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Encyclopedia > Architecture of Cambodia

The period of Angkor is the period from approximately the latter half of the 8th century A.D. to the first half of the 15th century. If precise dates are required, the beginning may be set in 802 A.D., when the Khmer King Jayavarman II pronounced himself universal monarch (chakravartin) and declared independence from Java, and the end may be set in 1431 A.D., when Thai invaders from the kingdom of Ayutthaya sacked Angkor and caused the Khmer elite to migrate to Phnom Penh. Map of the Angkor region in Cambodia. ... Khmer can refer to, the: Khmer people, the ethnic group to which the great majority of Cambodians belong to Khmer language Khmer script Khmer Empire, which ruled much of Indochina from the 9th to the 13th centuries. ... Jayavarman II was the founder of a local realm in the Angkor region around 800 A.D. He is probably identical with a king called Jayavarman Ibis, mentioned in inscriptions of the years 770 and 781 A. D. The late legend (of the Sdok Kak Thom inscription dated 8th February... The kingdom of Ayutthaya (Thai: ) was a Thai kingdom that existed from 1350 to 1767. ... Khmer can refer to, the: Khmer people, the ethnic group to which the great majority of Cambodians belong to Khmer language Khmer script Khmer Empire, which ruled much of Indochina from the 9th to the 13th centuries. ... Phnom Penh (Khmer: ; official Romanization: Phnum Pénh; IPA: ) is the largest, most populous and capital city of Cambodia. ...


In any study of Angkorian architecture, the emphasis is necessarily on religious architecture, since the only remaining Angkorean buildings are religious in nature. During the period of Angkor, only temples and other religious buildings were constructed of stone. Non-religious buildings such as dwellings were constructed of perishable materials such as wood, and as such have not survived.


The religious architecture of Angkor has characteristic structures, elements, and motifs, which are identified in the glossary below. Since a number of different architectural styles succeeded one another during the Angkorean period, not all of these features were equally in evidence throughout the period. Indeed, scholars have recurred to the presence or absence of such features as one source of evidence for dating the remains. Map of the Angkor region in Cambodia. ...

The 12th century temple of Angkor Wat is the masterpiece of Angkorian architecture. Constructed under the direction of the Khmer king Suryavarman II, it was to serve as the monarch's personal mausoleum and as a temple to the Hindu god Vishnu. It was designed as a pyramid representing the structure of the universe: the highest level at the center of the temple represented Mount Meru, the home of the Hindu gods, with the five towers on the highest level representing the five peaks of the mountain. The broad moat around the complex represented the oceans that surround the world.
The 12th century temple of Angkor Wat is the masterpiece of Angkorian architecture. Constructed under the direction of the Khmer king Suryavarman II, it was to serve as the monarch's personal mausoleum and as a temple to the Hindu god Vishnu. It was designed as a pyramid representing the structure of the universe: the highest level at the center of the temple represented Mount Meru, the home of the Hindu gods, with the five towers on the highest level representing the five peaks of the mountain. The broad moat around the complex represented the oceans that surround the world.


Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 533 pixelsFull resolution (1500 × 1000 pixel, file size: 828 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 533 pixelsFull resolution (1500 × 1000 pixel, file size: 828 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Aerial view of Angkor Wat The main entrance to the temple proper, seen from the eastern end of the Naga causeway Angkor Wat (or Angkor Vat) is a temple at Angkor, Cambodia, built for King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century as his state temple and capital city. ... Khmer can refer to, the: Khmer people, the ethnic group to which the great majority of Cambodians belong to Khmer language Khmer script Khmer Empire, which ruled much of Indochina from the 9th to the 13th centuries. ... Suryavarman II depicted in a bas-relief at Angkor Wat. ... Bhavna says there are 300 million gods in Hinduism. ... Vishnu (IAST , Devanagari ), (honorific: Sri Vishnu) also known as Narayana is the Supreme Being (i. ... Meru may refer to: Mount Meru (Mythology), a mountain in Hindu (and Buddhist) myth. ...

Contents

Structures

Central sanctuary

The central sanctuary of an Angkorian temple was home to the temple's primary deity, the one to whom the site was dedicated: typically Shiva or Vishnu in the case of a Hindu temple, Buddha or a bodhisattva in the case of a Buddhist temple. The deity was represented by a statue (or in the case of Shiva, most commonly by a linga). Since the temple was not considered a place of worship for use by the population at large, but rather a home for the deity, the sanctuary needed only to be large enough to hold the statue or linga; it was never more than a few metres across.[1] Its importance was instead conveyed by the height of the tower (prasat) rising above it, by its location at the centre of the temple, and by the greater decoration on its walls. Symbolically, the sanctuary represented Mount Meru, the legendary home of the Hindu gods.[2] For other uses, see Siva (disambiguation). ... Vishnu (IAST , Devanagari ), (honorific: Sri Vishnu) also known as Narayana is the Supreme Being (i. ... Bhavna says there are 300 million gods in Hinduism. ... Media:Example. ... Lands Bhutan â€¢ China â€¢ Korea Japan â€¢ Tibet â€¢ Vietnam Taiwan â€¢ Mongolia Doctrine Bodhisattva â€¢ Bodhicitta Karuna â€¢ Prajna Sunyata â€¢ Buddha Nature Trikaya â€¢ Eternal Buddha Scriptures Prajnaparamita Sutra Avatamsaka Sutra Lotus Sutra Nirvana Sutra VimalakÄ«rti Sutra Lankavatara Sutra History 4th Buddhist Council Silk Road â€¢ Nagarjuna Asanga â€¢ Vasubandhu Bodhidharma      A statue of a Bodhisattva, Akasagarbha. ... A replica of an ancient statue found among the ruins of a temple at Sarnath Buddhism is a philosophy based on the teachings of the Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama, a prince of the Shakyas, whose lifetime is traditionally given as 566 to 486 BCE. It had subsequently been accepted by... For other uses, see Siva (disambiguation). ... Linga worship (Estate of Cynthia and Harlen Welsh) Lingam or Linga is the Sanskrit word for mark. ... Mount Meru is a sacred mountain in Hindu mythology which is believed to be the abode of Brahma and other gods. ... Bhavna says there are 300 million gods in Hinduism. ...


Enclosure

Khmer temples were typically enclosed by a concentric series of walls, with the central sanctuary in the middle; this arrangement represented the mountain ranges surrounding Mount Meru, the mythical home of the gods. Enclosures are the spaces between these walls, and between the innermost wall and the temple itself. By modern convention, enclosures are numbered from the centre outwards. The walls defining the enclosures of Khmer temples are frequently lined by galleries, while passage through the walls is by way of gopuras located at the cardinal points.[3] Mount Meru is a sacred mountain in Hindu mythology which is believed to be the abode of Brahma and other gods. ...


Gallery

A cruciform gallery separates the courtyards at Angkor Wat.
A cruciform gallery separates the courtyards at Angkor Wat.

A gallery is a passageway running along the wall of an enclosure or along the axis of a temple, often open to one or both sides. Historically, the form of the gallery evolved during the 10th century from the increasingly long hallways which had earlier been used to surround the central sanctuary of a temple. During the period of Angkor Wat in the first half of the 12th century, additional half galleries on one side were introduced to buttress the structure of the temple. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2560x1920, 408 KB) Cruciform gallery, Angkor Wat, Angkor. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2560x1920, 408 KB) Cruciform gallery, Angkor Wat, Angkor. ... Aerial view of Angkor Wat The main entrance to the temple proper, seen from the eastern end of the Naga causeway Angkor Wat (or Angkor Vat) is a temple at Angkor, Cambodia, built for King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century as his state temple and capital city. ... As a means of recording the passage of time, the 10th century was that century which lasted from 901 to 1000. ... Aerial view of Angkor Wat The main entrance to the temple proper, seen from the eastern end of the Naga causeway Angkor Wat (or Angkor Vat) is a temple at Angkor, Cambodia, built for King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century as his state temple and capital city. ... A buttress (and mostly concealed, a flying buttress) supporting walls at the Palace of Westminster Three different types of buttress: diagonal, on the statues plinth; an ordinary buttress supporting a flying buttress, to the right of the statue; a small ordinary buttress to the right side of the picture...


Gopura

A gopura leads into the 12th century temple compound at Ta Prohm.
A gopura leads into the 12th century temple compound at Ta Prohm.
Many of the gopuras constructed under Jayavarman VII toward the end of the 12th century, such as this one at Angkor Thom, are adorned with gigantic stone faces of Avalokiteshvara.
Many of the gopuras constructed under Jayavarman VII toward the end of the 12th century, such as this one at Angkor Thom, are adorned with gigantic stone faces of Avalokiteshvara.

A gopura is an entrance building. At Angkor, passage through the enclosure walls surrounding a temple compound is frequently accomplished by means of an impressive gopura, rather than just an aperture in the wall or a doorway. Enclosures surrounding a temple are often constructed with a gopura at each of the four cardinal points. In plan, gopuras are usually cross-shaped and elongated along the axis of the enclosure wall; if the wall is constructed with an accompanying gallery, the gallery is sometimes connected to the arms of the gopura. Many Angkorian gopuras have a tower at the centre of the cross. The lintels and pediments are often decorated, and guardian figures (dvarapalas) are often placed or carved on either side of the doorways. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2560x1920, 510 KB) Gopura, Ta Prohm, Angkor. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2560x1920, 510 KB) Gopura, Ta Prohm, Angkor. ... Face tower on the fifth western gopura. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 575 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (719 × 750 pixel, file size: 130 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Angkor (Cambodia, early 13th century) - The so-called South Gate leading to Angkor Thom (the Big City). According to the common opinion of historians, the faces... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 575 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (719 × 750 pixel, file size: 130 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Angkor (Cambodia, early 13th century) - The so-called South Gate leading to Angkor Thom (the Big City). According to the common opinion of historians, the faces... Jayavarman VII (1125?-1215?) was a king of the Khmer Empire (1181 - 1215????) in present day Cambodia. ... Face-tower of the South Gate, showing Avalokiteshvara Bayon temple, Angkor Thom The Terrace of the Leper King, showing apsara Angkor Thom was the fortified inner royal city built by Jayavarman VII (1181 - 1220?), Buddhist king of the Khmer Empire, at the end of the 12th Century, after Angkor had... In Mahayana Buddhism, Avalokitesvara or Avalokiteshvara is a bodhisattva who embodies the compassion of all Buddhas. ... Gopuram of Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple in Srirangam Gopuram or gopura, a prominent feature of the Hindu temple architecture of South India, is the rising tower at the entrance of a temple. ... Map of the Angkor region in Cambodia. ... Cardinal directions or cardinal points are the four principal directions or points of the compass, north, east, south and west. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Post and lintel. ... A pediment is a classical architectural element consisting of a triangular section or gable found above the horizontal superstructure (entablature) which lies immediately upon the columns. ... This fierce-looking creature is a kind of Buddhist guardian figure called a dvarapala. ...


Hall of Dancers

The Hall of Dancers is a type of structure found in the certain late 12th century temples constructed under King Jayavarman VII: Ta Prohm, Preah Khan, Banteay Kdei and Banteay Chhmar. It is a rectangular building elongated along the temple's east axis and divided into four courtyards by galleries. Formerly it had a roof made of perishable materials; now only the stone walls remain. The pillars of the galleries are decorated with dancing apsaras; hence it has been speculated that the hall itself was once used for dancing. Jayavarman VII (1125?-1215?) was a king of the Khmer Empire (1181 - 1215????) in present day Cambodia. ... Face tower on the fifth western gopura. ... The ruined temple is still a destination for Buddhist pilgrims. ... Angkor viewed from space The Bayon temple at Angkor Angkor is the ancient capital of the Khmer empire (history) which thrived from the 9th century to 15th century CE. Its ruins are located in forests to the north of the Great Lake (Tonle Sap), near present day Siem Reap, Cambodia... Banteay Chhmar is a large temple complex in northwest Cambodia, Banteay Meanchey province, 63km north of Sisophon and fairly near to the Thai border. ... An apsaras from the Longmen Grottoes in Luoyang, China. ...


House of Fire

House of Fire, or Dharmasala, is the name given to a type of building found only in temples constructed during the reign of late 12th century monarch Jayavarman VII: Preah Khan, Ta Prohm and Banteay Chhmar. A House of Fire has thick walls, a tower at the west end and south-facing windows.[4] Jayavarman VII (1125?-1215?) was a king of the Khmer Empire (1181 - 1215????) in present day Cambodia. ... The ruined temple is still a destination for Buddhist pilgrims. ... Face tower on the fifth western gopura. ... Banteay Chhmar is a large temple complex in northwest Cambodia, Banteay Meanchey province, 63km north of Sisophon and fairly near to the Thai border. ...


Scholars theorize that the House of Fire functioned as a "rest house with fire" for travellers. An inscription at Preah Khan tells of 121 such rest houses lining the highways into Angkor. The Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan expressed his admiration for these rest houses when he visited Angkor in 1296 A.D.[5] Another theory is that the House of Fire had a religious function as the repository the sacred flame used in sacred ceremonies. The ruined temple is still a destination for Buddhist pilgrims. ... Map of the Angkor region in Cambodia. ... Zhou Daguan (1266-1346 A.D.) was a Chinese diplomat under the Emperor Chengzong of Yuan China. ...

Unusually, the libraries at Angkor Wat open to both the East and the West.
Unusually, the libraries at Angkor Wat open to both the East and the West.

Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2560x1920, 375 KB) Library, Angkor Wat, Angkor. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2560x1920, 375 KB) Library, Angkor Wat, Angkor. ... Aerial view of Angkor Wat The main entrance to the temple proper, seen from the eastern end of the Naga causeway Angkor Wat (or Angkor Vat) is a temple at Angkor, Cambodia, built for King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century as his state temple and capital city. ...

Library

Structures conventionally known as "libraries" are a common feature of Khmer temple architecture, but their true purpose remains unknown. Most likely they functioned broadly as religious shrines rather than strictly as repositories of manuscripts. Freestanding buildings, they were normally placed in pairs on either side of the entrance to an enclosure, opening to the west.[6]


Srah and baray

Srahs and barays were reservoirs, generally created by excavation and embankment respectively. It is not clear whether the significance of these reservoirs was religious, agricultural, or a combination of the two. The Ashokan Reservoir, located in Ulster County, New York, USA. It is one of 19 that supplies New York City with drinking water. ...


The two largest reservoirs at Angkor were the West Baray and the East Baray, located on either side of Angkor Thom. The East Baray is now dry. The West Mebon is an 11th century temple standing at the center of the West Baray; the East Mebon a 10th century temple standing at the center of the East Baray.[7] The baray associated with Preah Khan is the Jayataka, in the middle of which stands the 12th century temple of Neak Pean. Scholars have speculated that the Jayataka represents the Himalayan lake of Anavatapta, known for its miraculous healing powers.[8] The West Baray is a baray at Angkor, Cambodia, oriented east-west and located just west of Angkor Thom. ... The East Baray is a baray at Angkor, Cambodia, orientated east-west and located just east of Angkor Thom. ... Face-tower of the South Gate, showing Avalokiteshvara Bayon temple, Angkor Thom The Terrace of the Leper King, showing apsara Angkor Thom was the fortified inner royal city built by Jayavarman VII (1181 - 1220?), Buddhist king of the Khmer Empire, at the end of the 12th Century, after Angkor had... The West Mebon is a temple at Angkor, Cambodia, located in the centre of the West Baray. ... The East Mebon is a temple at Angkor, Cambodia, located in the centre of the East Baray. ... The ruined temple is still a destination for Buddhist pilgrims. ... Neak Pean at Angkor, Cambodia is an artificial island with a Buddhist temple at the center of Jayatataka Baray, or Pool of Jayavarman. ...


Temple mountain

The Bakong is the earliest surviving Temple Mountain at Angkor.
The Bakong is the earliest surviving Temple Mountain at Angkor.

The dominant scheme for the construction of state temples in the Angkorian period was that of the Temple Mountain, an architectural representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods in Hindu mythology.[9] The style was influenced by Indian temple architecture. Enclosures represented the mountain chains surrounding Mount Meru, while a moat represented the ocean. The temple itself took shape as a pyramid of several levels, and the home of the gods was represented by the elevated sanctuary at the center of the temple. The first great Temple Mountain was the Bakong, a five-level pyramid dedicated in 881 A.D. by King Indravarman I.[10] Other Khmer Temple Mountains include Baphuon, Pre Rup, Ta Keo and most notably Angkor Wat. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Angkor viewed from space The Bayon temple at Angkor Angkor is the ancient capital of the Khmer empire (history) which thrived from the 9th century to 15th century CE. Its ruins are located in forests to the north of the Great Lake (Tonle Sap), near present day Siem Reap, Cambodia... Mount Meru is a sacred mountain in Hindu mythology which is believed to be the abode of Brahma and other gods. ... Hinduism (known as in modern Indian languages[1]) is a religious tradition[2] that originated in the Indian subcontinent. ... Indian architecture encompasses a wide variety of geographically and historically spread structures, and was transformed by the long history of the entire South Asian subcontinent. ... Angkor viewed from space The Bayon temple at Angkor Angkor is the ancient capital of the Khmer empire (history) which thrived from the 9th century to 15th century CE. Its ruins are located in forests to the north of the Great Lake (Tonle Sap), near present day Siem Reap, Cambodia... Indravarman I was the king of the Khmer region of Angkor, in Cambodia, from 877 to 890. ... The layout of the temple as seen from above Pen and watercolor reconstruction of what the temple may have looked in the 11th century by Lucien Fournereau in 1889 The Baphuon is a temple at Angkor, Cambodia. ... Pre Rup is a temple at Angkor, Cambodia, built as the state temple of king Rajendravarman and dedicated in 961 or 962. ... Angkor viewed from space The Bayon temple at Angkor Angkor is the ancient capital of the Khmer empire (history) which thrived from the 9th century to 15th century CE. Its ruins are located in forests to the north of the Great Lake (Tonle Sap), near present day Siem Reap, Cambodia... Aerial view of Angkor Wat The main entrance to the temple proper, seen from the eastern end of the Naga causeway Angkor Wat (or Angkor Vat) is a temple at Angkor, Cambodia, built for King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century as his state temple and capital city. ...


Elements

Bas-relief

Bas-reliefs are individual figures, groups of figures, or entire scenes cut into stone walls, not as drawings but as sculpted images projecting from a background. Narrative bas-reliefs are bas-reliefs depicting stories from mythology or history. Until about the 11th century A.D., the Khmer limited their narrative bas-reliefs to the space on the tympana above doorways. The most famous such bas-reliefs are those on the tympana at the 10th century temple of Banteay Srei, depicting scenes from Hindu mythology. By the 12th century, however, the Angkorian artists were covering entire walls with narrative scenes in bas-relief. At Angkor Wat, the external gallery wall is covered with some 12,000 or 13,000 square meters of such scenes, some of them historical, some mythological. Similarly, the outer gallery at the Bayon contains extensive bas-reliefs documenting the everyday life of the medieval Khmer as well as historical events from the reign of King Jayavarman VII. The Terrace of the Elephants and the Terrace of the Leper King are likewise known for their bas-reliefs.[11] Detail from the Elgin Marbles, an example of bas-relief Greek soldier in Armour in bas-relief     Bas-relief is a method of sculpting which entails carving or etching away the surface of a flat piece of stone or metal. ... Tympanum may mean: Eardrum A sculpted panel that stands within the recessed area formed by a larger arch above the doors to a church or similar building, especially in Romanesque and Gothic architecture singular of timpani (drum) a hearing organ on grasshoppers. ... Banteay Srei (or Banteay Srey) is one of the most unusual temples of Angkor, Cambodia. ... Hindu mythology is a term used by modern scholarship for a large body of Indian literature that details the lives and times of legendary personalities, deities and divine incarnations on earth interspersed with often large sections of philosophical and ethical discourse. ... Aerial view of Angkor Wat The main entrance to the temple proper, seen from the eastern end of the Naga causeway Angkor Wat (or Angkor Vat) is a temple at Angkor, Cambodia, built for King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century as his state temple and capital city. ... [[Image:Bayon-temple. ... Jayavarman VII (1125?-1215?) was a king of the Khmer Empire (1181 - 1215????) in present day Cambodia. ... Terrace of the Elephants, Angkor, Cambodia The Terrace of the Elephants is part of the walled city of Angkor Thom, a ruined temple complex in Cambodia. ... This page is a candidate for speedy deletion, because: it is patent nonsense. ...


The following is a listing of the motifs illustrated in some of the more famous Angkorian bas-reliefs:

A bas-relief in a tympanum at Banteay Srei shows Indra releasing the rains in an attempt to extinguish the fire created by Agni.
A bas-relief in a tympanum at Banteay Srei shows Indra releasing the rains in an attempt to extinguish the fire created by Agni.
The Battle of Kurukshetra is the subject of this bas-relief at Angkor Wat.
The Battle of Kurukshetra is the subject of this bas-relief at Angkor Wat.
This blind door at Banteay Srei is flanked by colonettes. Above the door is a lintel, above which is a tympanum with a scene from the Mahabharata.
This blind door at Banteay Srei is flanked by colonettes. Above the door is a lintel, above which is a tympanum with a scene from the Mahabharata.

Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (2560x1920, 1476 KB) East pediment of the north library at Banteay Srei. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (2560x1920, 1476 KB) East pediment of the north library at Banteay Srei. ... Tympanum may mean: The eardrum; or A sculpted panel that stands within the recessed area formed by a larger arch above the doors to a church or similar building, especially in Romanesque and Gothic architecture; or A single drum in the orchestral percussion section usually called timpani. ... Banteay Srei (or Banteay Srey) is one of the most unusual temples of Angkor, Cambodia. ... For other uses, see Indra (disambiguation). ... Chinese (Wu Xing) Japanese (Godai) Earth (地) | Water (水) | Fire (火) | Air / Wind (風) | Void / Sky / Heaven (空) Hinduism (Tattva) and Buddhism (Mahābhūta) Vayu / Pavan — Air / Wind Agni / Tejas — Fire Akasha — Aether Prithvi / Bhumi — Earth Ap / Jala — Water Bön New Zealand Agni is a Hindu and Vedic deity. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (2576 × 1932 pixel, file size: 1. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (2576 × 1932 pixel, file size: 1. ... Kurukshetra may refer to: The Kurukshetra war described in the Mahabharata, an Indian epic The town and district of Kurukshetra in the Indian state of Haryana This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Aerial view of Angkor Wat The main entrance to the temple proper, seen from the eastern end of the Naga causeway Angkor Wat (or Angkor Vat) is a temple at Angkor, Cambodia, built for King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century as his state temple and capital city. ... Banteay Srei (or Banteay Srey) is one of the most unusual temples of Angkor, Cambodia. ... In the Hindu epic Ramayana, Vali was the monkey-King of Kishkindha, a son of Indra and the elder brother of Sugriva. ... In Hinduism, Sugriva was the younger brother of Vali. ... A motif depicting Bheema in the battle ready posture. ... Duryodhana as depicted in Yakshagana popular drama from Karnataka In the Hindu epic the Mahabharata, Duryodhana (दुर्योधन) is the eldest son of the blind king Dhritarashtra by Queen Gandhari, the eldest of the one hundred Kaurava brothers, and the chief antagonist of the Pandavas. ... The Kurukshetra war, according to scholars taking into consideration archeological, astronomical and literary evidences took place around 3102 BCE in the modern day state of Haryana in India and was described in detail in the Hindu epic Mahabharata. ... This article is about the demon in Hindu mythology. ... A depiction of Ravana, Hindu rakshasa King of Lanka A great tamil king. ... For other uses, see Siva (disambiguation). ... Lakshmi is a common aspect of Shakti Shakti meaning force, power or energy is the Hindu concept or personification of Gods female aspect, sometimes referred to as The Divine Mother. Shakti represents the active, dynamic principles of feminine power. ... Kama may refer to several things Kama, a Hindu god, the God of Love, son of Lakshmi. ... For other uses, see Siva (disambiguation). ... Chinese (Wu Xing) Japanese (Godai) Earth (地) | Water (水) | Fire (火) | Air / Wind (風) | Void / Sky / Heaven (空) Hinduism (Tattva) and Buddhism (Mahābhūta) Vayu / Pavan — Air / Wind Agni / Tejas — Fire Akasha — Aether Prithvi / Bhumi — Earth Ap / Jala — Water Bön New Zealand Agni is a Hindu and Vedic deity. ... For other uses, see Indra (disambiguation). ... Aerial view of Angkor Wat The main entrance to the temple proper, seen from the eastern end of the Naga causeway Angkor Wat (or Angkor Vat) is a temple at Angkor, Cambodia, built for King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century as his state temple and capital city. ... Lanka is the name given in Hindu mythology to the island fortress capital of the evil king Ravana in the epic Ramayana. ... A rakshasa (Sanskrit: रक्षस, rakṣasa; alternately, raksasa or rakshas) is a demon or evil spirit in Hinduism. ... Vanara is a Sanskrit word literally meaning a human having the fur or tail of a monkey. It popularly refers to the race of monkey-like humanoids in the Hindu epic Ramayana who are brave and inquisitive in nature. ... Suryavarman II depicted in a bas-relief at Angkor Wat. ... The Kurukshetra war, according to scholars taking into consideration archeological, astronomical and literary evidences took place around 3102 BCE in the modern day state of Haryana in India and was described in detail in the Hindu epic Mahabharata. ... The Pandavas were the five sons of the king Pandu. ... The term Kaurava is a Sanskrit term, that means the descendants of Kuru, a legendary king who is the ancestor of many of the characters of the Mahabharata. ... In Hinduism, Samudra manthan (Devanagari: समुद्र मंथन) or The churning of the ocean of milk is one of the most famous episodes in the Puranas and is celebrated in a major way every twelve years in the festival known as Kumbha Mela. ... [[Image:Bayon-temple. ... Khmer can refer to, the: Khmer people, the ethnic group to which the great majority of Cambodians belong to Khmer language Khmer script Khmer Empire, which ruled much of Indochina from the 9th to the 13th centuries. ... Cham can mean the following: a Jewish variant spelling of Ham a people living in Northern Greece of Albanian descent, also spelled as Çam: see Cham Albanians. ... Map of the Angkor region in Cambodia. ... Khmer can refer to, the: Khmer people, the ethnic group to which the great majority of Cambodians belong to Khmer language Khmer script Khmer Empire, which ruled much of Indochina from the 9th to the 13th centuries. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1161x1591, 205 KB) Blind door with colonettes, Banteay Srei, Angkor. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1161x1591, 205 KB) Blind door with colonettes, Banteay Srei, Angkor. ... Banteay Srei (or Banteay Srey) is one of the most unusual temples of Angkor, Cambodia. ... Pre-fabricated, pre-tensioned concrete lintels spanning garage doors. ... Tympanum may mean: The eardrum; or A sculpted panel that stands within the recessed area formed by a larger arch above the doors to a church or similar building, especially in Romanesque and Gothic architecture; or A single drum in the orchestral percussion section usually called timpani. ... For the film by Peter Brook, see The Mahabharata (1989 film). ...

Blind door and window

Angkorean shrines frequently opened in only one direction, typically to the East. The other three sides featured fake or blind doors to maintain symmetry. Blind windows were often used along otherwise blank walls.[12]


Colonette

Colonettes were narrow decorative columns positioned as supports for the lintel above a doorway. Depending on the period, they were round, rectangular, or octogonal in shape. Colonettes were often circled with molded rings and decorated with carved leaves.[13] Pre-fabricated, pre-tensioned concrete lintels spanning garage doors. ...


Corbelling

Corbelled arch at the south gate of Angkor Thom.
Corbelled arch at the south gate of Angkor Thom.
Corbelled hallway at Ta Prohm.
Corbelled hallway at Ta Prohm.

The Angkorian Khmer appear to have been ignorant of the true or keyed arch. In all of their constructions, they used the much weaker corbel arch. A corbel arch is constructed by adding layers of stones to the walls on either side of an opening, with each successive layer projecting further towards the centre than the one supporting it from below, until the two sides meet in the middle. The use of this method prevented the Khmer engineers from constructing large openings, and made the temples particularly prone to collapse once they were no longer maintained.[14] Image File history File links Download high resolution version (620x953, 53 KB) Corbel arch on south entrance to Angkor Thom, Angkor. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (620x953, 53 KB) Corbel arch on south entrance to Angkor Thom, Angkor. ... Face-tower of the South Gate, showing Avalokiteshvara Bayon temple, Angkor Thom The Terrace of the Leper King, showing apsara Angkor Thom was the fortified inner royal city built by Jayavarman VII (1181 - 1220?), Buddhist king of the Khmer Empire, at the end of the 12th Century, after Angkor had... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 366 × 599 pixelsFull resolution (489 × 800 pixel, file size: 480 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) (All user names refer to fr. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 366 × 599 pixelsFull resolution (489 × 800 pixel, file size: 480 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) (All user names refer to fr. ... Face tower on the fifth western gopura. ... For other uses, see Arch (disambiguation). ... Elaborately decorated classical-style stone corbels support balconies on a building in Indianapolis. ...


Lintel, pediment, and tympanum

A lintel is a horizontal beam connecting two vertical columns between which runs a door or passageway. Because the Angkorean Khmer lacked the ability to construct a true arch, they constructed their pasageways using lintels or corbelling. A pediment is a roughly triangular structure above a lintel. A tympanum is the decorated surface of a pediment. Pre-fabricated, pre-tensioned concrete lintels spanning garage doors. ... For other uses, see Arch (disambiguation). ... Elaborately decorated classical-style stone corbels support balconies on a building in Indianapolis. ... A pediment is a classical architectural element consisting of a triangular section or gable found above the horizontal superstructure (entablature) which lies immediately upon the columns. ... Tympanum may mean: The eardrum; or A sculpted panel that stands within the recessed area formed by a larger arch above the doors to a church or similar building, especially in Romanesque and Gothic architecture; or A single drum in the orchestral percussion section usually called timpani. ...

Lintel and pediment at Banteay Srei; the motif on the pediment is Shiva Nataraja.
Lintel and pediment at Banteay Srei; the motif on the pediment is Shiva Nataraja.

The styles employed by Angkorean artists in the decoration of lintels evolved over time, as a result, the study of lintels has proven a useful guide to the dating of temples. Some scholars have endeavored to develop a periodization of lintel styles.[15] The most beautiful Angkorean lintels are thought to be those of the Preah Ko style from the late 9th century.[16] Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1696x1281, 1904 KB) Pediment and lintel, east gopura 1 of Banteay Srei, Angkor. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1696x1281, 1904 KB) Pediment and lintel, east gopura 1 of Banteay Srei, Angkor. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Post and lintel. ... A pediment is a classical architectural element consisting of a triangular section or gable found above the horizontal superstructure (entablature) which lies immediately upon the columns. ... Banteay Srei (or Banteay Srey) is one of the most unusual temples of Angkor, Cambodia. ... For other uses, see Siva (disambiguation). ... Bronze Chola Statue of Nataraja Nataraja (literally, The King of Dance) is the dancing posture of Lord Åšiva, the aspect of God as the Destroyer in Hinduism. ... Angkor viewed from space The Bayon temple at Angkor Angkor is the ancient capital of the Khmer empire (history) which thrived from the 9th century to 15th century CE. Its ruins are located in forests to the north of the Great Lake (Tonle Sap), near present day Siem Reap, Cambodia...


Common motifs in the decoration of lintels include the kala, the naga and the makara, as well as various forms of vegetation.[17] Also frequently depicted are the Hindu gods associated with the four cardinal directions, with the identity of the god depicted on a given lintel or pediment depending on the direction faced by that element. Indra, the god of the sky, is associated with East; Yama, the god of judgment and Hell, with South; Varuna, the god of the ocean, with West; and Kubera, god of wealth, with North.[18] Kala is the second studio album by UK artist M.I.A. and will be released, according to Billboard. ... The nagas ( snake) are an ancient race of snake-humanoid beings first depicted in ancient Vedic Hindu mythology and oral folklore from at least 5000 B.C.E. Stories involving the Nagas are still very much a part of contemporary cultural traditions in predominantly Hindu (India, Nepal, and the island... The word Makara can refer to several different things. ... Bhavna says there are 300 million gods in Hinduism. ... For other uses, see Indra (disambiguation). ... A modern depiction of Yamarajas Court, by Dominique Amendola Tibetan Dharmapala at the Field Museum in Chicago 19th century kagamibuta netsuke depicting Enma This article is about the deity Yama. ... In Vedic religion, Varuna (Devanagari:वरुण, IAST:) is a god of the sky, of rain and of the celestial ocean, as well as a god of law and of the underworld. ... Kubera (also Kuvera or Kuber) is the god of wealth and the lord of Uttaradisha in Hindu mythology. ...


Stairs

The stairs leading to the inner enclosure at Ankor Wat are daunting.
The stairs leading to the inner enclosure at Ankor Wat are daunting.

Angkorean stairs are notoriously steep. Frequently, the length of the riser exceeds that of the tread, producing an angle of ascent somewhere between 45 and 70 degrees. The reasons for this peculiarity appear to be both religious and monumental. From the religious perspective, a steep stairway can be interpreted as a "stairway to heaven," the realm of the gods. "From the monumental point of view," according to Angkor-scholar Maurice Glaize, "the advantage is clear - the square of the base not having to spread in surface area, the entire building rises to its zenith with a particular thrust."[19] Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1200 × 900 pixel, file size: 724 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg)Photograph by Bill Bradley. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1200 × 900 pixel, file size: 724 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg)Photograph by Bill Bradley. ... Aerial view of Angkor Wat The main entrance to the temple proper, seen from the eastern end of the Naga causeway Angkor Wat (or Angkor Vat) is a temple at Angkor, Cambodia, built for king Suryavarman II in the early 12th century as his state temple and capital city. ... Stairs, staircase, stairway, flight of stairs are all names for a construction designed to bridge a large vertical distance by dividing it into smaller vertical distances, called steps. ... In sand casting, a riser prevents shrinkage in metal cast parts during the solidification process. ... The tread of a tire or caterpillar track refers to the pattern visible on its circumference that makes contact with the road. ... Maurice Glaize was the conservator of Angkor from 1937 to 1945. ...


Motifs

Apsara and devata

Apsaras (left) and a devata (right) grace the walls at Banteay Kdei.
Apsaras (left) and a devata (right) grace the walls at Banteay Kdei.
Three apsaras appear on this pillar at the 12th century Buddhist temple the Bayon.
Three apsaras appear on this pillar at the 12th century Buddhist temple the Bayon.

Apsaras, divine nymphs or celestial dancing girls, are characters from Indian mythology. Their origin is explained in the story of the churning of the Ocean of Milk, or samudra manthan, found in the great epic Mahabharata. The widespread use of apsaras as a motif for decorating the walls and pillars of temples and other religious buildings, however, was a Khmer innovation. In modern descriptions of Angkorean temples, the term "apsara" is sometimes used to refer not only to dancers but also to other minor female deities, though minor female deities who are depicted standing about rather than dancing are more commonly called "devatas." Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1570x2035, 2954 KB) True apsaras (left) and devata (right) at Banteay Kdei, Angkor. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1570x2035, 2954 KB) True apsaras (left) and devata (right) at Banteay Kdei, Angkor. ... Angkor viewed from space The Bayon temple at Angkor Angkor is the ancient capital of the Khmer empire (history) which thrived from the 9th century to 15th century CE. Its ruins are located in forests to the north of the Great Lake (Tonle Sap), near present day Siem Reap, Cambodia... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 428 × 600 pixels Full resolution (464 × 650 pixel, file size: 100 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) (Uploaded using CommonsHelper or PushForCommons) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 428 × 600 pixels Full resolution (464 × 650 pixel, file size: 100 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) (Uploaded using CommonsHelper or PushForCommons) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed... [[Image:Bayon-temple. ... An apsaras from the Longmen Grottoes in Luoyang, China. ... The Ocean of Milk in Hindu mythology is the place where 13 precious treasures were lost. ... In Hinduism, Samudra manthan (Devanagari: समुद्र मंथन) or The churning of the ocean of milk is one of the most famous episodes in the Puranas and is celebrated in a major way every twelve years in the festival known as Kumbha Mela. ... For the film by Peter Brook, see The Mahabharata (1989 film). ... The Khmer people are the predominant ethnic group in Cambodia, accounting for approximately 90% of the 13. ... Deva is the Hindu term for deity; devatas are a kind of smaller more focused deva, the equivalent of guardian spirits or guardian angels. ...


Apsaras and devatas are ubiquitous at Angkor, but are perhaps most common in the foundations of the 12th century. Depictions of true (dancing) apsaras are found, for example, in the Hall of Dancers at Preah Khan and in the famous bas-relief of Angkor Wat depicting the churning of the Ocean of Milk. The largest population of devatas (around 2,000) is at Angkor Wat, where they appear individually and in groups.[20] Map of the Angkor region in Cambodia. ... The ruined temple is still a destination for Buddhist pilgrims. ... Aerial view of Angkor Wat The main entrance to the temple proper, seen from the eastern end of the Naga causeway Angkor Wat (or Angkor Vat) is a temple at Angkor, Cambodia, built for King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century as his state temple and capital city. ... Aerial view of Angkor Wat The main entrance to the temple proper, seen from the eastern end of the Naga causeway Angkor Wat (or Angkor Vat) is a temple at Angkor, Cambodia, built for King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century as his state temple and capital city. ...


Dvarapala

This dvarapala stands guard at Banteay Kdei.
This dvarapala stands guard at Banteay Kdei.

Dvarapalas are human or demonic temple guardians, generally armed with lances and clubs. They are presented either as a stone statues or as relief carvings in the walls of temples and other buildings, generally close to entrances or passageways. Their function is to protect the temples. Dvarapalas may be seen, for example, at Banteay Srei and Preah Khan.[21] Image File history File links Size of this preview: 320 × 599 pixelsFull resolution (1364 × 2552 pixel, file size: 2. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 320 × 599 pixelsFull resolution (1364 × 2552 pixel, file size: 2. ... Angkor viewed from space The Bayon temple at Angkor Angkor is the ancient capital of the Khmer empire (history) which thrived from the 9th century to 15th century CE. Its ruins are located in forests to the north of the Great Lake (Tonle Sap), near present day Siem Reap, Cambodia... This fierce-looking creature is a kind of Buddhist guardian figure called a dvarapala. ... Banteay Srei (or Banteay Srey) is one of the most unusual temples of Angkor, Cambodia. ... The ruined temple is still a destination for Buddhist pilgrims. ...


Kala

A kala serves as the base for a deity at the 10th century Hindu temple Banteay Srei.
A kala serves as the base for a deity at the 10th century Hindu temple Banteay Srei.

The kala is a ferocious monster symbolic of time in its all-devouring aspect and associated with the destructive side of the god Siva.[22] It is often depicted as a monstrous head with a gaping maw lined by large carnivorous teeth. Generally, it is depicted with a large upper jaw but no lower jaw. Some kalas are shown disgorging vine-like plants, and some serve as the base for other figures. Image File history File links Size of this preview: 416 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (933 × 1345 pixel, file size: 531 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 416 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (933 × 1345 pixel, file size: 531 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Banteay Srei (or Banteay Srey) is one of the most unusual temples of Angkor, Cambodia. ... This article is about the Hindu God. ...


Linga

A linga is a phallic post or cylinder symbolic of the god Siva and of creative power.[23] In the Khmer empire, certain lingas were erected as symbols of the king himself, and were housed in royal temples in order to express the king's consubstantiality with Siva.[24] The lingas that survive from the Angkorean period are generally made of polished stone, and are often found implanted in base called a yoni, symbolic of the womb. A mukhalinga is a special type of linga on the surface of which is engraved the face of Siva. Linga worship (Estate of Cynthia and Harlen Welsh) Lingam or Linga is the Sanskrit word for mark. ... This article is about the Hindu God. ... Map of Asia and Europe circa 1200 C.E. and the golden age of Khmer Empire. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ...


Makara

A makara is a sea monster with the body of a serpent, the trunk of an elephant, and a head that can have features reminiscent of a lion, a crocodile, or a dragon. It is frequently depicted with some other creature, such as a lion or serpent, emerging from its gaping maw. In Khmer temple architecture, the motif of the makara is frequently used as part of a decorative carving. At Banteay Srei, carvings of makaras disgorging other monsters may be observed on many of the corners of the buildings. The word Makara can refer to several different things. ... Banteay Srei (or Banteay Srey) is one of the most unusual temples of Angkor, Cambodia. ...


Naga

Stone Asuras hold the naga Vasuki on a bridge leading into the 12th century city of Angkor Thom.
Stone Asuras hold the naga Vasuki on a bridge leading into the 12th century city of Angkor Thom.

Mythical serpents, or nagas, represent a common decorative motif in Khmer architecture. They are frequently depicted as having multiple heads, always uneven in number, arranged in a fan. Each head has a flared hood, in the manner of a cobra. Nagas were important as symbols of water and as figures in the myths of origin for the Khmer people, who were said to be descended from the union of an Indian Brahman and a serpent princess from Cambodia.[25] Nagas were also characters in other well-known legends and stories depicted in Khmer art, such as the churning of the Ocean of Milk, the legend of the Leper King as depicted in the bas-refliefs of the Bayon, and the story of Mucalinda, the serpent king who protected the Buddha from the elements.[26] Image File history File links South Great Gate at Angkor Tom. ... Image File history File links South Great Gate at Angkor Tom. ... In Hindu mythology, the Asura are a group of power-seeking deities, sometimes misleadingly referred to as demons. ... Vasuki is a naga, or one of the serpents of Hindu mythology. ... Face-tower of the South Gate, showing Avalokiteshvara Bayon temple, Angkor Thom The Terrace of the Leper King, showing apsara Angkor Thom was the fortified inner royal city built by Jayavarman VII (1181 - 1220?), Buddhist king of the Khmer Empire, at the end of the 12th Century, after Angkor had... The nagas ( snake) are an ancient race of snake-humanoid beings first depicted in ancient Vedic Hindu mythology and oral folklore from at least 5000 B.C.E. Stories involving the Nagas are still very much a part of contemporary cultural traditions in predominantly Hindu (India, Nepal, and the island... This page deals with the Hindu concept of The Supreme Reality. ... The Ocean of Milk in Hindu mythology is the place where 13 precious treasures were lost. ... [[Image:Bayon-temple. ... Mucalinda or Mucilinda is the name of a naga (a snake-like being), who protected the Buddha from the elements after his enlightenment. ...


Naga bridges are causeways or true bridges lined by stone balustrades shaped as nagas. In some cases, as with the bridges at the entrances to Angkor Thom, the nagas are held by a row of stone giants, as described in the story of the Churning of the Ocean of Milk. Stairs, staircase, stairway, flight of stairs are all names for a construction designed to bridge a large vertical distance by dividing it into smaller vertical distances, called steps. ... Face-tower of the South Gate, showing Avalokiteshvara Bayon temple, Angkor Thom The Terrace of the Leper King, showing apsara Angkor Thom was the fortified inner royal city built by Jayavarman VII (1181 - 1220?), Buddhist king of the Khmer Empire, at the end of the 12th Century, after Angkor had... The Bhagavata Purana (sometimes rendered as Bhagavatha Purana), also known as the Srimad Bhagavatam, written c. ...


Quincunx

A linga in the form of a quincunx, set inside a yoni, is carved into the riverbed at Kbal Spean.
A linga in the form of a quincunx, set inside a yoni, is carved into the riverbed at Kbal Spean.

A quincunx is a spatial arrangement of five elements, with four elements placed as the corners of a square and the fifth placed in the center. The five peaks of Mount Meru were taken to exhibit this arrangement, and Khmer temples was arranged accordingly in order to convey a symbolic identification with the sacred mountain. The five brick towers of the 10th century temple known as East Mebon, for example, are arranged in the shape of a quincunx. The quincunx also appears elsewhere in designs of the Angkorian period, as in the riverbed carvings of Kbal Spean. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2377x1242, 2374 KB) A quincunx of linga inside a yoni, carved into the riverbed at Kbal Spean, Angkor. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2377x1242, 2374 KB) A quincunx of linga inside a yoni, carved into the riverbed at Kbal Spean, Angkor. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Kbal Spean (Head Bridge) is an Angkorian era site on the southwest slopes of the Kulen Hills, 25 km from the main Angkor group. ... Five dots forming a quincunx A quincunx is the arrangement of five units in the pattern corresponding to the five-spot on dice, playing cards, or dominoes. ... Mount Meru is a sacred mountain in Hindu mythology which is believed to be the abode of Brahma and other gods. ... The East Mebon is a temple at Angkor, Cambodia, located in the centre of the East Baray. ... Kbal Spean (Head Bridge) is an Angkorian era site on the southwest slopes of the Kulen Hills, 25 km from the main Angkor group. ...


See also

Map of the Angkor region in Cambodia. ...

References

  • Coedès, George. Pour mieux comprendre Angkor. Hanoi: Imprimerie d'Extrême-Orient, 1943.
  • Freeman, Michael and Jacques, Claude. Ancient Angkor. Bangkok: River Books, 1999. ISBN 0-8348-0426-3.
  • Glaize, Maurice. The Monuments of the Angkor Group. 1944. A translation from the original French into English is available online at theangkorguide.com.
  • Jessup, Helen Ibbitson. Art & Architecture of Cambodia. London: Thames & Hudson, 2004.

Footnotes

  1. ^ Coedès, Pour mieux comprendre Angkor, p.91.
  2. ^ See Glaize, Monuments of the Angkor Group, pp.26 ff.
  3. ^ Glaize, Monuments of the Angkor Group, p.27.
  4. ^ Freeman and Jacques, Ancient Angkor, p.172.
  5. ^ Coedès, Pour mieux comprendre Angkor, p.197f.
  6. ^ Freeman and Jacques, Ancient Angkor, p.30.
  7. ^ Freeman and Jacques, Ancient Angkor, p.161, 188.
  8. ^ Freeman and Jacques, Ancient Angkor, p.178.
  9. ^ Glaize, The Monuments of Angkor, p.24.
  10. ^ Jessup, Art & Architecture of Cambodia, pp.73 ff.
  11. ^ Glaize, Monuments of the Angkor Group, p.36.
  12. ^ Glaize, Monuments of the Angkor Group, p.40.
  13. ^ Glaize, Monuments of the Angkor Group, p.38.
  14. ^ Glaize, Monuments of the Angkor Group, p.32.
  15. ^ See, for example, Freeman and Jacques, Ancient Angkor, pp.32-35.
  16. ^ Freeman and Jacques, Ancient Angkor, pp.32-33.
  17. ^ Glaize, The Monuments of the Angkor Group, p.40.
  18. ^ Freeman and Jacques, Ancient Angkor, p.20.
  19. ^ Glaize, Monuments of the Angkor Group, p.32.
  20. ^ See Glaize, Monuments of the Angkor Group, p.37.
  21. ^ Glaize, Monuments of the Angkor Group, p.37.
  22. ^ Glaize, Monuments of the Angkor Group, p.39.
  23. ^ Glaize, Monuments of the Angkor Group, p.16.
  24. ^ Coedès, Pour mieux comprendre Angkor, p.60.
  25. ^ Glaize, The Monuments of Angkor, p.1.
  26. ^ Glaize, The Monuments of the Angkor Group, p.43.
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