chemical compound with chemical formula CH3OH. It is the simplest alcohol, and is a light, volatile, colourless, flammable, poisonous liquid with a distinctive odor that is somewhat milder and sweeter than ethanol (ethyl alcohol). ... The methanol economy is a hypothetical future economy in which methanol has replaced fossil fuels as a means of transportation of energy. ... A colorized automobile engine The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of fuel and an oxidizer (typically air) occurs in a confined space called a combustion chamber. ... A flexible-fuel vehicle or dual-fuel vehicle is an automobile or truck (lorry) that can accept a range of fuel mixtures. ... Grain alcohol redirects here. ... The use of alcohol as a fuel for internal combustion engines, either alone or in combination with other fuels, has been given much attention mostly because of its possible environmental and long-term economical advantages over fossil fuel. ...

Methanol and ethanol are typically not primary sources of energy; however, they are a convenient way to store the energy for transportation. No type of fuel production is 100% energy-efficient, thus some energy is always lost in the conversion. This energy can be supplied by the original source, or from other sources like fossil fuel reserves, or solar radiation (either through photosynthesis or photovoltaic panels), or hydro, wind or nuclear energy (see below). The use of energy to produce alcohol fuels could potentially proceed via production of hydrogen by electrolysis of water, or possibly (in the case of heat from nuclear energy) by the sulfur-iodine cycle; then use of the hydrogen in the Fischer-Tropsch process along with CO₂ from another source. Such a process might store and use hydrogen more efficiently than attempting to use hydrogen directly as fuel (a gallon of alcohol contains about 50% more hydrogen by weight than a gallon of liquid hydrogen). Since such a process would not liberate net quantities of new CO₂ at the point of combustion, it would be greenhouse neutral, similar to alcohols made from biomass. Solar irradiance spectrum at top of atmosphere. ... The leaf is the primary site of photosynthesis in plants. ... A solar cell, a form of photovoltaic cell, is a device that uses the photoelectric effect to generate electricity from light, thus generating solar power (energy). ... The sulfur-iodine cycle is a series of thermochemical processes used to produce hydrogen. ... // The Fischer-Tropsch process is a catalyzed chemical reaction in which carbon monoxide and hydrogen are converted into liquid hydrocarbons of various forms. ...

Nuclear power and transportation

If nuclear energy were to replace gasoline and fossil fuels used for generation of electricity, then the U.S. would require at least an eightfold increase in nuclear power production, increasing from about 10% of all energy supplied to about 90%^{[citation needed]}. Motto: (traditional) In God We Trust (official, 1956–present) Anthem: The Star-Spangled Banner Capital Washington, D.C. Largest city New York City Official language(s) None at the federal level; English de facto Government Federal Republic  - President George W. Bush (R)  - Vice President Dick Cheney (R) Independence - Declared - Recognized... This article is about applications of nuclear fission reactors as power sources. ...

Conventional Fission reactors

Nuclear engineers estimate that the world could derive 400,000 quads (quadrillion, 10¹⁵, British thermal units), or about 420,000 EJ (exajoules = 10¹⁸ joules), of energy (1000 years at current levels of consumption, assuming new technology) from uranium isotope 235, if reprocessing is not employed.^{[citation needed]} As uranium ore supplies are limited, a majority of this uranium would have to somehow be cost-effectively extracted from seawater. But this technology does not exist. However, at the current technology and consumption, the reserves will last 50 years. ....... Fast breeder reactors are another possibility. As opposed to current LWR (light water reactors), which burn the rare isotope of uranium U-235 (producing and burning about an equal amount of plutonium in the process), fast breeder reactors produce much larger amounts of plutonium from common U-238, then fission that to produce electricity and thermal heat. Because there is about 139 times more U-238 than U-235 on Earth, it has been estimated that there is anywhere from 10,000 to 5,000,000,000 years' worth^{[citation needed]}(sustainable but not renewable, depending on future technology) of U-238 for use in these power plants, and that they can return a high ratio of energy returned on energy invested (EROEI), and avoid some of the problems of current reactors by being automated, passively safe, and reaching economies of scale via mass production. In addition, wastes produced by these plants are less toxic than those of conventional reactors. There are a few such research projects working on fast breeders. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory is currently working on the small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor (SSTAR). Problems arise from the higher levels of heat and radiation produced by this reactor. There are other, more exotic nuclear projects (such as pebble bed reactors), each with their own technical problems. Nuclear engineering is the practical application of the breakdown of atomic nuclei and/or other sub-atomic physics, based on the principles of nuclear physics. ... The British thermal unit (BTU or Btu) is a unit of energy used in the Power, Steam Generation and Heating and Air Conditioning industry globally. ... The joule (symbol: J) is the SI (metric) unit of energy, which is defined as the potential to do work. ... This article is about the chemical element. ... The fast breeder or fast breeder reactor (FBR) is a type of fast neutron reactor that produces more fissile material than it consumes. ... A light water reactor or LWR is a thermal nuclear reactor that uses ordinary water (as opposed to heavy water) as its neutron moderator. ... For other uses, see Isotope (disambiguation). ... This article is about the chemical element. ... This article is about the radioactive element. ... In physics, energy economics and ecological energetics, EROEI (Energy Returned on Energy Invested), ERoEI, or EROI (Energy Return On Investment), is the ratio of the amount of usable energy acquired from a particular energy resource to the amount of energy expended to obtain that energy resource. ... Passively safe is a form of nuclear reactor which uses the laws of physics to keep the nuclear reaction under control rather than engineered safety systems. ... Mass production is the production of large amounts of standardised products on production lines. ... Aerial view of the lab and surrounding area, facing NW. The Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) in Livermore, California is a United States Department of Energy (DOE) national laboratory, managed and operated by Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC (LLNS), a limited liability consortium comprised of Bechtel National, the University of... A possible design for SSTAR. SSTAR is an acronym for the small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor - being primarily researched and developed in the US by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. ... Graphite Pebble for Reactor The pebble bed reactor (PBR) or pebble bed modular reactor (PBMR) is an advanced nuclear reactor design. ...

The long-term radioactive waste storage problems of nuclear power have not been solved, although on-site spent fuel storage in casks has allowed power plants to make room in their spent fuel pools. Today, the only industrial solution lies with storage in underground repositories. Radioactive wastes are waste types containing radioactive chemical elements that do not have a practical purpose. ...

Since automobiles and trucks consume a great deal of the total energy budget of developed countries, some means would be required to deliver the energy generated from nuclear power to these vehicles. The most direct solution is to use electric vehicles. Mass transit will be an important aspect of this solution, as it is readily electrified. Some think that hydrogen may play a role (see below). If so, it could be produced by electrolysis, either conventionally or at high-temperatures supplied by reactor heat. Another possibility for producing hydrogen by nuclear power is the heat-driven sulfur-iodine cycle. An electric vehicle is a vehicle that is propelled by electric motors. ... The sulfur-iodine cycle is a series of thermochemical processes used to produce hydrogen. ...

Hydrogen need not be used directly in transportation. A hybrid chemical-energy storage process might use such hydrogen to produce methanol from CO₂ (see above), which would then feed into the present internal-combustion-engine transportation infrastructure with far less modification than would be needed for hydrogen. See methanol economy. To reduce the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere, hydrogen can be combined with nitrogen from air to produce ammonia which can then be used as fuel for internal combustion engines. [2] [3] The methanol economy is a hypothetical future economy in which methanol has replaced fossil fuels as a means of transportation of energy. ... Carbon dioxide is an atmospheric gas composed of one carbon and two oxygen atoms. ... General Name, symbol, number nitrogen, N, 7 Chemical series nonmetals Group, period, block 15, 2, p Appearance colorless gas Standard atomic weight 14. ... For other uses, see Ammonia (disambiguation). ... An internal combustion engine is an engine that is powered by the expansion of hot combustion products of fuel directly acting within an engine. ...

Fusion reactors

Main article: Fusion power

Internal view of the JET tokamak superimposed with an image of a plasma taken with a visible spectrum video camera. ...

Critics to nuclear power

Renewable alternative energies are alternatives to petroleum and nuclear power. There are widespread public concerns about the health-risks, security risks and radioactive waste disposal problems of nuclear materials. Radioactive wastes are waste types containing radioactive chemical elements that do not have a practical purpose. ...

Hydrogen

Main article: Hydrogen economy

Proponents of a hydrogen economy think hydrogen could hold the key to ongoing energy demands. Relatively new technologies (such as fuel cells) can be used to efficiently harness the chemical energy stored in diatomic hydrogen (H₂). However, there is no accessible natural reserve of uncombined hydrogen, since what little there is resides in Earth's outer atmosphere (exosphere). Hydrogen for use as fuel must first be produced using another energy source; hydrogen would thus actually be a means to transport energy, rather than an energy source, just as common rechargeable batteries are. One existing method of hydrogen production is steam methane reformation; however, the most common source of methane is natural gas, which is in short supply. Another method of hydrogen production is through electrolysis of water which uses electricity generated from any source, or a combination of fossil fuels, nuclear, and/or renewable energy sources. Biomass or coal gasification, photoelectrolysis, and genetically modified organisms have also been proposed as means to produce hydrogen. A hydrogen economy is a hypothetical economy in which the energy needed for motive power (for automobiles or other vehicle types) or electricity (for stationary applications) is derived from reacting hydrogen (H2) with oxygen. ... A hydrogen economy is a hypothetical economy in which the energy needed for motive power (for automobiles or other vehicle types) or electricity (for stationary applications) is derived from reacting hydrogen (H2) with oxygen. ... A fuel cell is an electrochemical device similar to a battery, but differing from the latter in that it is designed for continuous replenishment of the reactants consumed; i. ... [fAgot png|thumb|200px|right|Atmosphere diagram showing the exosphere and other layers. ... In chemistry and manufacturing, electrolysis is a method of separating chemically bonded elements and compounds by passing an electric current through them. ... For the water carbonator, see Gasogene. ... Photoelectrolysis occurs when light is used for electrolysis. ... Ó GloFish: the first genetically modified animal to be sold as a pet. ...

According to the majority of energy experts and researchers, hydrogen is currently impractical as an alternative to fossil-based liquid fuels. It is inefficient to produce, has low energy density (hydrogen gas tanks would need to be 2-3 times as large as conventional gasoline tanks), and is expensive to transport and convert back to electricity. Also hydrogen fuel cells are still prohibitively expensive as a prime mover of transportation. However, theoretically it is more efficient to burn fossil fuels to produce hydrogen than burning oil directly in car engines (due to efficiencies of scale). Unfortunately, this does not take into consideration the significant energy cost of having to build hundreds of millions of new hydrogen powered vehicles plus hydrogen fuel distribution infrastructure. Research on the feasibility of hydrogen as a fuel is still underway, and the outcome is uncertain.

A far more practical way to utilize hydrogen is to bond it with the nitrogen in the air to produce ammonia which can then be easily liquefied, transported and used (directly or indirectly) as a clean and renewable fuel. [4] [5] General Name, symbol, number nitrogen, N, 7 Chemical series nonmetals Group, period, block 15, 2, p Appearance colorless gas Standard atomic weight 14. ... For other uses, see Ammonia (disambiguation). ...

Air engine

The Air engine is an emission-free piston engine using compressed air as fuel. Unlike hydrogen, compressed air is about 10x cheaper than fossil oil, making it an economically attractive alternative (hydrogen is about 10x more expensive than oil or 100x more expensive than compressed air). The air engine has also broken most barriers (storage of the energy, range, ...) Main article: Compressed air energy An air engine or air motor is a device for converting potential energy from compressed air into kinetic energy to drive other machines. ...

Liquid nitrogen

A liquid nitrogen would extract energy from the temperature difference between air and liquid nitrogen. The Stirling engine or cryogenic heat engine offers a way to power such vehicles. A means to generate liquid nitrogen, which is only an energy storage medium, is needed. A tank of liquid nitrogen, used to supply a cryogenic freezer (for storing laboratory samples at a temperature of about -150 Celsius). ... Cut away diagram of a Rhombic Drive Beta Stirling Engine Design Pink - Hot cylinder wall Dark Grey - Cold cylinder wall (with coolant inlet and outlet pipes in Yellow) Dark Green - Thermal insulation separating the two cylinder ends Light Green - Displacer piston Dark Blue - Power piston Light Blue - Flywheels Not Shown...

See also

Energy Portal

• Energy development
• List of energy topics
• Renewable energy
• Alcohol fuel
• Ammonia
• Biodiesel
• Biofuel
• Biogas
• Heating value
• Methane clathrate
• Alternative fuel cars
• Algaculture
• List of 2007 Hybrid Vehicles

Image File history File links Crystal_128_energy. ... Higher electricity use per capita correlates with a higher score on the Human Development Index(1997). ... Energy portal This is a list of energy topics which identifies articles and categories that relate to energy in general. ... Renewable energy effectively utilizes natural resources such as sunlight, wind, tides and geothermal heat, which are naturally replenished. ... Gasoline on the left, alcohol on the right at a filling station in Brazil Rising energy prices and global warming have led to increased interest in alternative fuels. ... For other uses, see Ammonia (disambiguation). ... This article is about transesterified plant and animal oils. ... For articles on specific fuels used in vehicles, see Biogas, Bioethanol, Biobutanol, Biodiesel, and Straight vegetable oil. ... Biogas-bus in Bern, Switzerland Biogas typically refers to a (biofuel) gas produced by the anaerobic digestion or fermentation of organic matter including manure, sewage sludge, municipal solid waste, biodegradable waste or any other biodegradable feedstock, under anaerobic conditions. ... Heating value (or calorific value) is used to define the amount of heat released during the combustion of a fuel or food. ... Burning ice. Methane, released by heating, burns; water drips (USGS). ... Alternative Fuel Cars refers to cars that run on Alternative fuel; any method of powering an engine that does not involve petroleum. ... An open pond Spirulina farm Algaculture is a form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of algae. ... // Ford Escape Hybrid 2WD- 34mpg 4WD- 31mpg Lexus RX 400h 2WD- 29mpg 4WD- 29mpg Saturn Vue Hybrid- (2WD) 29mpg Mercury Mariner Hybrid- (4WD) 31mpg Toyota Highlander Hybrid 2WD- 29mpg 4WD- 29mpg Honda Accord Hybrid- 31mpg Honda Civic Hybrid- 50mpg Lexus GS 450h- 26mpg Toyota Camry Hybrid- 39mpg Toyota Prius- 55mpg...

References

• U.S. Department of Energy
• GTA Energy, Inc.
• Small-scale Biogas Use in Costa Rica

External links

• : AlternateFuels.com
• U.S. DOE Clean Cities Program: Program that focuses on putting alternative fuels into use across the United States (with much success to show for it); there are approximately 90 coalitions across the U.S. that work in areas ranging in size from small cities to entire states
• U.S. DOE Alternative Fuels Data Center
• Victorian Government and Victorian Transport Association Alternative Fuels Information Centre
• Sustainable Green Fleets: EU-sponsored dissemination project for alternatively propelled cars and alternative fuels
• Alternative Fuel Vehicle Training: National Alternative Fuels Training Consortium, West Virginia University U.S.
• USDOE Hydrogen from Coal Research
• Research in Alternative Fuels: Latest research news on alternative fuels from ScienceDaily
• Pop. Mechanics: Crunching the numbers on alternative fuels
• Christian Science Monitor: Gasoline's fledgling rivals: the race to power your car