NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Back to the land

Today, the phrase "back-to-the-land movement" usually refers to a North American social phenomenon of the 1960s and 1970s. This particular back-to-the-land movement was a migration from cities to rural areas that took place in the United States, its greatest vigor being before the mid '70s.

A recurring pattern

By way of context, a few things may be usefully said. The American poet/anthropologist Gary Snyder (who is also an amateur historian) has related in a published interview that there have been back-to-the-land population movements down through the centuries. These have happened in different parts of the world, largely due to the occurrence of severe urban problems and people's felt need to live a better life, often simply to survive. Young Gary Snyder, on one of his early book covers Gary Snyder (born May 8, 1930) is an American poet, essayist, lecturer, and environmental activist. ...

The historian and philosopher of urbanism Jane Jacobs remarked in interview with Stewart Brand that with the Fall of Rome city dwellers re-inhabited the rural areas of the region. Jane Jacobs Jane Jacobs, OC , O.Ont (May 4, 1916 â€“ April 25, 2006) was an American-born Canadian writer and activist. ... Stewart Brand speaking September 5, 2004 Stewart Brand (born December 14, 1938 in Rockford, Illinois) is an author, editor, and creator of The Whole Earth Catalog and CoEvolution Quarterly. ... City motto: Senatus Populusque Romanus â€“ SPQR (The Senate and the People of Rome) Founded 21 April 753 BC (mythical), early 1st millennium BC (archaeological) Region Latium Area - City Proper 1285 kmÂ² Population - City (2004) - Metropolitan - Density (city proper) 2,553,873 almost 4,300,000 1. ...

“Awareness of the past is an important element in the love of place,” writes Yi-Fu Tuan, in his 1994 book Topophilia. Tuan writes that an appreciation of nature springs from wealth, privilege, and the antithetical values of cities. He argues that literature about land (and, subsequently, about going back-to-the-land) is largely sentimental; "little," he writes, "is known about farmer’s attitudes towards nature..." Tuan finds historical instances of the desire of the civilized to escape civilization in the Hellenistic, Roman, Augustan, and Romantic Eras, and, from one of the earliest recorded myths, the Epic of Gilgamesh. Yi-Fu Tuan was born December 5, 1930 in Tientsin, China. ... The term Hellenistic (established by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen) in the history of the ancient world is used to refer to the shift from a culture dominated by ethnic Greeks, however scattered geographically, to a culture dominated by Greek-speakers of whatever ethnicity, and from the political dominance... The Roman Forum was the central area around which ancient Rome developed. ... Romanticism was a secular and intellectual movement in the history of ideas that originated in late 18th century Western Europe. ... The Epic of Gilgamesh is a literary work from Babylonia, dating from long after the time that king Gilgamesh was supposed to have ruled. ...

The recent North American instance

Regarding North America, many individuals and households have moved from urban or suburban circumstances to rural ones at different times; for instance, the economic theorist and land-based American experimenter Ralph Borsodi is said to have influenced thousands of urban-living people to try a modern homesteading life during the Great Depression. Ralph Borsodi (1886 – 1977) was born in New York and spent the earliest years of his life in Manhattan. ... Broadly, homesteading is a lifestyle of agrarian self-sufficiency. ... The Great Depression was a worldwide economic downturn, starting in 1929 and lasting through most of the 1930s. ...

There was again a fair degree of interest in moving to rural land after World War II. In 1947 Betty MacDonald published what became a popular book, The Egg and I, telling her story of marrying and then moving to a small farm on the Olympic Peninsula in Washington state. This story was the basis of a successful comedy film starring Claudette Colbert and Fred MacMurray. Claudette Colbert Claudette Colbert (September 13, 1903 - July 30, 1996) was an Academy Award-winning French-American actress for It Happened One Night. ... Fred MacMurray Fred MacMurray (August 30, 1908 â€“ November 5, 1991) was a Hollywood actor who appeared in over one hundred movies, during a career that lasted from the 1930s to the 1970s. ...

The Canadian writer Farley Mowat says that many returned veterans after World War II sought a meaningful life far from the ignobility of modern warfare, regarding his own experience as typical of the pattern. In Canada, those who sought a life completely outside of the cities, suburbs, and towns frequently moved into semi-wilderness environs. Farley McGill Mowat OC , BA , D.Litt (born May 12, 1921 in Belleville, Ontario) is one of the most widely-read Canadian authors. ... Combatants Allies: Poland, British Commonwealth, France/Free France, Soviet Union, United States, China, and others Axis Powers: Germany, Italy, Japan, and others Casualties Military dead: 17 million Civilian dead: 33 million Total dead: 50 million Military dead: 8 million Civilian dead: 4 million Total dead: 12 million World War II...

But what made the later phenomenon of the ‘60s and ‘70s especially significant was that the rural-relocation trend was sizable enough that it was identified in the American demographic statistics.

Roots of this movement can perhaps be traced to the 1954 publication of Helen and Scott Nearing's book, Living the Good Life. The book chronicled the Nearings' move to an older house in a rural area of Vermont and their simple, self-sufficient lifestyle. In their initial move, the Nearings were driven by the circumstances of the Great Depression and influenced by earlier writers, perhaps particularly [[Henry David Thoreau. Their book was published six years after a profound and moving statement, A Sand County Almanac, by the ecologist and environmental activist Aldo Leopold, was published, in 1948. Influences aside, the Nearings had planned and worked hard, developing their homestead and life according to a twelve-point plan they had drafted. Helen Knothe Nearing (1904-1995) and Scott Nearing (1883-1983) and were well known American back-to-the-landers who wrote extensively about their experience living what they termed the good life. Scott was a trained economist and former college professor (he had lost his position due to his anarchist... Rural area in Dalarna, Sweden Qichun, a rural town in Hubei province, China Rural areas are sparsely settled places away from the influence of large cities and towns. ... Official language(s) None Capital Montpelier Largest city Burlington Area Ranked 43rd - Total 9,620 sq. ... Simplicity is the property, condition, or quality of being simple or un-combined. ... Autonomy is the condition of something that does not depend on anything else. ... Aldo Leopold (January 11, 1887 - April 21, 1948) was a United States ecologist, forester, and environmentalist. ... Aldo Leopold (January 11, 1887 - April 21, 1948) was a United States ecologist, forester, and environmentalist. ...

By the late '60s, many people had recognized that, living their city or suburban lives, they completely lacked any familiarity with such basics of life as food sources (for instance, what a potato plant looks like, or the act of milking a cow) — and they felt out of touch with nature, in general. While the back-to-the-land movement was not strictly part of the 1960s counterculture movement, the two movements had some overlap in participation. In sociology, counterculture is a term used to describe a cultural group whose values and norms are at odds with those of the social mainstream, a cultural equivalent of a political opposition. ...

Many people were attracted to getting more in touch with the basics just mentioned, but the movement was also fuelled by the "negatives" of modern life: rampant consumerism, the failings of government and society, including the Vietnam War, and a perceived general urban deterioration, including a growing public concern about air and water pollution. Events such as the Watergate scandal and the 1973 energy crisis contributed to these views. Some people rejected the struggle or boredom of "moving up the company ladder." Paralleling the desire for reconnection with nature was a desire to reconnect with physical work, for many were drawn by some sense of dignity in physical labor, just as they might feel depressed contemplating the prospect of a worklife at a desk in the city. Consumerism is a term used to describe the effects of equating personal happiness with purchasing material possessions and consumption. ... Combatants Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) United States of America South Korea Thailand Australia New Zealand the Philippines Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) National Liberation Front (Viet Cong) Strength ~1,200,000 (1968) ~420,000 (1968) Casualties South Vietnamese dead: 230,000 South Vietnamese wounded: 300,000 US dead... Water pollution Pollution is the release of chemical, physical, biological or radioactive contaminants to the environment. ... The term Watergate refers to a series of events, spanning from 1972 to 1974, that began with U.S. President Nixons administrations abuse of power toward the goal of undermining the Democratic Party and the opposition to the Vietnam War. ... An energy crisis is any great shortfall (or price rise) in the supply of energy resources to an economy. ...

There was also a segment within the movement who already had a familiarity with rural life and farming, who already had many skills, and who wanted land of their own on which they could demonstrate that organic farming (rather than conventional) could be made practical and economically successful. Organic cultivation of mixed vegetables in Capay, California. ...

Besides the Nearings and other authors writing later along similar lines, another influence from the world of American publishing was the unprecedented, vigorous, and intelligent Whole Earth Catalogs. Stewart Brand and a circle of friends and family began the effort in 1968, because Brand believed that there was a groundswell - perhaps especially among the young - of biologists, designers, engineers, sociologists, organic farmers, and social experimenters who wished to transform civilization along lines that might be called "sustainable." Brand and cohorts created a catalog of "tools" - defined broadly to include useful books, design aids, maps, gardening implements, carpentry and masonry tools, metalworking equipment, and a great deal more. The Whole Earth Catalog was a sizeable catalog published twice a year from 1968 to 1972, and occasionally thereafter, until 1998. ... Stewart Brand speaking September 5, 2004 Stewart Brand (born December 14, 1938 in Rockford, Illinois) is an author, editor, and creator of The Whole Earth Catalog and CoEvolution Quarterly. ...

Another important publication was The Mother Earth News, a periodical (originally on newsprint) that was founded a couple years after the Catalog. Ultimately gaining a large circulation the magazine was focused on how-to articles, personal stories of successful and budding homesteaders, interviews with key thinkers, and the like. The magazine stated its philosophy was based on returning to people a greater measure of control of their own lives.

Many of the North American back-to-the-landers of the 1960s and 1970s made use of the Mother Earth News, the Whole Earth Catalogs and derivative publications. But as time went on, the movement itself drew more people into it, more or less independently of impetus from the publishing world.

The target lifestyle

As a general rule, those who "went back to the land" in this period felt neither desirous nor capable of managing a sizable acreage. Many of the smallholdings of the period were in the range of five to 20 acreas — though some were smaller and some were larger.

Most of the back-to-the-landers wanted greater contact with nature, and sought to become self-employed workers in a cottage industry. Many wished to build their own house, and produce a good deal of their own food. Solar energy was sometimes used for either heat or electricity, and wood fuel was popular. Most back-to-the-landers wanted to know their neighbors, and some expected to be cooperatively part of neighborhood or community projects and processes. It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Domestic system. ... Solar power describes a number of methods of harnessing energy from the light of the sun. ... Wood burning is the largest current use of biomass derived energy. ...

Helen and Scott Nearing, in their life and their books, had embraced organic horticulture and had pursued a healthy diet and general lifestyle. To these interests, the back-to-the-land publications which had sprung up around 1970 added a promotion of new (or at least recently refined) methods of utilizing or generating energy on a modern homestead, such as solar, wind, and small-hydro electricity generation. Worldwide, there had been a very lengthy utilization of wind energy in villages and rural regions, and in fact many farms in North America had employed windmills to drive well pumps for household and irrigation water. In the 1970s, though, electricity-generating wind turbines (which had been developed to an extent in previous decades) were reaching new levels of efficiency. As well, passive solar principles were becoming more widely recognized for their efficacy in space heating (e.g., of houses or outbuildings), and photovoltaic equipment for generating electricity was emerging and was seen to be an exciting new realm. The Latin words hortus (garden plant) and cultura (culture) together form horticulture, classically defined as the culture or growing of garden plants. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Horizontal axis wind turbine, the Enercon model E-66 wind energy converter, in Germany. ...

With regard to community processes, a common practice was the incorporation of barter, a form of trade where goods or services from one individual or household are exchanged for a certain amount of other goods or services from another individual or household, and in which no money is involved in the transaction. The idea was that barter (along with occasional friendly neighborly assistance) helped to reduce the need for cash income. It has been suggested that Swapping (barter) be merged into this article or section. ...

The few who succeeded

Generally, the back-to-the-landers who stayed on the land had three attributes in common:

Those who succeeded were realistic about their financial needs. Many had flexible occupations—like writing and other creative work, or a trade—that they could engage in from their home. Others had steady, if less glamorous, jobs in a nearby town. Those who succeeded were people could readily acquire skills in gardening or crop farming, the construction and maintenance of buildings, machinery maintenance, water-system development and maintenance, and the like. As well, they had chosen a homestead that was comfortable and practical.

The many who returned

For the most part, the back-to-the-landers of the 1970s were unprepared for the realities of a rural lifestyle, and many believed that they could get by without a steady source of income by selling produce and other home-made items. In reality, the problems of costs (machinery, household expenses, seeds and other supplies) and limited produce-distribution options for family farms of modest scale were difficult ones even for farmers who had been raised in the lifestyle by their parents and grandparents. Some back-to-the-landers became integrated fully into their adopted rural communities, but perhaps most returned to city living after a few years in the country, mainly because of financial trouble and relationship problems. The family farm is a farm owned and operated by a family. ...

The end of the movement?

There is no well-defined event that can be used to mark the end of the era. A factor that came into play was the increased cost of rural land parcels; at the start of the back-to-the-land trend, previously low demand for rural properties in many areas meant that they fetched low prices in the real estate market, but this changed after some years of increased buyer interest. Also, rising urban prosperity, and a sense that the earlier social problems were solved (though we still hear about many of them in the media), led to reduced interest in rural lifestyles among urbanites in the 1980s.

Instead, the more focused environmental movement, voluntary simplicity, and renewed interest in outdoor recreation took the place of a relocation to the country. For example, while the influential Stewart Brand was not "married" to the rural-homestead concept (he himself has mainly lived in town, in coastal Northern California), he and the many thinkers and doers associated with his publications have tended to remain involved with exploring and promoting values related to ecological and social "sustainability." The environmental movement (sometimes inclusive of the conservation or green movements) is a diverse global social and political movement, which advocates for the protection, sustainable management and restoration of the natural environment in an effort to satisfy human needs, including spiritual and social needs, as well as for its own... Voluntary simplicity (or simple living) is a lifestyle considered by its adherents to be a sustainable, ecologically sensitive alternative to the typical, western consumerist lifestyle. ...

Interestingly, a good deal of research that could be of value to modern-day homesteaders was carried on into the 1980s and after. Agricultural colleges and departments within universities, as well as independent teams of designers, engineers, agronomists, and technologists researched and devised many refinements and new approaches to food production, on-site energy production, waste management, home design, and other dimensions of living well and reasonably self-sufficiently on the land. For instance, a group of engineering graduates from Stanford University published a thick compendium of findings and advice in the early '80s. Stanford may refer: Stanford University Places: Stanford, Kentucky Stanford, California, home of Stanford University Stanford Shopping Center Stanford, New York, town in Dutchess County. ...

As it stands, people still purchase rural properties that come onto the real-estate market, and in many areas of North America purchases are not limited to those by corporate farms. And clearly, there is migration in both directions: to the cities, and to the rural areas. In the 1990s the term "urban refugees" began to gain currency in relation to back-to-the-landers. A Web search on the term "back to the land" brings up very many hits that indicate a still-strong interest in non-urban living.

Organic horticulture and organic agriculture were integral aspects of the back-to-the-land movement of the 1970s. But it is in more-recent years that the American market for organically grown foods has really expanded. Growing markets obviously influence business opportunities. According to information presented in Deborah Koons Garcia's film "The Future of Food," American consumers spent $1 billion on organically grown food in 1994, and $13 billion in 2003.

Regarding another possible strong trend in the future, it is possible that social or economic conditions, coupled with the new technical capabilities, will result in waves of emigration from the cities and immigration to the rural regions. The worldwide ecovillage movement, while not yet of a scale to be called a "wave," has both urban and rural components that aim at building sustainable village cultures. This global network, along with systematic approaches to ecologically more sensitive design, such as permaculture, have evolved out of the back-to-the-land movement. There are those who see these phenomena as interlinked parts of an agrarian revolution that only began with the back-to-the-land movement of the 1960s & '70s. Ecovillages are intended to be socially, economically and ecologically sustainable intentional communities. ... The Global Ecovillage Network is a global association of people and communities (ecovillages) dedicated to living sustainable plus lives by restoring the land and adding more to the environment than is taken. ... Permaculture Mandala summarising the ethics and principles of permaculture design. ... Agrarianism is a social and political philosophy. ...

Contents

A recurring pattern

The recent North American instance

The target lifestyle

The few who succeeded

The many who returned

The end of the movement?

See also

Bibliography

Contents

A recurring pattern GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");

The recent North American instance

The target lifestyle

The few who succeeded

The many who returned

The end of the movement?

See also

Bibliography

A recurring pattern