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The Atlantic slave trade, also known as the transatlantic slave trade, was the trade of African people supplied to the colonies of the "New World" that occurred in and around the Atlantic Ocean. It lasted from the 16th century to the 19th century. Most slaves were shipped from West Africa and Central Africa and taken to the New World (primarily Brazil^[1]). Generally slaves were obtained through coastal trading with Africans, though some were captured by European slave traders through raids and kidnapping.^[2][3] Most contemporary historians estimate that between 9.4 and 12 million^[4][5] Africans arrived in the New World,^[6][7] although the number of people taken from their homestead is considerably higher.^[8][9] The slave-trade is sometimes called the Maafa by African and African-American scholars, meaning "holocaust" or "great disaster" in Swahili. The slaves were one element of a three-part economic cycle—the Triangular Trade and its Middle Passage—which ultimately involved four continents, four centuries and millions of people. Image File history File links AmericaAfrica. ... An African American (also Afro-American, Black American, or simply black) is a member of an ethnic group in the United States whose ancestors, usually in predominant part, were indigenous to Africa. ... African American history is the portion of American history that specifically discusses the African American or Black American ethnic group in the United States. ... The word Maafa (also known as the African Holocaust or Holocaust of Enslavement) is derived from a Kiswahili word meaning disaster, terrible occurrence or great tragedy. ... Slavery in the United States began soon after English colonists first settled Virginia and lasted until the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. ... Military history of African Americans is that of African Americans in the United States since the arrival of the first black slaves in 1619 to the present day. ... Manifestations Slavery Racial profiling Lynching Hate speech Hate crime Genocide (examples) Ethnocide Ethnic cleansing Pogrom Race war Religious persecution Gay bashing Blood libel Paternalism Police brutality Movements Policies Discriminatory Race / Religion / Sex segregation Apartheid Redlining Internment Anti-discriminatory Emancipation Civil rights Desegregation Integration Equal opportunity Counter-discriminatory Affirmative action Racial... For the automotive term, see redline. ... American Civil Rights Movement redirects here. ... see African studies for the study of African culture and history in Africa. ... Reparations for slavery is a movement in the United States, which suggests that the government apologize to slave descendants for their hardships, and bestow on them reparations, whether it be in the form of money, land, or other goods. ... In the United States, African American culture or Black culture includes the various cultural traditions of African American communities. ... African American studies, or Black studies, is an interdisciplinary academic field devoted to the study of the history, culture, and politics of African Americans. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... African American neighborhoods or black neighborhoods are types of ethnic enclaves found in many cities in the United States. ... In the United States, Historically black colleges and universities (HBCU) are colleges or universities that were established before 1964 with the intention of serving the African American community. ... Kwanzaa (or Kwaanza) is a week-long Pan-African festival primarily honoring African-American heritage. ... African American art is a broad term describing the visual arts of the American black community. ... This is a list of museums about, or otherwise focused on African Americans. ... African American dances in the vernacular tradition (academically known as African American vernacular dance) are those dances which have developed within African American communities in everyday spaces, rather than in dance studios, schools or companies. ... The Color Purple by Alice Walker African American literature is the body of literature produced in the United States by writers of African descent. ... An African American man gives a piano lesson to a young African American woman, in 1899 or 1900, in Georgia, USA. Photograph from a collection of W.E.B. DuBois. ... The term black church or African American church refers to predominantly African American Christian churches that minister to black communities in the United States. ... Black theology is theology from the perspective of the African diaspora - any people or ethnic population forced or induced to leave their traditional homelands. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... The Nation of Islam (NOI) is a religious and social/political organization founded in the United States by Wallace Fard Muhammad in 1930 with the self-proclaimed goal of resurrecting the spiritual, mental, social, economic condition of the black man and woman of America and belief that God will bring... Black Hebrew Israelites (also Black Hebrews, African Hebrew Israelites, and Hebrew Israelites) are groups of people of African ancestry situated mostly in the United States who claim to be descendants of the ancient Israelites. ... Pan-Africanism is a term which can have two separate, but related meanings. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Black Power is a movement among Black people throughout the world, especially those in the United States. ... Black Capitalism is a name for a movement among African Americans to build wealth through the ownership and development of businesses. ... For the Nas song called Black Republican, see Hip Hop Is Dead. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... The Black Panther Party (originally called the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense) was an African-American organization established to promote civil rights and self-defense. ... Garveyism is an aspect of Black Nationalism which takes its source from the works, words and deeds of UNIA-ACL founder Marcus Garvey. ... The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP, generally pronounced as EN Double AY SEE PEE) is one of the oldest and most influential civil rights organizations in the United States. ... The Southern Christian Leadership Conference Logo. ... “CORE” redirects here. ... The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (or SNCC, pronounced snick) was one of the principle organizations of the American Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. ... National Urban League Logo The National Urban League (NUL) is a nonpartisan civil rights organization based in New York City that advocates on behalf of African Americans and against racial discrimination in the United States. ... The Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH) is a non-profit organization founded in Chicago, Illinois, in 1915 as The Association for the Study of Negro Life and History by Carter G. Woodson and Jesse E. Moorland. ... United Negro College Fund logo The United Negro College Fund (UNCF) is a Fairfax, Virginia-based American philanthropic organization that fundraises college tuition money for African-American students and general scholarship funds for 39 historically black colleges and universities. ... National Black Chamber of Commerce The National Black Chamber of Commerce, (NBCC), was “incorporated in March of 1993, in Washington D.C.” The organizations mission is “To economically empower and sustain African American communities, through the process of entrepreneurship and capitalistic activity within the United States and via interaction with... Not to be confused with National Panhellenic Conference. ... The Links, Incorporated is an exclusive non-profit organization based upon the ideals of combining friendship and community service and was was founded in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on November 9, 1946, from a group of ladies known as the Philadelphia Club to have focuses on civic, cultural, and educational endeavors[1... The National Council of Negro Women (NCNW) was founded in 1935 by Mary McLeod Bethune, child of slave parents, distinguished educator and government consultant. ... Part of the History of baseball in the United States series. ... The Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association (CIAA) is a college athletic conference made up of historically black colleges in the southeastern United States. ... logo of Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference The Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (SIAC) is a College athletic conference consisting of historically black colleges located in the southern United States. ... The Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference (MEAC) is a collegiate athletic conference which consists of historically black colleges in the southeastern United States. ... The Southwestern Athletic Conference (SWAC) is a college athletic conference made up of historically black universities in the southern United States. ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... The Gullah language (Sea Island Creole English, Geechee) is a creole language spoken by the Gullah people (also called Geechees), an African American population living on the Sea Islands and the coastal region of the U.S. states of South Carolina and Georgia. ... Louisiana Creole (Créole Louisiane and Kourí-Viní, as it is known in and near St. ... Note: This page or section contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. ... Notable African-Americans or Black Americans // List of African American writers List of African American nonfiction writers List of composers of African descent African Americans in the United States Congress (includes a long list) List of African American Republicans List of civil rights leaders List of African American abolitionists List... African-Americans are a demographic minority in the United States. ... This is a list of landmark legislation, court decisions, executive orders, and proclamations in the United States significantly affecting African Americans. ... This is an alphabetical list of African-American-related topics: Contents: Top - 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A African American African American contemporary issues African American culture... This is a list of articles that are related to African and black people. ... This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... This article refers to a colony in politics and history. ... Frontispiece of Peter Martyr dAnghieras De orbe novo (On the New World). Carte dAmérique, Guillaume Delisle, 1722. ...  Western Africa (UN subregion)  Maghreb[1] West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of the African continent. ... The word Maafa (also known as the African Holocaust or Holocaust of Enslavement) is derived from a Kiswahili word meaning disaster, terrible occurrence or great tragedy. ... A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ... Languages Predominantly American English Religions Protestantism (chiefly Baptist and Methodist); Roman Catholicism; Islam Related ethnic groups Sub-Saharan Africans and other African groups, some with Native American groups. ... For other uses, see Holocaust (disambiguation) and Shoah (disambiguation). ... This article is about the language. ... Slave redirects here. ... The business cycle or economic cycle refers to the fluctuations of economic activity about its long term growth trend. ... An historic example of three way trade in the North Atlantic Triangular trade is a historical term indicating trade between three ports or regions. ... This article is about the slave trade route. ... Animated, colour-coded map showing the various continents. ... A century (From the Latin cent, one hundred) is one hundred consecutive years. ...

Beginnings and the Atlantic systems

See also: History of slavery, African slave trade, and European colonization of the Americas

Slavery was practiced in Africa before the beginning of the Atlantic slave trade.^[10] The African slave trade provided a large number of slaves to Europeans and their African agents.^[11][12] The history of slavery covers many different forms of human exploitation across many cultures throughout human history. ... The slave trade in Africa existed for thousands of years. ... Territories in the Americas colonized or claimed by a European great power in 1750. ... Slave redirects here. ... A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ... The slave trade in Africa existed for thousands of years. ... This article deals with the European people as an ethnic group or ethnic groups. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ...

There are two main eras of the Atlantic system.

The First Atlantic system was the trade of African slaves to mostly South American colonies of the Portuguese and Spanish empires; it accounted for only slightly more than 3% of all Atlantic slave trade. It started (on a significant scale) in about 1502^[13] and lasted until 1580, when Portugal was temporarily united with Spain. While the Portuguese traded slaves themselves, the Spanish empire relied on the asiento system, awarding merchants (mostly from other countries) the license to trade slaves to their colonies. During the first Atlantic system most of these traders were Portuguese, giving them a near-monopoly during the era, although some Dutch, English, Spanish and French traders also participated in the slave trade.^[14] After the union, Portugal stayed formally autonomous, but was weakened, with its colonial empire being attacked by the Dutch and English. This article does not cite any references or sources. ... In the history of slavery, asiento (or assiento, meaning assent ) refers to the permission given by the Spanish government to other countries to sell slaves to the Spanish colonies, from the years 1543-1834. ...

The Second Atlantic system was the trade of African slaves by mostly English, Brazilian, French and Dutch traders. The main destinations of this phase were the Caribbean colonies, Brazil and North America, as a number of European countries built up economically slave-dependent colonial empires in the New World. Amongst the pioneers of this system were Francis Drake and John Hawkins. West Indies redirects here. ... North American redirects here. ... This article is about the Elizabethan naval commander. ... For other persons named John Hawkins, see John Hawkins (disambiguation). ...

Only slightly more than 3 percent of the slaves exported were traded between 1450 and 1600, 16% in the 17th century. More than half of them were exported in the 18th century, the remaining 28.5% in the 19th century.^[15]

Triangular trade

Main article: Triangular Trade

European colonists initially practiced systems of both bonded labor and Indian slavery, enslaving many of the natives of the New World. For a variety of reasons, Africans replaced Indians as the main population of slaves in the Americas. In some cases, such as on some of the Caribbean Islands, warfare and diseases such as smallpox eliminated the natives completely. In other cases, such as in South Carolina, Virginia, and New England, the need for alliances with native tribes coupled with the availability of African slaves at affordable prices (beginning in the early 18th century for these colonies) resulted in a shift away from Indian slavery. An historic example of three way trade in the North Atlantic Triangular trade is a historical term indicating trade between three ports or regions. ... An Indentured servant is an unfree labourer under contract to work (for a specified amount of time) for another person, often without any pay, but in exchange for accommodation, food, other essentials and/or free passage to a new country. ... Indian slavery was the practice of using indigenous peoples of the Americas as slaves, which existed with the Spanish from the earliest days on the Caribbean islands they first settled. ... West Indies redirects here. ... This is a list of lists of wars, sorted by country, date, region, and type of conflict. ... This article is about the disease. ...

"The Slave Trade" by Auguste Francois Biard, 1840

A burial ground in Campeche, Mexico, suggests slaves had been brought there not long after Hernán Cortés completed the subjugation of Aztec and Mayan Mexico. The graveyard had been in use from about 1550 to the late 1600s ^[16]. Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 565 pixelsFull resolution‎ (1,289 × 911 pixels, file size: 219 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) (All user names refer to en. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 565 pixelsFull resolution‎ (1,289 × 911 pixels, file size: 219 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) (All user names refer to en. ... Auguste Francois Biard (1800-1882) was a French genre painter. ... View of Campeche, showing Cathedral and part of old city fortifications Campeche is a city of Mexico located at 19°85′ N 90°53′ W, on the shore of the Gulf of Mexico. ... Hernán(do) Cortés Pizarro, 1st Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca (1485–December 2, 1547) was the conquistador who became famous for leading the military expedition that initiated the Spanish Conquest of Mexico. ... For other uses, see Aztec (disambiguation). ... This article is about the pre-Columbian Maya civilization. ...

The first side of the triangle was the export of goods from Europe to Africa. A number of African kings and merchants took part in the trading of slaves from 1440 to about 1900. For each captive, the African rulers would receive a variety of goods from Europe. Many of them were confronted with the dilemma of trading with Europe or becoming slaves themselves. The second leg of the triangle exported enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to South America, the Caribbean Islands, and North America. The third and final part of the triangle was the return of goods to Europe from the Americas. The goods were the products of slave-labor plantations and included cotton, sugar, tobacco, molasses and rum. For alternative meanings, see number 1440. ... Äž: For the film, see: 1900 (film). ... For other uses, see Cotton (disambiguation). ... This article is about sugar as food and as an important and widely-traded commodity. ... Shredded tobacco leaf for pipe smoking Tobacco can also be pressed into plugs and sliced into flakes Tobacco is an agricultural product processed from the fresh leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. ... Molasses or treacle is a thick syrup by-product from the processing of the sugarcane or sugar beet into sugar. ... Caribbean rum, circa 1941 Rum is a distilled beverage made from sugarcane by-products such as molasses and sugarcane juice by a process of fermentation and distillation. ...

However, Brazil (the main importer of slaves) manufactured these goods in South America and directly traded with African ports, thus not taking part in a triangular trade.

Labor and slavery

An antislavery medallion of the early 19th century.

Shortage of labor was one of the issues the Atlantic Slave Trade was made to deal with. Native peoples were the first used by Europeans as slaves until a large number died from overwork and Old World diseases.^[17] Later, African slaves were available in quantity at affordable prices. Other incentives, such as indentured servitude also failed to provide a sufficient workforce. Image File history File links BrotherSlave. ... Image File history File links BrotherSlave. ... A Labor shortage is an economic condition in which there are insufficient qualified candidates (employees) to fill the market-place demands for employment at any price. ... For other uses, see Native Americans (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Old World (disambiguation). ... An Indentured servant is an unfree labourer under contract to work (for a specified amount of time) for another person, often without any pay, but in exchange for accommodation, food, other essentials and/or free passage to a new country. ...

Many crops could not be sold for profit or even grown in Europe. It was also cheaper to import many crops and goods from the New World than from regions in Europe. Huge amounts of labor were needed for the plantations in the intensive growing, harvesting and processing of these prized tropical crops. Western Africa (part of which became known as 'the Slave Coast') and later Central Africa became the new source for slaves to meet the demand for labor.  Western Africa (UN subregion)  Maghreb[1] West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of the African continent. ... The Slave Coast is the name of the coastal areas of present Togo, Benin (formerly Dahomey) and western Nigeria, a fertile region of coastal Western Africa along the Bight of Benin. ...

The basic reason for the constant shortage of labor was that, with large amounts of cheap land available and lots of landowners searching for workers, free European immigrants were able to become landowners themselves after a relatively short time, thus increasing the need for workers.^[18] your mum smells of shit^{[citation needed]}

African slave market

The Atlantic slave trade was not the only slave trade taking a toll on Africa, although it was one of the largest in volume and intensity. As Elikia M’bokolo wrote in Le Monde diplomatique: "The African continent was bled of its human resources via all possible routes. Across the Sahara, through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and across the Atlantic. At least ten centuries of slavery for the benefit of the Muslim countries (from the ninth to the nineteenth). ... Four million slaves exported via the Red Sea, another four million through the Swahili ports of the Indian Ocean, perhaps as many as nine million along the trans-Saharan caravan route, and eleven to twenty million (depending on the author) across the Atlantic Ocean."^[19] This monthly magazine is not to be mistaken for the daily Le Monde. Le Monde diplomatique (nicknamed Le Diplo by its French readers) is a monthly publication offering analysis and opinion on politics, culture, and current affairs. ... A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ... Nations with a Muslim majority appear in green, while nations that are approximately 50% Muslim appear yellow. ... Location of the Red Sea The Red Sea is an inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. ... Swahili (also called Kiswahili; see Kiswahili for a discussion of the nomenclature) is an agglutinative Bantu language widely spoken in East Africa. ... The Great Mosque of Djenné, founded in 800, an important trading base, now a World Heritage Site Trans-Saharan trade, refers to trade across the Sahara between Mediterranean countries and West Africa. ...

Europeans usually bought slaves who were captured in tribal wars between African kingdoms and chiefdoms, or from Africans who had made a business out of capturing other Africans and selling them. Europeans provided a large new market for an already-existing trade, and while an African held in slavery in his own region of Africa might escape or be traded back to his own people, a person shipped away was sure never to return. People living around the Niger River were transported from these markets to the coast and sold at European trading ports in exchange for muskets and manufactured goods such as cloth or alcohol. Endemic warfare is the state of continual, low-threshold warfare in a tribal warrior society. ... This article is about the river. ... Muskets and bayonets aboard the frigate Grand Turk. ...

The Atlantic slave trade peaked in the late 18th century, when the largest number of slaves were captured on raiding expeditions into the interior of West Africa. These expeditions were typically carried out by coastal African kingdoms, such as the Oyo empire (Yoruba) and the kingdom of Dahomey.^[20]  Western Africa (UN subregion)  Maghreb[1] West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of the African continent. ... Oyo (OÌ£yoÌ£ in Yoruba orthography, pronounced ) is the name of a Yoruba city in modern-day Nigeria and also of the loose empire which that city controlled in the 17th and 18th centuries. ... The Yoruba (Yorùbá in Yoruba orthography) are a large ethno-linguistic group or ethnic nation in Africa; the majority of them speak the Yoruba language (èdèe Yorùbá; èdè = language). ... Dahomey was a kingdom in Africa, situated in what is now the nation of Benin. ...

Europeans rarely entered the interior of Africa, due to fear of disease and moreover fierce African resistance.^[21] The slaves would be brought to coastal outposts where they would be traded for goods. Enslavement became a major by-product of war in Africa as nation states expanded through military conflicts in many cases through deliberate sponsorship of benefiting Western European nations. During such periods of rapid state formation or expansion (Asante or Dahomey being good examples), slavery formed an important element of political life which the Europeans exploited: As Queen Sara's plea to the Portuguese courts revealed, the system became "sell to the Europeans or be sold to the Europeans". In Africa, convicted criminals could be punished by enslavement and with European demands for slaves, this punishment became more prevalent. Since most of these nations did not have a prison system, convicts were often sold or used in the scattered local domestic slave market.^[22] Tropical diseases are infectious diseases that either occur uniquely in tropical and subtropical regions (which is rare) or, more commonly, are either more widespread in the tropics or more difficult to prevent or control. ... The Ashanti (cf Asante) are a major ethnic group from Africa. ... Dahomey was a kingdom in Africa, situated in what is now the nation of Benin. ...

The majority of European conquests occurred toward the end or after the transatlantic slave trade. One exception to this is the conquest of Ndongo in current day Angola where Ndongo's slaves, warriors, free citizens and even nobility were taken into slavery by the Portuguese conquerors after the fall of the state.^{[citation needed]} The Ndongo are a Bantu-speaking people inhabiting northern Angola. ... Warriors may refer to Warriors (book series) is a series of fantasy novels written by Kate Cary and Cherith Baldry, under the pen name Erin Hunter. ... Nobility is a traditional hereditary status (see hereditary titles) that exists today in many countries (mainly present or former monarchies). ...

African versus European slavery

Further information: African slave trade

Slavery in African cultures was generally indentured servitude: slaves were not chattel, nor enslaved for life.^{[citation needed]} African slaves were paid wages and were able to accumulate property.^{[citation needed]} They often bought their own freedom and could then achieve social promotion — just as freedmen in ancient Rome — some even rose to the status of rulers (e.g. Jaja of Opobo and Sunni Ali Ber). Similar arguments were used by Western slave owners during the time of abolitionism, for example by John Wedderburn in Wedderburn v. Knight, the case that ended legal recognition of slavery in Scotland in 1776. Regardless of the legal options open to slave owners, rational cost-earning calculation and/or voluntary adoption of moral restraints often tended to mitigate. The slave trade in Africa existed for thousands of years. ... An indentured servant is a laborer under contract of an employer for some period of time, usually three to seven years, in exchange for their transportation, food, drink, clothing, lodging and other necessities. ... Personal property is a type of property. ... A freedman is a former slave who has been manumitted or emancipated. ... Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula circa the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. ... ... Sonni Ali (1464-1492) was the first great king of the Songhai Empire, and the 15th ruler of the Sonni dynasty. ... Occident redirects here. ... This article is about slavery. ... It is sometimes said that slavery at common law did not exist, often on the basis of pronouncements such as those attributed (incorrectly) to Lord Mansfield, that the air of England is too pure for any slave to breathe. ... This article is about the country. ...

Slave Market Regions and Participation

There were eight principal areas used by Europeans to buy and ship slaves to the Western Hemisphere. The number of slaves sold to the new world varied throughout the slave trade. As for the distribution of slaves from regions of activity, certain areas produced far more slaves than others. Between 1650 and 1900, 10.24 million African slaves arrived in the Americas from the following regions in the following proportions:^[23]

• Senegambia (Senegal and The Gambia): 4.8%
• Upper Guinea (Guinea-Bissau, Guinea and Sierra Leone): 4.1%
• Windward Coast (Liberia and Cote d' Ivoire): 1.8%
• Gold Coast (Ghana): 10.4%
• Bight of Benin (Togo, Benin and Nigeria west of the Niger Delta): 20.2%
• Bight of Biafra (Nigeria east of the Niger Delta, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon): 14.6%
• West Central Africa (Republic of Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola): 39.4%
• Southeastern Africa (Mozambique and Madagascar): 4.7%

The name also refers to the geographic region around the two countries, covering the watershed of the Senegal River and Gambia River. ... Upper Guinea or la Haute-Guinée is a large plain in eastern Guinea, extending into north western Côte dIvoire. ... ... Motto: (translation) Unity, Discipline and Labour Anthem: LAbidjanaise Capital Yamoussoukro (official) Abidjan (de facto) Largest city Abidjan Official language(s) French Government Republic  - President Laurent Gbagbo  - Prime Minister Charles Konan Banny Independence From France   - Date August 7, 1960  Area    - Total 322,460 km² (67th)   124,502 sq mi   - Water... Flag of Gold Coast Map from 1896 of the British Gold Coast Colony. ... The Bight of Benin is a bay on the western African coast that extends eastward for about 400 miles (640 km) from Cape St. ... The Bight of Bonny (formerly Bight of Biafra) is a bay at the African coast in the Gulf of Guinea. ... The Republic of the Congo, also known as Middle Congo, Congo-Brazzaville, and Congo (but not to be confused with the Democratic Republic of the Congo, formerly Zaire, which was also at one time known as the Republic of the Congo), is a former French colony of west-central Africa. ... The Democratic Republic of the Congo, called Zaïre between 1971 and 1997, is a nation in central Africa. ...

African kingdoms of the Era

There were over 173 city-states and kingdoms in the African regions affected by the slave trade between 1502 and 1853, when Brazil became the last Atlantic import nation to outlaw the slave trade. Of those 173, no fewer than 68 could be deemed nation states with political and military infrastructures that enabled them to dominate their neighbors. Nearly every present-day nation had a pre-colonial predecessor, sometimes an African Empire with which European traders had to barter and eventually battle. Below are 29 nation states by country that actively or passively participated in the Atlantic Slave Trade: There have been a number of African Empires of varying size and influence throughout recorded history. ...

• Senegal: Denanke Kingdom, Kingdom of Fouta Tooro, Jolof Empire, Kingdom of Khasso and Kingdom of Saalum
• Guinea-Bissau: Kaabu Empire
• Guinea: Kingdom of Fouta Djallon
• Sierra Leone: Koya Temne
• Cote d'Ivoire: Kong Empire and Gyaaman Kingdom
• Ghana: Asante Confederacy and Mankessim Kingdom
• Benin: Kingdom of Dahomey
• Nigeria: Oyo Empire, Benin Empire and Aro Confederacy
• Cameroon: Bamun and Mandara Kingdom
• Gabon: Kingdom of Orungu
• Republic of Congo: Kingdom of Loango and Kingdom of Tio
• Angola: Kingdom of Kongo, Kingdom of Ndongo and Matamba

The Kingdom of Denanke also called Denianke or Denyanke was a pre-Islamic Fula kingdom of Senegal from 1495 to 1776. ... Please wikify (format) this article or section as suggested in the Guide to layout and the Manual of Style. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Jolof. ... Khasso or Xaaso was a West African kingdom of the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries, occupying territory in what is today Senegal and the Kayes Region of Mali. ... ... The Kingdom of Fouta Djallon or the Kingdom of Fuuta Jallon was a pre-colonial West African state in modern Guinea. ... The Kingdom of Koya or Koya Temne or Temne Kingdom (1505-1896) was a pre-colonial African state in the north of present-day Sierra Leone. ... The Kong Empire (1710-1895), also known as the Wattara Empire or Ouattara Empire for its founder, was a pre-colonial African state centered in north eastern Cote dIvoire that also encompassed much of present-day Burkina Faso. ... Gyaaman (also spelled Jaman) is a traditional state of the Akan people, located in what is now Ghana and Côte dIvoire. ... A shrunken Ashanti Confederacy near the end of its existence in 1896 The Ashanti Confederacy was a powerful state in West Africa in the years prior to European colonization. ... The Mankessim Kingdom (1252-1873) was a pre-colonial African state in modern-day Ghana. ... Dahomey was an African kingdom situated in what is now Benin. ... Oyo (OÌ£yoÌ£ in Yoruba orthography, pronounced ) is the name of a Yoruba city in modern-day Nigeria and also of the loose empire which that city controlled in the 17th and 18th centuries. ... This article does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... National motto: Official language Igbo, Ibibio, Ijaw, Delta Ibo, Urhobo, Isoko, Itsekiri, and etc. ... Bamum may refer to: The Bamun language The Bamun people This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... The Mandara Kingdom (sometimes called Wandala) was a West African kingdom in the Mandara Mountains of what is today Cameroon. ... Loango Girl The Kingdom of Loango was a pre-colonial African state from approximately the 15th century to the 19th century in what is now the Republic of Congo. ... The Kingdom of Congo (now usually rendered as Kingdom of Kongo to maintain distinction from the present-day Congo nations) Capital Mbanza-Kongo, Angola; re-named São Salvador in the late 16th century; re-named back to Mbanza-Kongo in 1975 Religion Christianity with some traditional practices Government Monarchy... The Kingdom of Ndongo is the name of a pre-colonial African state in modern day Angola built by the Mbundu, a Bantu-speaking people inhabiting northern Angola. ... Please wikify (format) this article as suggested in the Guide to layout and the Manual of Style. ...

Ethnic groups

The different ethnic groups brought to the Americas closely corresponds to the regions of heaviest activity in the slave trade. Over 45 distinct ethnic groups were taken to the Americas during the trade. Of the 45, the ten most prominent according to slave documentation of the era are listed below.^[24]

1. The Gbe speakers of Togo, Ghana and Benin (Adja, Mina, Ewe, Fon)
2. The Akan of Ghana and Cote d'Ivoire
3. The Mbundu of Angola (includes Ovimbundu)
4. The BaKongo of the Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola
5. The Igbo of Nigeria
6. The Yoruba of Nigeria
7. The Mandé speakers of Upper Guinea
8. The Wolof of Senegal
9. The Chamba of Cameroon
10. The Makua of Mozambique

The Gbe languages (pronounced )[1] form a cluster of about twenty related languages stretching across the area between eastern Ghana and western Nigeria. ... Akan may be: Akan people, an ethnic group from western Africa Akan States, any of several states organized in the 16th or 17th century by the Akan people Akan languages, a stock of dialects spoken by the Akan people Akan District, Hokkaido Akan, Hokkaido, a town in Akan District, Hokkaido... The Mbundu people are the second largest people group in Angola. ... The Bakongo people (aka. ... The Ibo are a group of people living in what is now Nigeria. ... The Yoruba (Yorùbá in Yoruba orthography) are a large ethno-linguistic group or ethnic nation in Africa; the majority of them speak the Yoruba language (èdèe Yorùbá; èdè = language). ... Mandé is an ethnic group of West Africa. ... Wolof may refer to: the ethnic group of the Wolof people; the Wolof language; things originating from the culture or tradition of the Wolof people. ... Chamba, the northwestern district of Himachal Pradesh, has a common border with Jammu. ... The Makua are the largest ethnic group in northern Mozambique. ...

Human toll

The transatlantic slave trade resulted in a vast and as yet still unknown loss of life for African captives both in and outside of America. Approximately 8 million Africans were killed during their storage, shipment and initial landing in the New World.^[25] The amount of life lost in the actual procurement of slaves remains a mystery but may equal or exceed the amount actually enslaved.^[26] If such a figure is to be believed, the total number of deaths would be between 16 and 20 million.^{[citation needed]} Frontispiece of Peter Martyr dAnghieras De orbe novo (On the New World). Carte dAmérique, Guillaume Delisle, 1722. ...

The savage nature of the trade, in which most of the slaves were prisoners from African wars, led to the destruction of individuals and cultures. The following figures do not include deaths of African slaves as a result of their actual labor, slave revolts or diseases they caught while living among New World populations.

A database compiled in the late 1990s put the figure for the Transatlantic Slave Trade at more than 11 million people. Estimates as high as 50 million have been floated.^{[citation needed]} For a long time an accepted figure was 15 million, although this has in recent years been revised down. Most historians now agree that at least 12 million slaves left the continent between the fifteenth and nineteenth century, but 10 to 20% died on board ships. Thus a figure of 11 million slaves transported to the Americas is the nearest demonstrable figure historians can produce.^[27]

African conflicts

The Portuguese in awe of the majesty of the Manikongo. The Portuguese were initially impressed by the Kingdom of Kongo. Depopulation from slave trading would eventually lead to the disintegration of the once powerful Kongo^{[citation needed]}

According to David Stannard's American Holocaust, 50% of African deaths occurred in Africa as a result of wars between native kingdoms, which produced the majority of slaves.^[28] This includes not only those who died in battles, but also those who died as a result of forced marches from inland areas to slave ports on the various coasts.^[29] The practice of enslaving enemy combatants and their villages was widespread throughout Western and West Central Africa, although wars were rarely started to procure slaves. The slave trade was largely a by-product of tribal and state warfare as a way of removing potential dissidents after victory or financing future wars.^[30] However, some African groups proved particularly adept and brutal at the practice of enslaving such as Kaabu, Asanteman, Dahomey, the Aro Confederacy and the Imbangala war bands.^[31] By the end of this process, no less than 18.3 million people would be herded into "factories" to await shipment to the New World.^{[citation needed]} Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... The Manikongo was the title of the ruler of the 14th century - 17th century Kingdom of Kongo, a large area consisting of land in present-day Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola, who ruled from the kingdoms capital Mbanza-Kongo, present day capital city of the Angolan province of... The Kingdom of Congo (now usually rendered as Kingdom of Kongo to maintain distinction from the present-day Congo nations) Capital Mbanza-Kongo, Angola; re-named São Salvador in the late 16th century; re-named back to Mbanza-Kongo in 1975 Religion Christianity with some traditional practices Government Monarchy... The Kingdom of Congo (now usually rendered as Kingdom of Kongo to maintain distinction from the present-day Congo nations) Capital Mbanza-Kongo, Angola; re-named São Salvador in the late 16th century; re-named back to Mbanza-Kongo in 1975 Religion Christianity with some traditional practices Government Monarchy... David Edward Stannard is a writer and professor of American stidies at the University of Hawaii at Manoa. ... -1... The Kingdom of Kaabu or Gabu or N’Gabu (1546-1867) was a Mandinka Kingdom of Guinea Bissau that rose to prominence in the region thanks to its origins as a former province of the Mali Empire. ... For other uses, see Ashanti (disambiguation). ... Dahomey was a kingdom in Africa, situated in what is now the nation of Benin. ... National motto: Official language Igbo, Ibibio, Ijaw, Delta Ibo, Urhobo, Isoko, Itsekiri, and etc. ... The Imbangala or Mbangala were 17th century groups of Angolan warriors and marauders, often confused with the Jaga. ...

Diagram of a slave ship from the Atlantic slave trade. From an Abstract of Evidence delivered before a select committee of the House of Commons in 1790 and 1791.

In letters written by the Manikongo, Nzinga Mbemba Affonso, to the King João III of Portugal, he writes that Portuguese merchandise flowing in is what is fueling the trade in Africans. He requests the King of Portugal to stop sending merchandise but should only send missionaries. In one of his letter he writes: Image File history File links Size of this preview: 440 × 600 pixels Full resolution (1074 × 1464 pixel, file size: 1. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 440 × 600 pixels Full resolution (1074 × 1464 pixel, file size: 1. ... The Manikongo was the title of the ruler of the 14th century - 17th century Kingdom of Kongo, a large area consisting of land in present-day Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola, who ruled from the kingdoms capital Mbanza-Kongo, present day capital city of the Angolan province of... Afonso I (often spelled Affonso as he did in his own letters) Mvemba a Nzinga of Kongo (c1456 - 1542 or 1543), who reigned from 1509 to late 1542 or 1543, was the son of king Nzinga a Nkuwu, who was ruling in 1483 when the Portuguese arrived, and was baptized... John III, the Pious (Port. ...

"Each day the traders are kidnapping our people - children of this country, sons of our nobles and vassals, even people of our own family. This corruption and depravity are so widespread that our land is entirely depopulated. We need in this kingdom only priests and schoolteachers, and no merchandise, unless it is wine and flour for Mass. It is our wish that this Kingdom not be a place for the trade or transport of slaves."

Many of our subjects eagerly lust after Portuguese merchandise that your subjects have brought into our domains. To satisfy this inordinate appetite, they seize many of our black free subjects.... They sell them. After having taken these prisoners [to the coast] secretly or at night..... As soon as the captives are in the hands of white men they are branded with a red-hot iron.^[32]

Before the arrival of the Portuguese, slavery had already existed in Kongo. Despite its establishment within his kingdom, Afonso believed that the slave trade should be subject to Kongo law. When he suspected the Portuguese of receiving illegally enslaved persons to sell, he wrote in to King João III in 1526 imploring him to put a stop to the practice.^[33] The Kingdom of Congo (now usually rendered as Kingdom of Kongo to maintain distinction from the present-day Congo nations) Capital Mbanza-Kongo, Angola; re-named São Salvador in the late 16th century; re-named back to Mbanza-Kongo in 1975 Religion Christianity with some traditional practices Government Monarchy... Afonso I (often spelled Affonso as he did in his own letters) Mvemba a Nzinga of Kongo (c1456 - 1542 or 1543), who reigned from 1509 to late 1542 or 1543, was the son of king Nzinga a Nkuwu, who was ruling in 1483 when the Portuguese arrived, and was baptized... January 14 - Treaty of Madrid. ...

The kings of Dahomey sold their war captives into transatlantic slavery, who otherwise would have been killed in a ceremony known as the Annual Customs. As one of West Africa's principal slave states, Dahomey became extremely unpopular with neighbouring peoples.^[34][35][36] Like the Bambara Empire to the east, the Khasso kingdoms depended heavily on the slave trade for their economy. A family's status was indicated by the number of slaves it owned, leading to wars for the sole purpose of taking more captives. This trade led the Khasso into increasing contact with the European settlements of Africa's west coast, particularly the French.^[37] Benin grew increasingly rich during the 16th and 17th centuries on the slave trade with Europe; slaves from enemy states of the interior were sold, and carried to the Americas in Dutch and Portuguese ships. The Bight of Benin's shore soon came to be known as the "Slave Coast".^[38] Dahomey was a kingdom in Africa, situated in what is now the nation of Benin. ... Geneva Convention definition A prisoner of war (POW) is a soldier, sailor, airman, or marine who is imprisoned by an enemy power during or immediately after an armed conflict. ... Every year in the Kingdom of Dahomey, a huge festival in honor of the ancestors was organized called the annual customs. In the customs, the king would assemble the entire court, foreign dignitaries, and the populace. ... The Bambara Empire (also Bamana Empire or Ségou Empire) was a large kingdom based at Ségou, now in Mali. ... Khasso was a West African kingdom of the nineteenth century, occupying territory in what is today Senegal and the Kayes Region of Mali. ... The slave trade in Africa existed for thousands of years. ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ...

King Gezo of Dahomey said in the 1840s: Dahomey was a kingdom in Africa, situated in what is now the nation of Benin. ...

The slave trade is the ruling principle of my people. It is the source and the glory of their wealth…the mother lulls the child to sleep with notes of triumph over an enemy reduced to slavery…^[39]

In 1807, the UK Parliament passed the Bill that abolished the trading of slaves. The King of Bonny (now in Nigeria) was horrified at the conclusion of the practice:

We think this trade must go on. That is the verdict of our oracle and the priests. They say that your country, however great, can never stop a trade ordained by God himself.^[40]

Port factories

After being marched to the coast for sale, slaves waited in large forts called factories. The amount of time in factories varied, but Milton Meltzer's Slavery: A World History states this process resulted in or around 4.5% of deaths during the transatlantic slave trade.^[25] In other words, over 820,000 people would have died in African ports such as Benguela, Elmina and Bonny reducing the number of those shipped to 17.5 million.^[25] Milton Meltzer (born May 8, 1915) is an American historian and author best known for his history nonfiction books on Jewish, African-American and American history. ... Benguela (São Felipe de Benguela, formerly spelled Benguella) is a city in western Angola, south of Luanda, and capital of Benguela Province. ... Elmina fishing fleet Elmina is a town situated on a south-facing bay on the Atlantic Ocean coast of Ghana, lying west of Cape Coast. ... Bonny is a town in southeast Nigeria, on the Bight of Biafra. ...

Atlantic shipment

After being captured and held in the factories, slaves entered the infamous Middle Passage. Meltzer's research puts this phase of the slave trade's overall mortality at 12.5%.^[25] Around 2.2 million Africans died during these voyages where they were packed into tight, unsanitary spaces on ships for months at a time. Measures were taken to stem the onboard mortality rate such as enforced "dancing" (as exercise) above deck and the practice of force-feeding any slaves that attempted to starve themselves.^[29] The conditions on board also resulted in the spread of fatal diseases. Other fatalities were the result of suicides by jumping over board by slaves who could no longer endure the conditions.^[29] Before the shipping of slaves was completely outlawed in 1853, 15.3 million "immigrants" had arrived in the Americas. This article is about the slave trade route. ...

Raymond L. Cohn, an economics professor whose research has focused on economic history and international migration,^[41] has researched the