The Bible has been translated into many languages. The Jewish Tanakh (similar to the Protestant Old Testament) was originally written in Hebrew, with the exception of some passages of Daniel, Ezra, and Jeremiah which are in Aramaic. The New Testament is widely agreed to have originally been written in Greek, although some scholars hypothesize that certain books (whether completely or partially) may have been written in Aramaic before being translated for widespread dissemination. One very famous example of this is the the opening to the Gospel of John, which some scholars argue to be a Greek translation of an Aramaic hymn. This Gutenberg Bible is displayed by the United States Library of Congress. ... Look up translate in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... For other uses, see Jew (disambiguation). ... Tanakh (Hebrew: ‎) (also Tanach, IPA: or , or Tenak, is an acronym that identifies the Hebrew Bible. ... Protestantism is a general grouping of denominations within Christianity. ... Note: Judaism commonly uses the term Tanakh. ... Hebrew redirects here. ... Daniel (Hebrew: דָּנִיֵּאל; transliterated as Daniyyel in Standard Hebrew and Dāniyyêl in Tiberian Hebrew, Arabic: Danyel, دانيال) is the name of at least three people from the Hebrew Bible: A Jewish exile in Babylon, the subject of the Book of Daniel and the most well-known of the three Daniels. ... Ezra is a personal name derived from Hebrew, written variously as עֶזְרָא ( Standard Hebrew ), ʿEzra, ( Tiberian Hebrew ), ʿEzrâ: short for עַזְרִיאֵל My help/court is God, Standard Hebrew ʿAzriʾel, Tiberian Hebrew ʿAzrîʾēl, Arabic: عزير. // Once there once an ezra who ate two pies the kill barney with jake burton Unless otherwise... Bold text The Book of Jeremiah, or Jeremiah (יִרְמְיָהוּ Yirmiyahu in Hebrew), is a book that is part of the Hebrew Bible, Judaisms Tanakh, and later became a part of Christianitys Old Testament. ... Aramaic is a group of Semitic languages with a 3,000-year history. ... John 21:1 Jesus Appears to His Disciples--Alessandro Mantovani: the Vatican, Rome. ... Look up logos, λόγος in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The Gospel of John is the fourth gospel in the canon of the New Testament, traditionally ascribed to John the Evangelist. ...

Approaches

A variety of approaches to translation have been used, including:

• Dynamic equivalence translation
• Formal equivalence translation (similar to literal translation)
• Meaning-Based translation
• Mother tongue translator
• Idiomatic, or Paraphrastic translation, as used by late Kenneth Livingston
• Paraphrase

A great deal of debate occurs over which approach most accurately communicates the message of the biblical languages source texts into target languages. Despite these debates, however, many who study the Bible intellectually or devotionally find that selecting more than one translation approach is useful in interpreting and applying what they read. For example, a very literal translation may be useful for individual word or topical study, while a paraphrase may be employed for grasping initial meaning of a passage. Dynamic equivalence is an approach to translation in which the original language is translated thought for thought rather than word for word as in formal equivalence. ... Formal equivalence is a translation approach which attempts to retain the language forms of the original as much as possible in the translation, regardless of whether or not they are the most natural way to express the original meaning. ... Literal translation refers to the result of translating text from one language to another; translating each word independently as opposed to translating the entire phrase. ... An idiom is an expression whose meaning is not compositional — that is, whose meaning does not follow from the meaning of the individual words of which it is composed. ... A Paraphrase is a statement or remark explained in other words or another way, so as to simplify or clarify its meaning. ... There is an ongoing debate which has been raging for years (at least since the late 60s when modern translations started appearing) about which translation is best and more generally about whether the Bible should even be translated into less-literal versions. ...

History

Part of a series of articles on Christianity

Foundations Jesus Christ Holy Trinity (Father, Son, Holy Spirit) Holy Bible · Christian Theology New Covenant · Supersessionism Apostles · Church · Kingdom · Gospel History of Christianity · Timeline Christianity is a monotheistic[1] religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament. ... Image File history File links Christian_cross. ... This article is about Jesus of Nazareth. ... Christ is the English translation of the Greek word (Christós), which literally means The Anointed One. ... For other uses, see Trinity (disambiguation). ... In many religions, the supreme God is given the title and attributions of Father. ... Christian views of Jesus consist of the teachings and beliefs held by Christian groups about Jesus, including his divinity, humanity, and earthly life. ... In various religions, most notably Trinitarian Christianity, the Holy Spirit (in Hebrew רוח הקודש Ruah haqodesh; also called the Holy Ghost) is the third consubstantial Person of the Holy Trinity. ... This Gutenberg Bible is displayed by the United States Library of Congress. ... Given the overwhelming influence exercised by Christianity, especially in pre-modern Europe, Christian theology permeates much of Western culture and often reflects that culture. ... Christians believe that Jesus is the mediator of the New Covenant (see Hebrews 8:6). ... Supersessionism (sometimes referred to as replacement theology by its critics) is a belief that Christianity is the fulfillment and continuation of the Old Testament, and that Jews who deny that Jesus is the Messiah are not being faithful to the revelation that God has given them, and they therefore fall... The Twelve Apostles (, apostolos, Liddell & Scott, Strongs G652, someone sent forth/sent out) were men that according to the Synoptic Gospels and Christian tradition, were chosen from among the disciples (students) of Jesus for a mission. ... The phrase One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church appears in the Nicene Creed () and, in part, in the Apostles Creed (the holy catholic church, sanctam ecclesiam catholicam). ... The Kingdom of God or Reign of God (Greek basileia tou theou,[1]) is a foundational concept in Christianity, as it is the central theme of Jesus of Nazareths message in the synoptic Gospels. ... For other uses, see Gospel (disambiguation). ... The history of Christianity concerns the history of the Christian religion and the Church, from the Apostles to contemporary times. ... The purpose of this chronology is to give a detailed account of Christianity from the beginning of the current era to the present. ...

Holy Bible Old Testament · New Testament Decalogue · Sermon on the Mount Birth · Resurrection · Great Commission Inspiration · Books · Canon · Apocrypha Hermeneutics · LXX · English Translation Note: Judaism commonly uses the term Tanakh. ... John 21:1 Jesus Appears to His Disciples--Alessandro Mantovani: the Vatican, Rome. ... This 1768 parchment (612x502 mm) by Jekuthiel Sofer emulated the 1675 Decalogue at Amsterdam Esnoga synagogue. ... The Sermon on the Mount was, according to the Gospel of Matthew 5-7, a particular sermon given by Jesus of Nazareth (estimated around AD 30) on a mountainside to his disciples and a large crowd. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ... The Death of Jesus and the Resurrection of Jesus are two events in the New Testament in which Jesus is crucified on one day (the Day of Preparation, i. ... In Christian tradition, the Great Commission is the instruction of the resurrected Jesus Christ to his disciples, that they spread the faith to all the world. ... Biblical inspiration is the doctrine in Christian theology concerned with the divine origin of the Bible and what the Bible teaches about itself. ... The canonical list of the Books of the Bible differs among Jews, and Catholic, Protestant, and Eastern Orthodox Christians, even though there is a great deal of overlap. ... The biblical canon is a list of books written during the formative periods of the Jewish or Christian faiths. ... Apocrypha (from the Greek word απόκρυφα meaning those having been hidden away[1]) are texts of uncertain authenticity or writings where the authorship is questioned. ... Biblical Hermeneutics, part of the broader hermeneutical question, relates to the problem of how one is to understand Holy Scripture. ... The Septuagint: A page from Codex vaticanus, the basis of Sir Launcelot Lee Brentons English translation. ... The efforts of translating the Bible from its original languages into over 2,000 others have spanned more than two millennia. ...

Christian Theology History of Theology · Apologetics Creation · Fall of Man · Covenant · Law Grace · Faith · Justification · Salvation Sanctification · Theosis · Worship Church · Sacraments · Future This is an overview of the history of theology in Greek thought, Christianity, Judaism and Islam from the time of Christ to the present. ... Theology (Greek θεος, theos, God, + λογια, logia, words, sayings, or discourse) is reasoned discourse concerning religion, spirituality and God or the gods. ... Christian apologetics is the field of study concerned with the systematic defense of Christianity. ... Creation (theology) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... In Abrahamic religion, The Fall of Man or The Story of the Fall, or simply The Fall, refers to humanitys fall from a state of innocent bliss to a state of sinful understanding. ... Covenant, meaning a solemn contract, oath, or bond, is the customary word used to translate the Hebrew word berith (ברית, Tiberian Hebrew bÉ™rîṯ, Standard Hebrew bÉ™rit) as it is used in the Hebrew Bible. ... Note: Judaism commonly uses the term Tanakh. ... In Christianity, divine grace refers to the sovereign favor of God for humankind, as manifest in the blessings bestowed upon all —irrespective of actions (deeds), earned worth, or proven goodness. ... Faith in Christianity centers on faith in the existence of God, who created the universe. ... In Christian theology, justification is Gods act of making or declaring a sinner righteous before God. ... In theology, salvation can mean three related things: freed forever from the punishment of sin Revelation 1:5-6 NRSV - also called deliverance;[1] being saved for something, such as an afterlife or participating in the Reign of God Revelation 1:6 NRSV - also called redemption;[2]) and a process... Sanctification or in its verb form, sanctify, literally means to set apart for special use or purpose, that is to make holy or sacred (compare Latin sanctus holy). Therefore sanctification refers to the state or process of being set apart, i. ... In Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic theology, theosis (Greek: , meaning divinization (or deification, or to make divine), is the call to man to become holy and seek union with God, beginning in this life and later consummated in the resurrection. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... In Christian theology, ecclesiology is a branch of study that deals with the doctrines pertaining to the Church itself as a community or organic entity, and with the understanding of what the church is —ie. ... In Catholic belief and practice, a sacrament is a rite that mediates divine grace, constituting a sacred mystery. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

History and Traditions Early · Councils · Creeds · Missions Great Schism · Crusades · Reformation Great Awakenings Fourth-century inscription, representing Christ as the Good Shepherd. ... In Christianity, an Ecumenical Council or general council is a meeting of the bishops of the whole church convened to discuss and settle matters of Church doctrine and practice. ... A creed is a statement or confession of belief — usually religious belief — or faith. ... A Christian mission has been widely defined, since the Lausanne Congress of 1974, as that which is designed to form a viable indigenous church-planting movement. ... For the later Papal Schism in Avignon, see Western Schism. ... The Siege of Antioch, from a medieval miniature painting, during the First Crusade. ... Reformation redirects here. ... Great Awakenings are commonly said to be periods of religious revival in Anglo-American religious history. ... Eastern Christianity Eastern Orthodoxy · Oriental Orthodoxy Syriac Christianity · Eastern Catholicism Eastern Christianity refers collectively to the Christian traditions and churches which developed in Greece, the Balkans, the rest of Eastern Europe, Asia Minor, the Middle East, northeastern Africa and southern India over several centuries of religious antiquity. ... The Eastern Orthodox Church is a Christian body that views itself as the historical continuation of the original Christian community established by Jesus and the Twelve Apostles, preserving the traditions of the early church unchanged, accepting the canonicity of the first seven ecumenical councils held between the 4th and the... The term Oriental Orthodoxy refers to the communion of Eastern Christian Churches that recognize only the first three ecumenical councils — the First Council of Nicaea, the First Council of Constantinople and the Council of Ephesus — and reject the dogmatic definitions of the Council of Chalcedon. ... Syriac Christianity is a culturally and linguistically distinctive community within Eastern Christianity. ... The Eastern Catholic Churches are autonomous particular Churches in full communion with the Pope in Rome. ... Western Christianity Western Catholicism · Protestantism Thomism · Anabaptism · Lutheranism Anglicanism · Calvinism · Arminianism Evangelicalism · Baptist · Methodism Restorationism · Liberalism · Adventism Fundamentalism · Pentecostalism Western Christianity comprises Catholicism, Anglicanism, Protestantism. ... The Roman Catholic Church or Catholic Church (see terminology below) is the Christian Church in full communion with the Bishop of Rome, currently Pope Benedict XVI. It traces its origins to the original Christian community founded by Jesus Christ and led by the Twelve Apostles, in particular Saint Peter. ... Protestantism is one of three main groups within Christianity, whose beliefs are centered on Jesus. ... Thomism is the philosophical school that followed in the legacy of Thomas Aquinas. ... Anabaptists (Greek ανα (again) +βαπτιζω (baptize), thus, re-baptizers [1], German: Wiedertäufer) are Christians of the Radical Reformation. ... Lutheranism is a movement within Christianity that began with the theological insights of Martin Luther in the 16th century. ... The term Anglican (from Medieval Latin ecclesia anglicana, meaning the English Church) is used to describe the people, institutions and churches as well as the liturgical traditions and theological concepts developed by the established Church of England, the Anglican Communion and the Continuing Anglican Churches (a loosely affiliated group of... Calvinism is a system of Christian theology and an approach to Christian life and thought within the Protestant tradition articulated by John Calvin, a Protestant Reformer in the 16th century, and subsequently by successors, associates, followers and admirers of Calvin, his interpretation of Scripture, and perspective on Christian life and... For the Armenian nationality, see Armenia or the Armenian language. ... The word evangelicalism usually refers to religious practices and traditions which are found in conservative, almost always Protestant Christianity. ... Baptist is a term describing a tradition within Christianity that may also refer to individuals belonging to a Baptist church or a Baptist denomination. ... Methodism or the Methodist movement is a group of historically related denominations of Protestant Christianity. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The term Adventist can refer to One who believes in the Second Advent (usually known as the Second coming) of Jesus. ... Fundamentalist Christianity, or Christian fundamentalism, is a movement that arose mainly within British and American Protestantism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by conservative evangelical Christians, who, in a reaction to modernism, actively affirmed a fundamental set of Christian beliefs: the inerrancy of the Bible, the virgin birth... The Pentecostal movement within Evangelical Christianity places special emphasis on the direct personal experience of God through the baptism of the Holy Spirit, as shown in the Biblical account of the Day of Pentecost. ... Topics in Christianity Denominations · Movements · Ecumenism Preaching · Prayer · Music · Liturgy Calendar · Symbols · Art · Criticism A denomination, in the Christian sense of the word, is an identifiable religious body under a common name, structure, and/or doctrine. ... Christian movements are theological, political, or philosophical intepretations of Christianity that are not generally represented by a specific church, sect, or denomination. ... The word ecumenism (also oecumenism, Å“cumenism) is derived from Greek (oikoumene), which means the inhabited world, and was historically used with specific reference to the Roman Empire. ... A sermon is an oration by a prophet or member of the clergy. ... This article is about the many forms of prayer within Christianity. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... // Partial list of Christian liturgies (past and present) Roman Catholic church (churches in communion with the Holy See of the Bishop of Rome) Latin Rite Novus Ordo Missae Tridentine Mass Anglican Use Mozarabic Rite Ambrosian Rite Gallican Rite Eastern Rite, e. ... The liturgical year, also known as the Christian year, consists of the cycle of liturgical seasons in some Christian churches which determines when Feasts, Memorials, Commemorations, and Solemnities are to be observed and which portions of Scripture are to be read. ... Christian art is art that spans many segments of Christianity. ... Throughout the history of Christianity, a wide range of Christians and non-Christians alike have offered criticisms of Christianity, the Church, and Christians themselves. ...

Important Figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Wycliffe Luther · Calvin · Wesley · Pope Paul of Tarsus (b. ... The (Early) Church Fathers or Fathers of the Church are the early and influential theologians and writers in the Christian Church, particularly those of the first five centuries of Christian history. ... This article covers the events of, reaction to, and historical legacy of Roman Emperor Constantine Is promotion, legitimization, and conversion to Christianity. ... Athanasius of Alexandria (also spelled Athanasios) (c. ... Augustinus redirects here. ... For entities named after Saint Anselm, see Saint Anselms. ... Saint Thomas Aquinas [Thomas of Aquin, or Aquino] (c. ... Gregory Palamas Gregory Palamas (Γρηγόριος Παλαμάς) (1296 - 1359) was a monk of Mount Athos in Greece and later Archbishop of Thessalonica known as a preeminent theologian of Hesychasm. ... This does not cite its references or sources. ... Martin Luther (November 10, 1483 – February 18, 1546) was a German monk,[1] priest, professor, theologian, and church reformer. ... John Calvin (July 10, 1509 – May 27, 1564) was a French Protestant theologian during the Protestant Reformation and was a central developer of the system of Christian theology called Calvinism or Reformed theology. ... John Wesley (June 17, 1703–March 2, 1791) was an 18th-century Anglican clergyman and Christian theologian who was an early leader in the Methodist movement. ... The current Pope is Benedict XVI (born Joseph Alois Ratzinger), who was elected at the age of 78 on 19 April 2005. ...

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Antiquity

Some of the first translations of the Jewish Torah began during the first exile in Babylonia, when Aramaic became the lingua franca of the Jews. With most people speaking only Aramaic and not understanding Hebrew, the Targums were created to allow the common person to understand the Torah as it was read in ancient synagogues. The most well-known movement to translate books of the Bible appeared in the 3rd century BC. Most of the Tanakh then existed in Hebrew, but many had gathered in Egypt, where Alexander the Great had founded the city that bears his name. At one time a third of the population of the city was Jewish. However, no major Greek translation was sought (as most Jews continued to speak Aramaic to each other) until Ptolemy II Philadelphus hired a large group of Jews (between 15 and 70 according to different sources) who had a fluent capability in both Koine Greek and Hebrew. These people produced the translation now known as the Septuagint. Babylonia, named for its capital city, Babylon, an ancient state in the south part of Mesopotamia (in modern Iraq), combining the territories of Sumer and Akkad. ... Aramaic is a Semitic language with a four-thousand year history. ... A targum (plural: targumim) is an Aramaic translation of the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) written or compiled in the Land of Israel or in Babylonia from the Second Temple period until the early Middle Ages (late first millennium). ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 3rd century BC started on January 1, 300 BC and ended on December 31, 201 BC. // Events The Pyramid of the Moon, one of several monuments built in Teotihuacán Teotihuacán, Mexico begun The first two Punic Wars between Carthage... Tanakh (Hebrew: ‎) (also Tanach, IPA: or , or Tenak, is an acronym that identifies the Hebrew Bible. ... Hebrew redirects here. ... Alexander the Great (Greek: ,[1] Megas Alexandros; July 356 BC–June 11, 323 BC), also known as Alexander III, king of Macedon (336–323 BC), was one of the most successful military commanders in history. ... This article is about the city in Egypt. ... The word Jew ( Hebrew: יהודי) is used in a wide number of ways, but generally refers to a follower of the Jewish faith, a child of a Jewish mother, or someone of Jewish descent with a connection to Jewish culture or ethnicity and often a combination... 309–246 BC), with Arsinoë II. Ptolemy II Philadelphus (Greek: , 309 BC–246 BC), was the king of Ptolemaic Egypt from 281 BC to 246 BC. He was the son of the founder of the Ptolemaic kingdom Ptolemy I Soter and Berenice. ... Koine redirects here. ... The Septuagint: A page from Codex vaticanus, the basis of Sir Launcelot Lee Brentons English translation. ...

Origen's Hexapla placed side by side six versions of the Old Testament, including the 2nd century Greek translations of Aquila of Sinope and Symmachus the Ebionite. The canonical Christian Bible was formally established by Bishop Cyril of Jerusalem in 350 (although it had been generally accepted by the church previously), confirmed by the Council of Laodicea in 363 (both lacked the book of Revelation), and later established by Athanasius of Alexandria in 367 (with Revelation added), and Jerome's Vulgate Latin translation dates to between AD 382 and 420. Latin translations predating Jerome are collectively known as Vetus Latina texts. Jerome began by revising the earlier Latin translations, but ended by going back to the original Greek, bypassing all translations, and going back to the original Hebrew wherever he could instead of the Septuagint. The New Testament was translated into Gothic in the 4th century by Ulfilas. In the 5th century, Saint Mesrob translated the bible into Armenian. Also to dating the same period are the Syriac, Coptic, Ethiopic and Georgian translations. Origen (Greek: ÅŒrigénÄ“s, 185–ca. ... Hexapla (Gr. ... Aquila of Sinope was A native of Pontus, celebrated for a very literal and accurate translation of the Old Testament into Greek. ... Symmachus the Ebionite (late 2nd century CE), was the author of one of the Greek versions of the Old Testament that were included by Origen in his Hexapla and Tetrapla, which compared various versions of the old Testament side by side with the Septuagint. ... The Bible (From Greek βιβλια—biblia, meaning books, which in turn is derived from βυβλος—byblos meaning papyrus, from the ancient Phoenician city of Byblos which exported papyrus) is the sacred scripture of Christianity. ... Cyril of Jerusalem was a distinguished theologian of the early Church ( 315 - 386). ... The Council of Laodicea was a regional synod of approximately 30 clerics from Anatolia, (now modern Turkey). ... Visions of John of Patmos, as depicted in the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry. ... Athanasius of Alexandria (also spelled Athanasios) (c. ... Revelation is an uncovering or disclosure via communication from the divine of something that has been partially or wholly hidden or unknown. ... Saint Jerome redirects here. ... The Vulgate Bible is an early 5th century translation of the Bible into Latin made by St. ... Vetus Latina is a collective name given to the Biblical texts in Latin that were translated before St Jeromes Vulgate bible became the standard Bible for Latin-speaking Western Christians. ... Because of technical limitations, some web browsers may not display some special characters in this article. ... Representation of Ulfilas surrounded by the Gothic alphabet Ulfilas or Wulfila (perhaps meaning little wolf) (c. ... Saint Mesrop Mashtots (Armenian:Õ„Õ¥Õ½Ö€Õ¸Õº Մաշտոց) (360 - February 17, 440) was an Armenian monk, theologian and linguist. ... Syriac is an Eastern Aramaic language that was once spoken across much of the Fertile Crescent. ... Coptic is the most recent phase of ancient Egyptian. ... The Geez language (or Giiz language) is an ancient language that developed in the Ethiopian Highlands of the Horn of Africa as the language of the peasantry. ...

Middle Ages

During the Middle Ages, translation particularly of the Old Testament was discouraged. Nevertheless, there are some fragmentary Old English Bible translations, notably a lost translation of the Gospel of John into Old English by the Venerable Bede, which he is said to have prepared shortly before his death around the year 735. An Old High German version of the gospel of Matthew dates to 748. Charlemagne in ca. 800 charged Alcuin with a revision of the Latin Vulgate. The translation into Old Church Slavonic dates to the late 9th century. The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... A number of Old English Bible translations were prepared in mediaeval England, translations of parts of the Bible into the Old English language. ... The Gospel of John is the fourth gospel in the canon of the New Testament, traditionally ascribed to John the Evangelist. ... Depiction of Bede from the Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493. ... Events Abkhazia becomes independent, and will remain such until the 15th century Births Alcuin, missionary and bishop (approximate date) Deaths May 25 - Bede, English Historian and monk Categories: 735 ... The term Old High German (OHG, German: Althochdeutsch) refers to the earliest stage of the German language and it conventionally covers the period from around 500 to 1050. ... Events January - An earthquake strikes the Middle East from northern Egypt to northwestern Mesopotamia, destroying many remnants of Byzantine culture. ... A portrait of Charlemagne by Albrecht Dürer that was painted several centuries after Charlemagnes death. ... Rabanus Maurus (left), supported by Alcuin (middle), presents his work to Otgar of Mainz Flaccus Albinus Alcuinus or Ealhwine (c. ... Old Church Slavonic (Old Bulgarian, Old Macedonian, and Old Slavic) is the first literary Slavic language, developed from the Slavic dialect of Thessaloniki (Solun) by the 9th century Byzantine missionaries, Saints Cyril and Methodius. ...

Alfred the Great had a number of passages of the Bible circulated in the vernacular in around 900. These included passages from the Ten Commandments and the Pentateuch, which he prefixed to a code of laws he promulgated around this time. In approximately 990, a full and freestanding version of the four Gospels in idiomatic Old English appeared, in the West Saxon dialect; these called the Wessex Gospels. Alfred (also Ælfred from the Old English: Ælfrēd) (c. ... Events Persian scientist, Rhazes, distinguished smallpox from measles in the course of his writings. ... This 1768 parchment (612x502 mm) by Jekuthiel Sofer emulated the 1675 Decalogue at Amsterdam Esnoga synagogue. ... Look up Pentateuch in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Events Construction of the Al-Hakim Mosque begins in Cairo. ... This article concerns the English kingdom, not the Westland Wessex helicopter Wessex was one of the seven major Anglo-Saxon kingdoms (the Heptarchy) that preceded the kingdom of England. ... Map of the British Isles circa 802 Wessex was one of the seven major Anglo-Saxon kingdoms (the Heptarchy) that preceded the Kingdom of England. ...

Pope Innocent III in 1199 banned unauthorized versions of the Bible as a reaction to the Cathar and Waldensian heresies. The synods of Toulouse and Tarragona (1234) outlawed possession of such renderings. There is evidence of some vernacular translations permitted while others were being scrutinized. Pope Innocent III (c. ... The Cathars, also known as the Albigensians, were adherent to the beliefs of Catharism. ... The Waldensians were followers of Peter Waldo (or Valdes or Vaudes); they called themselves the Poor men of Lyon, the Poor of Lombardy, or the Poor. ...

The most notable Middle English Bible translation, Wyclif's Bible (1383), based on the Vulgate, was banned by the Oxford Synod in 1408. A Hungarian Hussite Bible appeared in the mid 15th century, and in 1478, a Spanish translation in the Catalan dialect of Valencia. Middle English Bible translations (1066-1500) covers the age of Middle English - it was not a fertile time for Bible translations but saw the first major translation, Wyclifs Bible, from John Wyclif. ... Wyclifs Bible is the name now given to a group of Bible translations into Middle English, that were made under the direction of, or at the instigation of, John Wyclif. ... The Hussites comprised a Christian movement following the teachings of the reformer Jan Hus (circa 1369–1415), who was influenced by John Wyclif and became one of the forerunners of the Protestant Reformation. ... Capital Valencia Official language(s) Castilian and Valencian Area  â€“ Total  â€“ % of Spain Ranked 8th  23,255 km²  4. ...

Before each of these translations, there were often earlier versions in other languages, these resulting from a newer linguistic need, arising out of one tongue superseding the former in a given locale. (For instance, West Saxon sufficed once where only Middle English would later be on demand, as German later displaced the previous Gothic in its important role to Germans.)

Reformation and Early Modern period

In 1521, Martin Luther was placed under the Ban of the Empire, and he went into hiding at the Wartburg Castle. During his time there, he translated the New Testament from Greek into German. It was printed in September 1522.

Tyndale's Bible (1526) met with heavy sanctions, and William Tyndale was jailed in 1535 for translating the Old Testament. The Froschauer Bible of 1531 and the Luther Bible of 1534 (both appearing in portions throughout the 1520s) were an important part of the Reformation. The 1530 Catholic translation of Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples even predates the completion of these Protestant translations. Early Modern English Bible translations are those translations of the Bible which were made between about 1500 and 1800, the period of Early Modern English. ... It has been suggested that The Tyndale Society be merged into this article or section. ... Zürich Bible (Zürcher Bibel, also Zwinglibibel) is a bible translation historically based on the translation by Ulrich Zwingli. ... Luthers 1534 bible The Luther Bible is a German Bible translation by Martin Luther, first printed with both testaments in 1534. ... ... The Protestant Reformation was a movement which began in the 16th century as a series of attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church, but ended in division and the establishment of new institutions, most importantly Lutheranism, Reformed churches, and Anabaptists. ... June 25 - Augsburg confession presented to Charles V of Holy Roman Empire. ... Lefevre dEtaples Jacques Lefèvre dÉtaples (c. ...

The missionary activity of the Jesuit order led to a large number of 17th century translation into languages of the New World. The Society of Jesus (Latin: Societas Iesu), commonly known as the Jesuits, is a Roman Catholic religious order. ... (16th century - 17th century - 18th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 17th century was that century which lasted from 1601-1700. ... Carte dAmérique, Guillaume Delisle, c. ...

See also: Early Modern English Bible translations Early Modern English Bible translations are those translations of the Bible which were made between about 1500 and 1800, the period of Early Modern English. ...

Modern translation efforts

See also: International Bible Society, Bible Society, and Wycliffe Bible Translators

The Bible continues to be the most translated book in the world. The following numbers are approximations. As of 2005, at least one book of the Bible has been translated into 2,400 of the 6,900 languages listed by SIL,^[1] including 680 languages in Africa, followed by 590 in Asia, 420 in Oceania, 420 in Latin America and the Caribbean, 210 in Europe, and 75 in North America. The United Bible Societies are presently assisting in over 600 Bible translation projects. The Bible is available in whole or in part to some 98 percent of the world's population in a language in which they are fluent. The International Bible Society (IBS) translates, publishes and distributes the Bible with the intent of helping people around the world become Christians. ... A Bible society is a non-profit organization (usually ecumenical in makeup) devoted to translating, publishing and distributing the Bible at affordable costs. ... Wycliffe Bible Translators is an international, interdenominational or parachurch organization with U.S. headquarters in Orlando, Florida. ... 2005 is a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... SIL International is a worldwide non-profit evangelical Christian organization whose main purpose is to study, develop and document lesser-known languages in order to expand linguistic knowledge, promote literacy and aid minority language development. ...

National Missionary Movement

While the Bible Societies, Wycliffe and SIL continue their translation work around the globe, a new paradigm in both Bible translation and missions has been growing in acceptance. Many are now seeing the importance and necessity of training and supporting national missionaries to work among their own people and cultures. There are many reasons why this model is preferred to older missions models:

• National Missionaries are already living with or near the people they hope to reach.
• Individuals with a passion for God's work are also developing ways to begin their own ministries. Such as Reaching The Mano.com, the story on a missionary traveling to Africa to bring God's word to life among the Mano people of West Africa.
• National Missionaries already know the customs of the people.
• National Missionaries cost a fraction of what it costs to transport and maintain western missionaries in the field.
• National Missionaries cannot be kicked out of their countries in times of war or unrest because they are citizens.

A few organizations that support National Missions and Bible Translation: Bible Societies Gospel for Asia World Mission International The Seed Company

According to their website SIL work with a number of organizations consisting of National Missionaries:^[2]

• Association Centrafricaine pour la Traduction de la Bible et l'Alphabétisation (ACATBA) (Central African Association for the Translation of the Bible and Literacy)
• Assoc Linguistica Evangelica Missionaria (ALEM), Brazil
• Bible Translation Association (BTA), Papua New Guinea
• Bible Translation and Literacy (East Africa) (BTL), Kenya
• Ghana Institute of Linguistics, Literacy and Bible Translation^[3]
• Indian Institute for Cross Cultural Communications (IICCC)
• Nigeria Bible Translation Trust (NBTT)
• Translation Association of the Philippines (TAP)
• Vanuatu Christian Council, Translation and Literacy Program

List of translations

This list gives information about Bible translations in various languages, in alphabetical order by language. At the end of some of the sections you will find tables comparing the same verses in various translations.

Afrikaans

The Bible was translated into Afrikaans in 1933, revised in 1953 by the Bybelgenootskap van Suid Afrika, a South African bible society. There is also a 1983 translation. Afrikaans is a West Germanic language mainly spoken in South Africa and Namibia. ... Year 1933 (MCMXXXIII) was a common year starting on Sunday. ... 1953 (MCMLIII) was a common year starting on Thursday. ... A Bible society is a non-profit organization (usually ecumenical in makeup) devoted to translating, publishing and distributing the Bible at affordable costs. ...

Arabic

In the 10th century AD Saadia ha Gaon produced a now mostly lost translation of the Tanach. 11th century Targum Tanakh [תנ״ך] (also spelt Tanach or Tenach) is an acronym for the three parts of the Hebrew Bible, based upon the initial Hebrew letters of each part: Torah [תורה] (The Law; also: Teaching or Instruction), Chumash [חומש] (The...

In 1671 the Roman Catholic Church published the whole Bible at Rome. The translation was done under the direction of Sergius Risi, the Catholic Archbishop of Damascus. Francis Britius aided the translation. The Roman Catholic Church or Catholic Church (see terminology below) is the Christian Church in full communion with the Bishop of Rome, currently Pope Benedict XVI. It traces its origins to the original Christian community founded by Jesus Christ and led by the Twelve Apostles, in particular Saint Peter. ...

The most popular translation is the Van Dyck Version, funded by the Syrian Mission and the American Bible Society. The project was the brainchild of Eli Smith, and started around 1847, centred in Beirut. After Eli Smith's death it was completed under the direction of Cornelius Van Allen Van Dyck. Others involved included Nasif al Yaziji and Boutros al Bustani. The New Testament was completed on March 9, 1860, followed by the Tanach on Friday, March 10, 1865. About 10 million copies of this version have been distributed since 1865. It has been accepted by the Coptic Church and the Protestant churches. This translation was based mostly on the same Textus Receptus as the King James Version of the Bible, and follows a more literal style of translation. Most printings of the Van Dyck version use the same basic printing plates which have been employed for years (possibly the same plates that were made when the translation was first adopted; maybe somebody can verify that fact). These plates employ the "stacking" version of writing Arabic, in which, for example, letters that precede other specified letters, such as "Jeem," are written vertical to rather than horizontal to that letter. This style of Arabic can be hard to read at times, especially for non-native students of Arabic. More recently, newer printings of the Van Dyck have been made which employ a more common, straightforward Arabic font. The American Bible Society (ABS) is a group, founded in 1816, that publishes, distributes, and translates the Bible. ... Eli Smith (1801-1857) was an American Protestant Missionary and scholar, born at Northford, Conn. ... For other uses, see Beirut (disambiguation). ... Cornelius Van Allen Van Dyck, M.D. (1819-1895) was an American missionary, born at Kinderhook, NY, and educated at Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia, from which he graduated as M.D. in 1839. ... Christ - Coptic Art Coptic Orthodox Christianity is the indigenous form of Christianity that, according to tradition, the apostle Mark established in Egypt in the middle of the 1st century AD (approximately AD 60). ...

While most of the Arabic in the Van Dyck version is pretty standard, there is some terminology in it that Muslim or other non-Christian readers may not understand (e.g. "As-hah", the word for a chapter of the Bible; "tajdif", the word for blasphemy.) It should also be noted that an Arab Muslim reading the Bible in Arabic (especially if he is reading the New Testament) will find the rather straightforward style quite different from the more cryptic tone that he is used to in the Qur'an (this is more or less true of all Arabic translations of the Bible). Also of note is the fact that Qur'anic/Islamic terminology was not very much used in this version of the Bible (as it is in most versions of the Bible).

In 1973 the International Bible Society began to work on a new translation, this project was named the Arabic Life Application Bible. The Injil (New Testament) was released in 1982, and the whole Bible was completed in 1988. The International Bible Society (IBS) translates, publishes and distributes the Bible with the intent of helping people around the world become Christians. ...

In 1992 the Bible Society, released Today's Arabic Version, an Dynamic equivalence translation designed to be as easy to understand as possible. It is the Arabic equivalent of the English Good News Translation. Dynamic equivalence is an approach to translation in which the original language is translated thought for thought rather than word for word as in formal equivalence. ... The Good News Translation (GNT) as it is known in North America, or the Good News Bible (GNB) as it is known in the rest of the world, is an English language translation of the Bible by the American Bible Society, first published as the New Testament under the name...

The Old Testament, Van Dyck Version

The Injil (New Testament), Van Dyck Version

Arabic Life Application Bible

Azeri

The first Azeri translation was that of several books from the Bible and was published in 1842. The New Testament was fully translated and published in 1878 and the entire Bible - in 1891. In 1982, the Russian Institute for Bible Translation released a revised Azeri translation, which is presently used in Azerbaijan. Azeris in Iran follow a slightly different translation. The Azerbaijani language, also called Azeri, Azari, Azeri Turkish, or Azerbaijani Turkish, is the official language of Republic of Azerbaijan. ... 1842 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... 1878 (MDCCCLXXVIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... Year 1891 (MDCCCXCI) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar). ... 1982 (MCMLXXXII) was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

External Links:
http://www.yeniheyat.com/
http://www.azerincil.net/
http://www.korpu.net/ (Sound Bible)

Burmese

Adoniram Judson made the first translation of the Bible into the Burmese language, completed in 1834. Adoniram Judson Adoniram Judson, Jr. ... The Burmese language is the official language of Myanmar. ...

• Online Burmese Bible
• Online Burmese Bible (Compatible with Burmese wikipedia) - Translated from The Original Tongues by Rev. A. Judson, D.D.

Catalan

Middle Ages to the XIXth century

The first translation of the whole Bible into Catalan was produced between 1287 and 1290. It was entrusted to Jaume de Montjuich by Alfons II of Aragon. Remains of this version can be found in Paris (Bibliothèque Nationale). Also, in the same French library, we can find another translation into Catalan, which Jaume II of Aragon received on November 23rd, 1319.

In the early fifteenth century appeared another whole Bible translation by Bonifaci Ferrer. In 1490 a psalter by Joan Roís de Corella came to light in Venice. The Catalan Bible by Bonifaci Ferrer was printed before any Bible was printed in English or Spanish, in 1478.

The prohibition, in Spain and other Catholic countries, of vernacular translations, along with the decadence of the Catalan language until its renaissance in the nineteenth century, explain why there were no translations into Catalan from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century.^[1]

In 1832 a Catalan exiled in London, J.M. Prat Colom, sponsored by the British and Foreign Bible Society, translated the New Testament (Lo Nou Testament de nostre Senyor Jesu-Christ), which was published afterwards in Barcelona (1836) and Madrid (1888).

XXth century and forward

In the twentieth century many new translations flourished, both Catholic and Protestant.

Catholic Translations

• 1948 Bíblia de Cambó, by Fundació Bíblica Catalana, started in 1927.

• 1968 Bíblia de Cambó, 2nd Edition.

• 1970 Bíblia dels Monjos de Montserrat, by the Monks of Montserrat.

Protestant Translations

• 1988 Nou Testament, New Testament by Institució Bíblica Evangèlica de Catalunya, with the help of the International Bible Society.

• 2000 Bíblia Evangèlica Catalana (aka La Bíblia del 2000), by Institució Bíblica Evangèlica de Catalunya. Translators: Pau Sais and Samuel Sais. BEC

An Ecumenical Translation

Something very unusual happened with this translation: Catholic and Protestant translators worked together and produced a Bible. Nevertheless, there are two editions: a Catholic edition with the deuterocanonical books (Apocrypha for the Protestant) and a Protestant edition, without the aforementioned books.

• 1993 Bíblia Catalana Interconfessional , by Associació Bíblica de Catalunya, Editorial Claret and Societats Bíbliques Unides. BCI

Chinese

(See also: Chinese Bible Translations) The first translations of the Bible into Chinese were made by Roman Catholic missionaries. However, they were only manuscript copies. Beginning with Robert Morrison in 1807, Protestant missionaries in China sought to translate the vernacular dialects and publish the Scriptures as broadly as possible. The most popular version used in Chinese Protestant Church today is the Chinese Union Version (和合本). Although this version has been translated for nearly a century and the Chinese language has changed a lot, the Chinese Union Version is still widely used. Chinese Dialects and Vernacular Versions of the Bible [1] // Old Testament (Samuel Isaac Joseph Schereschewsky), 1875 New Testament (Peking Committee), 1870 New Testament (Griffith John), 1887 New Testament, 1889 Portions of New Testament for the Blind New Testament, 1856 New Testament, 1881 Isaiah-Daniel, 1886 New Testament, 1870 New Testament... Robert Morrison (Chinese: 馬禮遜; born January 5, 1782 in Bullers Green, near Morpeth, Northumberland; died August 1, 1834 in Canton; buried in the Old Protestant Cemetery in Macau) was a Scottish missionary, the first Protestant missionary in China. ... Chinese (written) language (pinyin: zhōngw n) written in Chinese characters The Chinese language (汉语/漢語, 华语/華語, or 中文; Pinyin: H nyǔ, Hu yǔ, or Zhōngw n) is a member of the Sino-Tibetan family of languages. ...

The first Roman Catholic Chinese Bible to be published was started by a young Franciscan friar named Gabriele Allegra, he began translating the Old Testament from the original Hebrew and Aramaic languages in 1935. 10 years later he recruited Frs. Solanus Lee, Antonius Lee, Bernardinus Lee, and Ludovicus Liu in Beijing. However, due to the Chinese civil war in 1948, the friars were forced to move the Studium Biblicum in Hong Kong. After 20 years of effort, the first Old Testament was published in 1954. In 1968 the New and Old Testaments were published in a single volume. Combatants Chinese Nationalists Chinese Communists Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Mao Zedong Strength 4,300,000 (July 1946) 3,650,000 (June 1948) 1,490,000 (June 1949) 1,200,000 (July 1946) 2,800,000 (June 1948) 4,000,000 (June 1949) The Chinese Civil War (Traditional Chinese: ; Simplified Chinese...

Notable Chinese Bible Translations

• 遺詔全書, 1822
• 神天聖書, 1823-1824
• Studium Biblicum Version (思高譯本), 1935-1968
• Chinese Union Version (和合本), 1904-1919
• Lu Zhenzhong's translation (呂振中譯本), 1970
• Dangdai Shenjing (當代聖經), 1974
• Today's Chinese Version (現代中文譯本), 1979
• New Chinese Version (聖經新譯本), 1993
• Pastoral Bible (Chinese) (牧靈聖經), 1991-1999
• New World Translation (聖經新世界譯本 漢語版), 2001
• Recovery Version (聖經恢復本), 2003

External links The Studium Biblicum Version (思高本; pinyin: sīgāo běn; jyutping: si1 gou1 bun2; “Franciscan version“) is the predominant Chinese language translation of the Bible used by Chinese Catholics. ... The Chinese Union Version (CUV) (和合本; pinyin: héhé běn; literally “harmonized/united version”) is the predominant Chinese language translation of the Bible used by Chinese Protestants. ... The Todays Chinese Version (TCV) (現代中文譯本) is a recent translation of the Bible into modern Chinese. ... The New Chinese Version (NCV) (新譯本) is a Chinese language Bible translation that was completed in 1992. ... The Chinese edition of the Christian Community Bible is called the Pastoral Bible (牧靈聖經; pinyin: mùlíng shèngjīng; jyutping: muk6 ling4 sing3 ging1). ... The New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures (NWT) is a modern-language translation of the Bible published by the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York, Inc. ... The Recovery Version The Recovery Version is a study Bible and English language translation of the Bible published by Living Stream Ministry. ...

• Studium Biblicum Franciscanum
• Chinese Catholic Bible Wiki

Croatian

The first complete translation was Jesuit Kasić's manuscript. The work was done from 1622 to 1637, but remained unpublished unt