Topographic scan of a glass surface

The atomic force microscope (AFM) is a very high-resolution type of scanning probe microscope, with demonstrated resolution of fractions of a nanometer, more than 1000 times better than the optical diffraction limit. The AFM was invented by Binnig, Quate and Gerber in 1986, and is one of the foremost tools for imaging, measuring and manipulating matter at the nanoscale. The term 'microscope' in the name is actually a misnomer because it implies looking, while in fact the information is gathered by "feeling" the surface with a mechanical probe. Image File history File links AFMimageRoughGlass20x20. ... Image File history File links AFMimageRoughGlass20x20. ... Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) is a branch of microscopy that forms images of surfaces using a physical probe that scans the specimen. ... A nanometre (American spelling: nanometer) is 1. ... The ability to produce optical images with angular separations as small as the instruments theoretical limit. ... Gerd Binnig (born July 20, 1947) is a German-born physicist who shared with Heinrich Rohrer half of the 1986 Nobel Prize for Physics for their invention of the scanning tunneling microscope (STM). ... He is one of the inventors of the Atomic Force Microscope. ... A nanometre (American spelling: nanometer, symbol nm) is a unit of length in the metric system, equal to one thousand-millionth of a metre, which is the current SI base unit of length. ...

Basic principle

Block Diagram of Atomic Force Microscope

The AFM consists of a microscale cantilever with a sharp tip (probe) at its end that is used to scan the specimen surface. The cantilever is typically silicon or silicon nitride with a tip radius of curvature on the order of nanometers. When the tip is brought into proximity of a sample surface, forces between the tip and the sample lead to a deflection of the cantilever according to Hooke's law. Depending on the situation, forces that are measured in AFM include mechanical contact force, Van der Waals forces, capillary forces, chemical bonding, electrostatic forces, magnetic forces (see Magnetic force microscope (MFM)), Casimir forces, solvation forces etc. Typically, the deflection is measured using a laser spot reflected from the top of the cantilever into an array of photodiodes. Other methods that are used include optical interferometry, capacitive sensing or piezoresistive AFM cantilevers. These cantilevers are fabricated with piezoresistive elements that act as a strain gage. Using a Wheatstone bridge, strain in the AFM cantilever due to deflection can be measured, but this method is not as sensitive as laser deflection or interferometry. Buckminsterfullerene C60, also known as the buckyball, is the simplest of the carbon structures known as fullerenes. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (672x623, 147 KB)A 3D model of a C60 molecule, also called a Buckyball. Created by Michael Ströck (mstroeck) on February 6, 2006 in iMol for Mac OS X and Photoshop CS2. ... Nanotechnology reaches back to the late 19th century, when colloidal science first took root. ... Groups opposing the installation of nanotechnology laboratories in Grenoble, France, have spraypainted their opposition on a former fortress above the city Potential risks of nanotechnology can broadly be grouped into three areas: the risk to health and environment from nanoparticles and nanomaterials; the risk posed by molecular manufacturing (or advanced... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... This is a list of organizations involved in nanotechnology. ... This is a list of references and appearances of Nanotechnology in works of fiction. ... This page aims to list all topics related to the field of nanotechnology. ... Nanomedicine is the medical application of nanotechnology. ... An example of a molecular self-assembly through hydrogen bonds reported by Meijer and coworkers in Angew. ... Molecular electronics (sometimes called moletronics) is a branch of applied physics which aims at using molecules as passive (e. ... Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) is a branch of microscopy that forms images of surfaces using a physical probe that scans the specimen. ... Nanolithography — or lithography at the nanometer scale — refers to the fabrication of nanometer-scale structures, meaning patterns with at least one lateral dimension between the size of an individual atom and approximately 100 nm. ... Molecular nanotechnology (MNT) is the concept of engineering functional mechanical systems at the molecular scale. ... Nanomaterials is the study of how materials behave when their dimensions are reduced to the nanoscale. ... The Icosahedral Fullerene C540 C60, C-60 and Buckyballs redirect here. ... 3D model of three types of single-walled carbon nanotubes. ... Fullerene chemistry is a field of organic chemistry devoted to the chemical properties of fullerenes [1] [2] [3]. Research in this field is driven by the need to functionalize fullerenes and tune their properties. ... Carbon nanotubes have many potential applications, here is a short list of some of the most important: // clothes: waterproof tear-resistant cloth fibers combat jackets: MIT is working on combat jackets that use carbon nanotubes as ultrastrong fibers and to monitor the condition of the wearer. ... Examples of fullerenes in popular culture are numerous. ... Timeline of carbon nanotubes: Inside a carbon nanotube 1952 Radushkevich and Lukyanovich publish a paper in the Russian Journal of Physical Chemistry showing hollow graphitic carbon fibers that are 50 nanometers in diameter. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... It has been suggested that nanopowder be merged into this article or section. ... A quantum dot is a semiconductor nanostructure that confines the motion of conduction band electrons, valence band holes, or excitons (bound pairs of conduction band electrons and valence band holes) in all three spatial directions. ... Colloidal gold is a suspension (or colloid) of sub-micrometre-sized particles of gold in a fluid, usually water. ... Colloidal silver is a colloid of silver particles in water. ... A molecular assembler is a molecular machine capable of assembling other molecules given instructions, energy, and a supply of smaller building block molecules to work from. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with mechanochemistry. ... Nanorobotics is the technology of creating machines or robots at or close to the scale of a nanometre (10-9 metres). ... Grey goo refers to a hypothetical end-of-the-world scenario involving molecular nanotechnology in which out-of-control self-replicating robots consume all living matter on Earth while building more of themselves (a scenario known as ecophagy). ... K. Eric Drexler in 2001. ... Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology Engines of Creation (ISBN 0-385-19973-2) is a seminal molecular nanotechnology book written by K. Eric Drexler in 1986. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (726x750, 113 KB) Licensing I, the creator of this work, hereby release it into the public domain. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (726x750, 113 KB) Licensing I, the creator of this work, hereby release it into the public domain. ... (Redirected from 1e-6 m) To help compare different orders of magnitude this page lists lengths between 1 micrometre and 10 micrometres (10-6 and 10-5 m). ... The cantilevered beam (green) projects from its supports (blue), balanced by the structure (red block), which supports the load (red arrow). ... General Name, Symbol, Number silicon, Si, 14 Chemical series metalloids Group, Period, Block 14, 3, p Appearance as coarse powder, dark grey with bluish tinge Standard atomic weight 28. ... Silicon nitride (Si3N4) is hard, solid substance, that can be obtained by direct reaction between silicon and nitrogen in high temperatures. ... The distance from the center of a sphere or ellipsoid to its surface is its radius. ... In physics, force is anything that can cause a massive body to accelerate. ... Hookes law accurately models the physical properties of common mechanical springs for small changes in length. ... In chemistry, the term van der Waals force originally referred to all forms of intermolecular forces; however, in modern usage it tends to refer to intermolecular forces that deal with forces due to the polarization of molecules. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Capillary action. ... A chemical bond is the physical process responsible for the attractive interactions between atoms and molecules, and that which confers stability to diatomic and polyatomic chemical compounds. ... Coulombs torsion balance In physics, Coulombs law is an inverse-square law indicating the magnitude and direction of electrostatic force that one stationary, electrically charged object of small dimensions (ideally, a point source) exerts on another. ... A magnetic force microscope (MFM) is a scanning probe microscope (SPM) that can map the spatial distribution of magnetism by measuring the magnetic interaction between a sample and a tip. ... In physics, the Casimir effect is a physical force exerted between separate objects, which is due to neither charge, gravity, nor the exchange of particles, but instead is due to resonance of all-pervasive energy fields in the intervening space between the objects. ... Solvation is the attraction and association of molecules of a solvent with molecules or ions of a solute. ... Experiment with a laser (US Military) In physics, a laser is a device that emits light through a specific mechanism for which the term laser is an acronym: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. ... A photodiode is an electronic component and a type of photodetector. ... A strain gauge (alternately: strain gage) is a device used to measure deformation (strain) of an object. ... A Wheatstone bridge is a measuring instrument invented by Samuel Hunter Christie in 1833 and improved and popularized by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1843. ...

If the tip were scanned at a constant height, there would be a risk that the tip would collide with the surface, causing damage. Hence, in most cases a feedback mechanism is employed to adjust the tip-to-sample distance to maintain a constant force between the tip and the sample. Traditionally, the sample is mounted on a piezoelectric tube, that can move the sample in the z direction for maintaining a constant force, and the x and y directions for scanning the sample. Alternatively a 'tripod' configuration of three piezo crystals may be employed, with each responsible for scanning in the x,y and z directions. This eliminates some of the distortion effects seen with a tube scanner. The resulting map of the area s = f(x,y) represents the topography of the sample. This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Piezoelectricity is the ability of certain crystals to produce a voltage when subjected to mechanical stress. ... For discussion of land surfaces themselves, see Terrain. ...

The AFM can be operated in a number of modes, depending on the application. In general, possible imaging modes are divided into static (also called Contact) modes and a variety of dynamic modes.

Imaging modes

The primary modes of operation are static (contact) mode and dynamic mode. In the static mode operation, the static tip deflection is used as a feedback signal. Because the measurement of a static signal is prone to noise and drift, low stiffness cantilevers are used to boost the deflection signal. However, close to the surface of the sample, attractive forces can be quite strong, causing the tip to 'snap-in' to the surface. Thus static mode AFM is almost always done in contact where the overall force is repulsive. Consequently, this technique is typically called 'contact mode'. In contact mode, the force between the tip and the surface is kept constant during scanning by maintaining a constant deflection.

In the dynamic mode, the cantilever is externally oscillated at or close to its resonance frequency. The oscillation amplitude, phase and resonance frequency are modified by tip-sample interaction forces; these changes in oscillation with respect to the external reference oscillation provide information about the sample's characteristics. Schemes for dynamic mode operation include frequency modulation and the more common amplitude modulation. In frequency modulation, changes in the oscillation frequency provide information about tip-sample interactions. Frequency can be measured with very high sensitivity and thus the frequency modulation mode allows for the use of very stiff cantilevers. Stiff cantilevers provide stability very close to the surface and, as a result, this technique was the first AFM technique to provide true atomic resolution in ultra-high vacuum conditions (Giessibl). Oscillation is the variation, typically in time, of some measure as seen, for example, in a swinging pendulum. ... This article is about resonance in physics. ... FreQuency is a music video game developed by Harmonix and published by SCEI. It was released in November 2001. ... Interaction is a kind of action that occurs as two or more objects have an effect upon one another. ... In telecommunications, frequency modulation (FM) conveys information over a carrier wave by varying its frequency. ... Amplitude modulation (AM) is a technique used in electronic communication, most commonly for transmitting information via a radio carrier wave. ... Ultra high vacuum (UHV) is the regime of characterised by pressures lower than about 10-7 Pascal or 100 nanopascals (~10-9 torr). ...

In amplitude modulation, changes in the oscillation amplitude or phase provide the feedback signal for imaging. In amplitude modulation, changes in the phase of oscillation can be used to discriminate between different types of materials on the surface. Amplitude modulation can be operated either in the non-contact or in the intermittent contact regime. In ambient conditions, most samples develop a liquid meniscus layer. Because of this, keeping the probe tip close enough to the sample for short-range forces to become detectable while preventing the tip from sticking to the surface presents a major hurdle for the non-contact dynamic mode in ambient conditions. Dynamic contact mode (also called intermittent contact or tapping mode) was developed to bypass this problem (Zhong et al). In dynamic contact mode, the cantilever is oscillated such that it comes in contact with the sample with each cycle, and then enough restoring force is provided by the cantilever spring to detach the tip from the sample. It has been suggested that pulse amplitude be merged into this article or section. ... This article is about a portion of a periodic process. ...

Amplitude modulation has also been used in the non-contact regime to image with atomic resolution by using very stiff cantilevers and small amplitudes in an ultra-high vacuum environment. It has been suggested that pulse amplitude be merged into this article or section. ...

Force-distance measurements

Another major application of AFM (besides imaging) is the measurement of force-distance curves. Here, the AFM tip is approached towards and retracted from the surface and the static deflection of the cantilever is monitored as a function of piezo displacement. These measurements have been used to measure nanoscale contacts, atomic bonding, van-der-Waals and Casimir forces, hydration/ solvation forces in liquids and single molecule stretching and rupture forces (Hinterdorfer & Dufrêne). Forces of the order of a few pico-Newton can now be routinely measured with a vertical distance resolution of better than 0.1 nanometer. For other meanings of Pico see Pico (disambiguation) Pico (symbol p) is a prefix in the SI system of units denoting a factor of 10-12. ... The newton (symbol: N) is the SI derived unit of force, named after Sir Isaac Newton in recognition of his work on classical mechanics. ...

Problems with the technique include no direct measurement of the tip-sample separation and the common need for low stiffness cantilevers which tend to 'snap' to the surface. The snap-in can be reduced by measuring in liquids or by using stiffer cantilevers, but in the latter case a more sensitive deflection sensor is needed. By applying a small dither to the tip, the stiffness (force gradient) of the bond can be measured as well (Hoffmann et al.).

Identification of individual surface atoms

The atoms of a Sodium Chloride crystal viewed with an Atomic Force Microscope

The AFM can be used to image and manipulate atoms and structures on a variety of surfaces. The atom at the apex of the tip "senses" individual atoms on the underlying surface when it forms incipient chemical bonds with each atom. Because these chemical interactions subtly alter the tip's vibration frequency, they can be detected and mapped. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...

Physicist Oscar Custance (Osaka University, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka, Japan) and his team used this principle to distinguish between atoms of silicon, tin and lead on an alloy surface (Nature 2007, 446, 64).

The trick is to first measure these forces precisely for each type of atom expected in the sample. The team found that the tip reacted most strongly with silicon atoms, and interacted 23% and 41% less strongly with tin and lead atoms. Thus, each different type of atom can be identified in the matrix as the tip is moved across the surface.

Such a technique has been used now in biology and extended recently to cell biology. Forces corresponding to (i) the unbinding of receptor ligand couples (ii) unfolding of proteins (iii) cell adhesion at single cell scale have been gathered.

Advantages and disadvantages

The first Atomic Force Microscope

The AFM has several advantages over the scanning electron microscope (SEM). Unlike the electron microscope which provides a two-dimensional projection or a two-dimensional image of a sample, the AFM provides a true three-dimensional surface profile. Additionally, samples viewed by AFM do not require any special treatments (such as metal/carbon coatings) that would irreversibly change or damage the sample. While an electron microscope needs an expensive vacuum environment for proper operation, most AFM modes can work perfectly well in ambient air or even a liquid environment. This makes it possible to study biological macromolecules and even living organisms. In principle, AFM can provide higher resolution than SEM. It has been shown to give true atomic resolution in ultra-high vacuum (UHV). UHV AFM is comparable in resolution to Scanning Tunneling Microscopy and Transmission Electron Microscopy. Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 724 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1408 × 1166 pixel, file size: 517 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 724 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1408 × 1166 pixel, file size: 517 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... An electron microscope is a type of microscope that uses electrons to illuminate and create an image of a specimen. ... Look up Vacuum in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Image of substitutional Cr impurities (small bumps) in the Fe(001) surface. ... A section of a cell of Bacillus subtilis, taken with a Tecnai T-12 TEM. The scale bar is 200nm. ...

A disadvantage of AFM compared with the scanning electron microscope (SEM) is the image size. The SEM can image an area on the order of millimetres by millimetres with a depth of field on the order of millimetres. The AFM can only image a maximum height on the order of micrometres and a maximum scanning area of around 150 by 150 micrometres. Another inconvenience is that at high resolution, the quality of an image is limited by the radius of curvature of the probe tip, and an incorrect choice of tip for the required resolution can lead to image artifacts. Traditionally the AFM could not scan images as fast as an SEM, requiring several minutes for a typical scan, while an SEM is capable of scanning at near real-time (although at relatively low quality) after the chamber is evacuated. The relatively slow rate of scanning during AFM imaging often leads to thermal drift in the image (Lapshin, 2004, 2007), making the AFM microscope less suited for measuring accurate distances between artifacts on the image. However, several fast-acting designs were suggested to increase microscope scanning productivity (Lapshin and Obyedkov, 1993) including what is being termed videoAFM (reasonable quality images are being obtained with videoAFM at video rate - faster than the average SEM). To eliminate image distortions induced by thermodrift, several methods were also proposed (Lapshin, 2004, 2007). SEM Cambridge S150 at Geological Institute, University Kiel, 1980 SEM opened sample chamber The scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope capable of producing high-resolution images of a sample surface. ... A millimetre (American spelling: millimeter, symbol mm) is an SI unit of length that is equal to one thousandth of a metre. ... In optics, particularly film and photography, the depth of field (DOF) is the distance in front of and beyond the subject that appears to be in focus. ...

AFM images can be affected by hysteresis of the piezoelectric material (Lapshin, 1995) and cross-talk between the (x,y,z) axes that may require software enhancement and filtering. Such filtering could "flatten" out real topographical features. However, newer AFM use real-time correction software (for example, feature-oriented scanning, Lapshin, 2004, 2007) or closed-loop scanners which practically eliminate these problems. Some AFM also use separated orthogonal scanners (as opposed to a single tube) which also serve to eliminate cross-talk problems. Hysteresis is a property of systems (usually physical systems) that do not instantly follow the forces applied to them, but react slowly, or do not return completely to their original state: that is, systems whose states depend on their immediate history. ... Feature-oriented scanning (FOS)[1][2] is a method intended for high-precision measurement of nanotopography as well as other surface properties and characteristics on a scanning probe microscope (SPM) using features (objects) of the surface as reference points of the microscope probe. ...

See also

Wikibooks has more about this subject:

The Opensource Handbook of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology

• Tapping AFM
• Friction force microscope
• Scanning tunneling microscope
• Scanning probe microscopy
• Scanning voltage microscopy
• Category:Nanotechnology
• Category:Microscopes

Image File history File links Wikibooks-logo-en. ... Tapping AFM is one of several different imaging modes used in atomic force microscopy (AFM). ... A friction force microscope is an atomic force microscope with a four quadrant photodetector, which allows measuring the frictional force acting on the probing tip sliding on a surface from the torsion of the cantilever beam where the tip is attached. ... Image of substitutional Cr impurities (small bumps) in the Fe(001) surface. ... Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) is a branch of microscopy that forms images of surfaces using a physical probe that scans the specimen. ... Scanning voltage microscopy (SVM) -- sometimes also called nanopotentiometry -- is a scientific experimental technique based on atomic force microscopy. ...

References

• A. D L. Humphris, M. J. Miles, J. K. Hobbs, A mechanical microscope: High-speed atomic force microscopy, Applied Physics Letters 86, 034106 (2005).
• D. Sarid, Scanning Force Microscopy, Oxford Series in Optical and Imaging Sciences, Oxford University Press, New York (1991)
• R. Dagani, Individual Surface Atoms Identified, Chemical & Engineering News, 5 March 2007, page 13. Published by American Chemical Society
• Q. Zhong, D. Innis, K. Kjoller, V. B. Elings, Surf. Sci. Lett. 290, L688 (1993).
• V. J. Morris, A. R. Kirby, A. P. Gunning, Atomic Force Microscopy for Biologists. (Book) (December 1999) Imperial College Press.
• J. W. Cross SPM - Scanning Probe Microscopy Website
• P. Hinterdorfer, Y. F. Dufrêne, Nature Methods, 3, 5 (2006)
• F. Giessibl, Advances in Atomic Force Microscopy, Reviews of Modern Physics 75 (3), 949-983 (2003).
• R. H. Eibl, V.T. Moy, Atomic force microscopy measurements of protein-ligand interactions on living cells. Methods Mol Biol. 305:439-50 (2005)
• P. M. Hoffmann, A. Oral, R. A. Grimble, H. Ö. Özer, S. Jeffery, J. B. Pethica, Proc. Royal Soc. A 457, 1161 (2001).
• R. V. Lapshin, O. V. Obyedkov, Fast-acting piezoactuator and digital feedback loop for scanning tunneling microscopes, Review of Scientific Instruments, vol. 64, no. 10, pp. 2883-2887, 1993.
• R. V. Lapshin, Analytical model for the approximation of hysteresis loop and its application to the scanning tunneling microscope, Review of Scientific Instruments, vol. 66, no. 9, pp. 4718-4730, 1995.
• R. V. Lapshin, Feature-oriented scanning methodology for probe microscopy and nanotechnology, Nanotechnology, vol. 15, iss. 9, pp. 1135-1151, 2004.
• R. V. Lapshin, Automatic drift elimination in probe microscope images based on techniques of counter-scanning and topography feature recognition, Measurement Science and Technology, vol. 18, iss. 3, pp. 907-927, 2007.
• Eibl RH, First measurement of physiologic VLA-4 activation by SDF-1 at the single-molecule level on a living cell. In: Advances in Single Molecule Research for Biology and Nanoscience. Hinterdorfer P, Schuetz G, Pohl P (Editors),Trauner, ISBN (2007).
• West P, Introduction to Atomic Force Microscopy: Theory, Practice and Applications --- www.AFMUniversity.org

v • d • e Scanning probe microscopy
Common microscopes	Atomic force microscope · Tapping AFM · Scanning tunneling microscope Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) is a branch of microscopy that forms images of surfaces using a physical probe that scans the specimen. ... Tapping AFM is one of several different imaging modes used in atomic force microscopy (AFM). ... Image of substitutional Cr impurities (small bumps) in the Fe(001) surface. ...
Other microscopes	Electrostatic force microscope · Electrochemical scanning tunneling microscope · Kelvin probe force microscope · Magnetic force microscope · Magnetic resonance force microscopy · Near-field scanning optical microscope · Scanning gate microscopy · Scanning ion-conductance microscopy · Spin polarized scanning tunneling microscopy · Scanning voltage microscopy Image File history File links AFMsetup. ... Electrostatic force microscopy is a type of dynamic non-contact atomic force microscopy (which means that the cantilever is oscillating and does not make contact with the sample) where the electrostatic force is probed. ... The electrochemical scanning tunneling microscope, or ESTM, was invented in 1988 by Kingo Itaya in Japan. ... In Kelvin probe force microscopy, a conducting cantilever is scanned over a surface at a constant height in order to map the work function of the surface. ... A magnetic force microscope (MFM) is a scanning probe microscope (SPM) that can map the spatial distribution of magnetism by measuring the magnetic interaction between a sample and a tip. ... Magnetic resonance force microscopy (MRFM) is an imaging technique that acquires magnetic resonance images (MRI) at nanometer scales, and possibly at atomic scales in the future. ... In Near Field Scanning Optical Microscopy (NSOM) a very small light source very close to the sample is scanned. ... Scanning gate microscopy (SGM) is a scanning probe microscopy technique with an electrically conductive tip used as a movable gate that couples capacitively to the sample and probes electrical transport on the nanometer scale. ... The scanning ion-conductance microscope (SICM) consists of an electrically charged glass micro- or nanopipette probe filled with electrolyte lowered toward the surface of the sample (which is non-conducting for ions) in an oppositely charged bath of electrolyte. ... Spin polarized scanning tunneling microscopy (SP-STM) is a specialized application of scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) that can provide detailed information of the the surface magnetization distribution of a sample. ... Scanning voltage microscopy (SVM) -- sometimes also called nanopotentiometry -- is a scientific experimental technique based on atomic force microscopy. ...
Applications	Scanning probe lithography · Dip Pen Nanolithography · Feature-oriented scanning · IBM Millipede Scanning probe lithography describe a set of lithographic methods in which a microscopic stylus is mechanically moved across a surface to form a pattern, either by mechanically deforming a soft film on the surface nanoindent lithography, designed for this purpose, or by transferring a chemical species too the surface dip... Dip pen nanolithography is a technique where an atomic force microscope tip is used to transfer molecules to a surface via a solvent meniscus. ... Feature-oriented scanning (FOS)[1][2] is a method intended for high-precision measurement of nanotopography as well as other surface properties and characteristics on a scanning probe microscope (SPM) using features (objects) of the surface as reference points of the microscope probe. ... Millipede is a non-volatile computer memory stored on nanoscopic pits burned into the surface of a thin polymer layer, read and written by a MEMS-based probe. ...
See also	Nanotechnology · Microscope · Microscopy Buckminsterfullerene C60, also known as the buckyball, is the simplest of the carbon structures known as fullerenes. ... Robert Hookes microscope (1665) - an engineered device used to study living systems. ... This article or section is not written in the formal tone expected of an encyclopedia article. ...