An infant breastfeeding

International Breastfeeding Symbol

Breastfeeding is the feeding of an infant or young child with breast milk directly from a woman's breasts, not from a baby bottle or other container. Babies have a sucking reflex that enables them to suck and swallow milk. Download high resolution version (430x640, 167 KB)http://gimp-savvy. ... Download high resolution version (430x640, 167 KB)http://gimp-savvy. ... The International Breastfeeding Symbol The International Breastfeeding Symbol was created by Matt Daigle, a graphic artist and father. ... “Baby” redirects here. ... For other uses, see Child (disambiguation). ... Breast milk usually refers to the milk produced by a human female which is usually fed to infants, toddlers, and young children by breastfeeding. ... okay that is all ... An infant being fed by bottle A baby bottle is a bottle with a teat to drink directly from. ... A reflex action is essentially an automatic and specific response to a particular stimulus. ...

According to a 2001 WHO report,^[1] alternatives to breastfeeding include:

• expressed breast milk from an infant’s own mother
• breast milk from a healthy wet-nurse or a human-milk bank
• a breast-milk substitute fed with a cup, which is a safer method than a feeding bottle and teat

In most situations human breast milk is the best source of nourishment for human infants,^[2] preventing disease, promoting health and reducing health care costs^[3] (exceptions include if the mother is taking certain drugs or infected with tuberculosis or HIV). Experts disagree about how long to breastfeed to gain the greatest benefit, and the risks of using artificial formulas.^[4][5][6] In both developing and developed countries, artificial feeding is associated with more deaths from diarrhoea in infants.^[7] An infant being fed by bottle A baby bottle is a bottle with a teat to drink directly from. ... Breast milk usually refers to the milk produced by a human female which is usually fed to infants, toddlers, and young children by breastfeeding. ... The Nutrition Facts table indicates the amounts of nutrients which experts recommend you limit or consume in adequate amounts. ... Breastfeeding is the feeding of an infant or young child with milk from a womans breasts. ... For other uses, see Drug (disambiguation). ... Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for tubercle bacillus or Tuberculosis) is a common and deadly infectious disease caused by mycobacteria, mainly Mycobacterium tuberculosis. ... Species Human immunodeficiency virus 1 Human immunodeficiency virus 2 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS, a condition in humans in which the immune system begins to fail, leading to life-threatening opportunistic infections). ...  Newly industrialized countries  Other emerging markets  Other developing economies  High income  Upper-middle income  Lower-middle income  Low income A developing country is that country which has a relatively low standard of living, an undeveloped industrial base, and a moderate to low Human Development Index (HDI) score and per capita... World map indicating Human Development Index (as of 2004). ... Diarrhoea is the correct way to spell the word Diarrhoea. ...

The World Health Organization recommends a minumum of two years of breastfeeding and exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life. AAP recommends at least one year of breastfeeding and exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life. Exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life "provides continuing protection against diarrhea and respiratory tract infection" that is more common in babies fed formula. [2]The World Health Organization (WHO)^[8] and American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP)^[9] both stress the value of breastfeeding for mothers and children. While recognizing the superiority of breastfeeding, regulating authorities work to make artificial feeding safer when it is not used.^[5] WHO redirects here. ... The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) is an organization of pediatricians, physicians trained to deal with the medical care of infants, children, and adolescents. ...

Lactation

Main article: Lactation

The production, secretion and ejection of milk is called lactation. It is one of the defining features of being a mammal. Kittens nursing Lactation describes the secretion of milk from the mammary glands, the process of providing that milk to the young, and the period of time that a mother lactates to feed her young. ... Subclasses & Infraclasses Subclass †Allotheria* Subclass Prototheria Subclass Theria Infraclass †Trituberculata Infraclass Metatheria Infraclass Eutheria Mammals (class Mammalia) are warm-blooded, vertebrate animals characterized by the presence of sweat glands, including milk producing sweat glands, and by the presence of: hair, three middle ear bones used in hearing, and a neocortex...

Breast milk

Main article: Breast milk

Not all the properties of breast milk are understood, but its nutrient content is relatively stable. Breast milk is made from the nutrients in the mother's bloodstream and bodily stores. Some studies estimate that a woman who breastfeeds her infant exclusively uses 400 - 600 extra calories a day in producing milk.^[10] The composition of breast milk depends on how long the baby nurses. Breast milk usually refers to the milk produced by a human female which is usually fed to infants, toddlers, and young children by breastfeeding. ... Breast milk usually refers to the milk produced by a human female which is usually fed to infants, toddlers, and young children by breastfeeding. ... A nutrient is a substance used in an organisms metabolism which must be taken in from the environment. ...

"Research shows that the fat and energy content of breastmilk actually increases after the first year.8 Breastmilk adapts to a toddler's developing system, providing exactly the right amount of nutrition at exactly the right time.9 In fact, research shows that between the ages of 12 and 24 months, 448 milliliters of a mother's milk provide these percentages of the following minimum daily requirements:

Energy 29% Folate 76% Protein 43% Vitamin B12 94% Calcium 36% Vitamin C 60%10 Vitamin A 75% "[3]

Benefits for the infant

Himba woman and child.

During breastfeeding nutrients and antibodies pass to the baby^[11] and the maternal bond can also be strengthened.^[12] Research has demonstrated a variety of benefits to breastfeeding an infant. ^[13] These include: A nutrient is a substance used in an organisms metabolism which must be taken in from the environment. ... Each antibody binds to a specific antigen; an interaction similar to a lock and key. ... A mother holds up her child. ...

Atopy

In children who are at risk (defined as at least one parent or sibling having atopy) atopic syndrome can be prevented or delayed through exclusive breastfeeding for four months, though these benefits may not be present after four months of age^[14] though the key factor may be the age at which non-breastmilk is introduced rather than duration of breastfeeding.^[15] Atopic dermatitis, the most common form of eczema, can be reduced through exclusive breastfeeding beyond 12 weeks in individuals with a family history of atopy, but when breastfeeding beyond 12 weeks is combined with other foods incidents of eczema rise irrespective of family history.^[16] Eczema-a typical atopic manifestation Atopy (Greek ατοπία - placelessness) or atopic syndrome is an allergic hypersensitivity affecting parts of the body not in direct contact with the allergen. ... For the beetle, see Exema. ...

Celiac disease

A review of the association between breastfeeding and celiac disease (CD) concluded that breast feeding while introducing gluten to the diet reduced the risk of CD. The study was unable to determine if breastfeeding merely delayed symptoms or offerred life-long protection.^[17] Coeliac disease (also termed non-tropical sprue, celiac disease and gluten intolerance) is an autoimmune disease characterised by chronic inflammation of the proximal portion of the small intestine caused by exposure to certain dietary gluten proteins. ... Wheat - a prime source of gluten Gluten is an amorphous mixture of ergastic (i. ...

Diabetes mellitus

Infants exclusively breastfed have less chance of developing diabetes mellitus type 1 than peers with a shorter duration of breastfeeding and an earlier exposure to cow milk and solid foods.^[18] Breastfeeding also appears to protect against diabetes mellitus type 2,^[19][20] at least in part due to its effects on the child's weight.^[20] Diabetes mellitus type 1 (Type 1 diabetes, Type I diabetes, T1D, IDDM) is a form of diabetes mellitus. ... Diabetes mellitus type 2 or Type 2 Diabetes (formerly called non-insulin-dependent diabetes (NIDDM), obesity-related diabetes, or adult-onset diabetes) is a metabolic disorder that is primarily characterized by insulin resistance, relative insulin deficiency, and hyperglycemia. ...

Diarrhea

Breastfeeding protects infants against diarrhea as compared to formula-fed peers;^[21] compared to formula-fed peers, death rates due to diarrhea in breastfed infants are lower irrespective of development level of country.^[7] Diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea (see spelling differences), is a condition in which the sufferer has frequent watery, loose bowel movements (from the Greek word διάρροια; literally meaning through-flowing). Acute infectious diarrhea is a common cause of death in developing countries (particularly among infants), accounting for 5 to 8 million deaths...  Newly industrialized countries  Other emerging markets  Other developing economies  High income  Upper-middle income  Lower-middle income  Low income A developing country is that country which has a relatively low standard of living, an undeveloped industrial base, and a moderate to low Human Development Index (HDI) score and per capita...

Immune health

Breastmilk include several anti-infective factors such as bile salt stimulated lipase (protecting against amoebic infections), lactoferrin (which binds to iron and inhibits the growth of intestinal bacteria)^[22][23] and immunoglobulin A protecting against microorganisms.^[24] An infection is the detrimental colonization of a host organism by a foreign species. ... For other uses, see Amoeba (disambiguation). ... Lactoferrin is a globular protein found in milk and many mucosal secretions such as tears. ... Escherichia coli, one of the many species of bacteria present in the human gut. ... ... A cluster of Escherichia coli bacteria magnified 10,000 times. ...

Despite also being a factor in the transmission of HIV from mother to child, some constituents in breastmilk may be protective of infection. In particular, high levels of certain polyunsaturated fatty acids in breastmilk (including eicosadienoic, arachidonic and gamma-Linolenic acids) are associated with a reduced risk of child infection when nursed by HIV-positive mothers. Arachidonic acid and gamma-linolenic acid may also reduce viral shedding of the HIV virus in breastmilk.^[25] Species Human immunodeficiency virus 1 Human immunodeficiency virus 2 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS, a condition in humans in which the immune system begins to fail, leading to life-threatening opportunistic infections). ... A polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) is a class of unsaturated fat that contains more than one double bond. ... Arachidonic acid (AA) is an omega-6 fatty acid 20:4(ω-6). ... gamma-Linolenic acid (GLA) is an omega-6 essential fatty acid found primarily in vegetable oils. ... Viral shedding refers to the successful production of virus progeny and that the progeny is leaving the cell to infect other host cells. ...

Breastfeeding does not appear to offer protection against allergies.^[26] Allergy is an abnormal reaction to a substance foreign to the body that is acquired, predictable and rapid. ...

Intelligence

Babies with a specific variant of the FADS2 gene (approximately 90% of all babies) demonstrate an average of 7 points higher IQ if breastfed.^[27]

Necrotizing enterocolitis

Necrotizing enterocolitis (NC), found mainly in premature births, is six to ten times more common in infants fed formula exclusively, and three times more common in infants fed a mixture of breast milk and formula, as compared to exclusive breastfeeding. In infants born at more than 30 weeks, NC was twenty times more common in infants fed exclusively on formula.^[28] Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a medical condition primarily seen in premature infants, where portions of the bowel undergo necrosis (tissue death). ... In most systems of human pregnancy, the condition, premature birth (also known as a preterm birth), occurs when the baby is born within sooner than 36 weeks of completed gestation. ...

Nutrition

Breast milk contains the ideal ratio of the amino acids cystine, methionine, and taurine to support development of the central and peripheral nervous system. Children aged seven and eight years old who were of low birthweight who were breastfed for more than eight months demonstrated significantly higher intelligence quotient scores than comparable children breastfed for less time, suggesting breastfeeding offers long-term cognitive benefits in some populations.^[29] This article is about the class of chemicals. ... Chemical structure of cystine formed from L-cysteine (under biological conditions) 3D representation of cystine with the disulfide bond shown in yellow Cystine is a conditionally non-essential crystalline, sulfur-containing amino acid. ... Methionine is an α-amino acid with the chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2)CH2CH2SCH3. ... Taurine, or 2-aminoethanesulfonic acid, is an organic acid. ... A diagram showing the CNS: 1. ... The Peripheral nervous system resides or extends outside the CNS central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) to serve the limbs and organs. ... Birth weight is the weight of a baby at its birth. ... IQ redirects here. ...

Obesity

Breastfeeding appears to reduce the risk of extreme obesity in children aged 39 to 42 months.^[30] The protective effect of breastfeeding against obesity is consistent, though small, across many studies, and appears to increase with the duration of breastfeeding.^[31]

Otitis media

The duration of certain types of inner ear infections (otitis media with effusion, OME) in the first two years of life, is associated with a shorter period of breastfeeding in addition to cigarette smoking and feeding while lying down.^[32] A reduced proportion and duration of any otitis media infection was associated with breastfeeding rather than formula feeding for the first twelve months of life.^[21] Otitis media is inflammation of the middle ear: the small space between the ear drum and the inner ear. ... Otitis media is inflammation of the middle ear: the small space between the ear drum and the inner ear. ...

Respiratory infections

Breastfeeding appears to reduce symptoms of upper respiratory tract infections in premature infants up to seven months after release from hospital.^[33] Upper respiratory tract infection, also popularly known as either the acronym URTI or URI, is the disease characterised by an acute infection which involves the upper respiratory tract: nose, sinuses, pharynx, or larynx. ...

Sudden infant death syndrome

Breastfed babies have improved arousal from sleep, which may reduce the risk of sudden infant death syndrome.^[34]

Urinary tract infection

Breastfeeding reduced the risk of acquiring urinary tract infections in infants up to seven months post-partum. The protection was strongest immediately after birth, and was ineffective past seven months^[35] A urinary tract infection (UTI) is a bacterial infection that affects any part of the urinary tract. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into postpartum period. ...

Benefits for mothers

Zanzibari woman breastfeeding

Breastfeeding is a cost effective way of feeding an infant, and provides the best nourishment for a child at a small nutrient cost to the mother. Frequent and exclusive breastfeeding can delay the return fertility through lactational amenorrhea, though breastfeeding is at best an imperfect means of birth control. During breastfeeding beneficial hormones are released into the mother's body.^[11] and the maternal bond can be strengthened.^[12] Breastfeeding is possible throughout pregnancy, but generally milk production will be reduced at some point.^[36] Map of Zanzibars main island Zanzibar is part of Tanzania Coordinates: , Country Tanzania Islands Unguja and Pemba Capital Zanzibar City Settled AD 1000 Government  - Type semi-autonomous part of Tanzania  - President Amani Abeid Karume Area  - Both Islands  637 sq mi (1,651 km²) Population (2004)  - Both Islands 1,070... Natural family planning (NFP), sometimes described as periodic abstinence, is a form of birth control that involves recognizing the natural signs in a womans fertility. ... For other uses, see Birth control (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Hormone (disambiguation). ... This article is about human pregnancy in biological females. ...

Breast cancer

Breastfeeding mothers have less risk of endometrial,^[37][38] breast and ovarian cancer,^[9][12] and osteoporosis.^[9][12] Mothers who breastfeed longer than eight months also benefit from bone re-mineralisation^[39] and breastfeeding diabetic mothers require less insulin.^[40] Breastfeeding helps stabilize maternal endometriosis,^[9] reduces the risk of post-partum bleeding^[41] and benefits the insulin levels for mothers with polycystic ovary syndrome.^[42] Endometrial cancer involves cancerous growth of the endometrium (lining of the uterus). ... Breast cancer is cancer of breast tissue. ... Ovarian cancer is a malignant tumor (a kind of neoplasm) located on an ovary. ... Osteoporosis is a disease of bone - leading to an increased risk of fracture. ... This article is about the disease that features high blood sugar. ... For other uses, see Bleeding (disambiguation). ... Not to be confused with inulin. ... Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS, also known clinically as Stein-Leventhal syndrome), is an endocrine disorder that affects approximately one in ten women. ...

Some breastfeeding women have pain from candidiasisor staphylococcus infections of the nipple^[43] though these can be managed with medical attention with little concern for mother and child. Candidiasis, commonly called yeast infection or thrush, is a fungal infection of any of the Candida species, of which Candida albicans is the most common. ... Species S. aureus S. caprae S. epidermidis S. haemolyticus S. hominis S. lugdunensis S. pettenkoferi S. saprophyticus S. warneri S. xylosus Staphylococcus (in Greek staphyle means bunch of grapes and coccos means granule) is a genus of Gram-positive bacteria. ... This article is about the anatomical structure. ...

Bonding

The hormones released during breastfeeding strengthen the maternal bond. Teaching partners how to manage common difficulties is associated with higher breastfeeding rates.^[44] Support for a mother while breastfeeding can assist in familial bonds and help build a paternal bond between father and child.^[45] A mother holds up her child. ... The term human bond -- or, more generally, human bonding -- refers to the process or formation of a close personal relationship, as between a parent and child, especially through frequent or constant association. ... The paternal bond is typically the relationship between a father and his child. ...

If the mother is away, an alternative caregiver may be able to feed the baby with expressed breast milk. The various breast pumps available for sale and rent help working mothers to feed their babies breast milk for as long as they want. To be successful, the mother must produce and store enough milk to feed the child for the time she is away, and the feeding caregiver must be comfortable in handling breast milk. Manual breast pump A breast pump is a mechanical device (powered manually or by electricity) that extracts milk from the breasts of a woman who is lactating. ...

Hormone release

Breastfeeding releases the hormones oxytocin and prolactin which relax the mother and make her feel more nurturing toward her baby.^[46] Breastfeeding soon after giving birth increases the mother's oxytocin levels, making her uterus contract more quickly and reducing bleeding. Oxytocin is similar to pitocin, a synthetic hormone used to make the uterus contract.^[41] Oxytocin (Greek: quick birth) is a mammalian hormone that also acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain. ... Prolactin (PRL) is a peptide hormone primarily associated with lactation. ...

Weight loss

As fat accumulated during pregnancy is used to produce milk, breastfeeding can help mothers lose weight.^[47][48]

Organisational endorsements

World Health Organization

The WHO recommends two years of breastfeeding and exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life.

American Academy of Pediatrics

AAP recommends at least one year of breastfeeding and exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life.

Breastfeeding difficulties

Main article: Breastfeeding complications#When breastfeeding might harm the infant

Despite being a natural human activity, breastfeeding difficulties are not uncommon. Putting the baby to the breast as soon as possible after birth helps to avoid many problems. The AAP breastfeeding policy says: Delay weighing, measuring, bathing, needle-sticks, and eye prophylaxis until after the first feeding is completed.^[9] Many breastfeeding difficulties can be resolved with proper hospital procedures, properly trained midwives, doctors and hospital staff, and lactation consultants.^[50] There are some situations in which breastfeeding may be harmful to the infant, including infection with tuberculosis or HIV, some medications and some legal and illegal drugs. Breastfeeding is the feeding of an infant or young child with milk from a womans breasts. ... Breastfeeding is the feeding of an infant or young child with milk from a womans breasts. ... Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for tubercle bacillus or Tuberculosis) is a common and deadly infectious disease caused by mycobacteria, mainly Mycobacterium tuberculosis. ... Species Human immunodeficiency virus 1 Human immunodeficiency virus 2 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS, a condition in humans in which the immune system begins to fail, leading to life-threatening opportunistic infections). ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... For other uses, see Drug (disambiguation). ...

Infant weight gain

Breastfed infants generally gain weight according to the following guidelines:

0–4 months: 170 grams per week^†

4–6 months: 113–142 grams per week

6–12 months: 57–113 grams per week

^† It is acceptable for some babies to gain 113–142 grams (4–5 ounces) per week. This average is taken from the lowest weight, not the birth weight.

The average breastfed baby doubles birth weight in 5–6 months. By one year, the typical breastfed baby will weigh about 2½ times birth weight. At one year, breastfed babies tend to be leaner than bottle fed babies.^[51] By two years, differences in weight gain and growth between breastfed and formula-fed babies are no longer evident.^[52]

Methods and considerations

There are many books and videos to advise mothers about breastfeeding. Lactation consultants in hospitals or private practice, and volunteer organisations of breastfeeding mothers such as La Leche League also provide advice and support. A lactation consultant is a healthcare provider recognized as an expert in the fields of human lactation and breastfeeding. ... La Leche League International (LLLI) is an international non-profit organization founded in 1956 to give support and information to women who choose to breastfeed their babies. ...

Early breastfeeding

In the half hour after birth, the baby's suckling reflex is strongest, and the baby is more alert, so it is the ideal time to start breastfeeding. ^[53]. Early breast-feeding is associated with fewer nighttime feeding problems ^[54]

Time and place for breastfeeding

Breastfeeding at least once every two to three hours helps to maintain milk production. For most women, eight breastfeeding or pumping sessions every 24 hours keeps their milk production high.^[9] Newborn babies may feed more often than this: 10 to 12 breastfeeding sessions every 24 hours is common, and some may even feed 18 times a day.^[55] Feeding a baby on demand (sometimes referred to as "on cue"), may mean breastfeeding much more than the recommended minimum. Feeding when the baby shows early signs of hunger, is the best way to maintain milk production and ensure the baby's needs for milk and comfort are being met.^[8] However, it may be important to recognize whether a baby is truly hungry, as breastfeeding too frequently may mean the child receives a disproportionately high amount of foremilk, and not enough hindmilk, potentially creating problems.^[56]. Hunger is a feeling experienced when the glycogen level of the liver falls below a threshold, usually followed by a desire to eat. ...

"Experienced breastfeeding mothers learn that the sucking patterns and needs of babies vary. While some infants' sucking needs are met primarily during feedings, other babies may need additional sucking at the breast soon after a feeding even though they are not really hungry. Babies may also nurse when they are lonely, frightened or in pain.[4]"

"Comforting and meeting sucking needs at the breast is nature's original design. Pacifiers (dummies, soothers) are literally a substitute for the mother when she can't be available. Other reasons to pacify a baby primarily at the breast include superior oral-facial development, prolonged lactational amenorrhea, avoidance of nipple confusion and stimulation of an adequate milk supply to ensure higher rates of breastfeeding success.[5]"

Babies usually show they are hungry by waking up (newborns), mouthing their fists, moaning or fussing. Crying is a late indicator of hunger. When a baby's cheeks are stroked, the rooting instinct makes it move its face towards the stroking and open its mouth.

Breastfeeding can make mothers thirsty, especially at first, when both mother and baby are inexperienced and when feeding sessions can last for an hour or more (there is no time limit for breastfeeding). Having water readily available helps mothers maintain proper hydration.

Rooming-in bassinet

Most US states now have breastfeeding laws which allow a mother to breastfeed her baby anywhere she is allowed to be. In hospitals, rooming-in care is used for breastfeeding. There are breastfeeding rooms in some places, including hypermarkets. Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (2016 × 1512 pixel, file size: 992 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (2016 × 1512 pixel, file size: 992 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Packaged food aisles of Fred Meyer in Portland, Oregon In commerce, a hypermarket or multi-department store is a superstore which combines a supermarket and a department store. ...

Latching on, feeding and positioning

When the nipple strokes the baby's cheek the baby will open its mouth and turn towards the nipple. To help the baby latch on well, tickle the baby's top lip with the nipple, wait until the baby's mouth opens wide, then bring the baby up towards the nipple quickly, so that the baby has a mouthful of nipple and areola. The nipple should be at the back of the baby's throat, with the baby's tongue lying flat in its mouth. Inverted or flat nipples can be massaged so that the baby will have more to latch onto. Resist the temptation to move towards the baby, as this can lead to poor attachment. Cross section of the breast of a human female. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ...

Many women wear nursing brassieres for easier access to the breast, but these are not always necessary and certainly not required. In the very early days, wearing a nursing bra can make breastfeeding complicated and uncomfortable. Wearing a bra at any time after birth will not affect how the breast changes with pregnancy and breastfeeding. Many women find that the size of their breasts change dramatically and so fitting a bra is better done after childbirth rather than before. An ill-fitting bra, whether designed for nursing or otherwise, can cause plugged ducts or mastitis. Bra - front Bra - back A brassiere ( ; , commonly referred to as a bra, ) is an article of clothing that covers, supports, and elevates the breasts. ... Mastitis is the inflammation of the mammalian breast caused by the blocking of the milk ducts while the mother is lactating (see breastfeeding). ...

Pain in the nipple or breast is linked to incorrect breastfeeding techniques. Failure to latch on is one of the main reasons for ineffective feeding and can lead to infant health concerns. A 2006 study found that inadequate parental education, incorrect breastfeeding techniques, or both were associated with higher rates of preventable hospital admissions in newborns.^[57]

The baby may pull away from the nipple after a few minutes or after a much longer period of time. Normal feeds at the breast can last a few sucks (newborns), from 10 to 20 minutes or even longer (on demand). Sometimes, after the finishing of a breast, the mother may offer the other breast.

The length of feeds varies a lot. Regardless of the time taken, the breastfeeding mother should be comfortable.

• Upright: The sitting position with the back straight and leaning back comfortably.
• Mobile: The mother carries her nursling in a sling or other baby carrier while breastfeeding. Doing so permits the mother to incorporate breastfeeding into the varied work of daily life
• Lying down: Good for night feeds or for those who have had a caesarean section
  • On her back: Mother is usually sitting slightly upright; particularly useful for tandem breastfeeding (nursing more than one child)
  • On her side: The mother and baby lie on their sides
• Hands and knees: The mother is on all fours with the baby underneath her (not usually recommended)

While most women breastfeed their child in the cradling position, there are many ways to hold the feeding baby. It depends on the mother and child's comfort and the feeding preference of the baby. Some babies prefer one breast to the other, but the mother should offer both breasts at every nursing with her newborn. A caesarean section (AE cesarean section), or c-section, is a form of childbirth in which a surgical incision is made through a mothers abdomen (laparotomy) and uterus (hysterotomy) to deliver one or more babies. ...

• Cradling positions:
  • Cradle hold: The baby is held with its head in the woman's elbow horizontally across the abdomen, "tummy to tummy", with the woman in an upright and supported position image
  • Cross-cradle hold: As above but the baby is held with its head in the woman's hand
• Football hold: The woman is upright and the baby is held securely under the mother's arm with the head cradled in her hands. This position is especially useful for feeding twins simultaneously image
• Feeding up hill: The baby lies stomach to stomach with the mother who is lying on her back; this is helpful for babies finding it difficult to feed
• Lying down:
  • On its side: The mother and baby lie on their sides
  • On its back: The baby is lying on its back (cushioned by something soft) with the mother on her hands and knees above the child (not usually recommended)

When tandem breastfeeding, the mother is unable to move the baby from one breast to another and comfort can be more of an issue. As tandem breastfeeding brings extra strain to the arms, especially as the babies grow, many mothers of twins recommend the use of more supporting pillows. Favored positions include: For the human abdomen, see human abdomen. ...

• Double cradle hold
• Double clutch hold image
• One clutched baby and one cradled baby
• Lying down

Exclusive breastfeeding

Exclusive breastfeeding is when an infant receives no other food or drink, or even water, besides breast milk.^[8] National and international guidelines recommend that all infants be breastfed exclusively for the first six months of life. It is generally accepted that newborns should be exclusively breastfed for around 6 months. Breastfeeding may continue with the addition of appropriate foods, for two years or more. Exclusive breastfeeding has dramatically reduced infant deaths in developing countries by reducing diarrhea and infectious diseases. Diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea (see spelling differences), is a condition in which the sufferer has frequent watery, loose bowel movements (from the Greek word διάρροια; literally meaning through-flowing). Acute infectious diarrhea is a common cause of death in developing countries (particularly among infants), accounting for 5 to 8 million deaths... This false-colored electron micrograph shows a malaria sporozoite migrating through the midgut epithelia. ...

Exclusively breastfed infants feed anywhere from 6 to 14 times a day. Newborns consume from 30 to 90 ml (1 to 3 US fluid ounces). After the age of four weeks, babies consume about 120ml (4 US fluid ounces) per feed. Each baby is different, but as it grows the amount will increase. It is important to recognize the baby's hunger signs. It is assumed that the baby knows how much milk it needs and it is therefore advised that the baby should dictate the number, frequency, and length of each feed. The supply of milk from the breast is determined by the number and length of these feeds or the amount of milk expressed. The birth weight of the baby may affect its feeding habits, and mothers may be influenced by what they perceive its requirements to be. For example, a baby born small for gestational age may lead a mother to believe that her child needs to feed more than if it larger; they should, however, go by the demands of the baby rather than what they feel is necessary. Baby weighed as AGA Birth weight is the weight of a baby at its birth. ...

While it can be hard to measure how much food a breastfed baby consumes, babies normally feed to meet their own requirements.^[58] Babies that fail to eat enough may exhibit symptoms of failure to thrive. If necessary, it is possible to estimate feeding from wet and soiled nappies (diapers): 8 wet cloth or 5–6 wet disposable, and 2–5 soiled per 24 hours suggests an acceptable amount of input for newborns older than 5–6 days old. After 2–3 months, stool frequency is a less accurate measure of adequate input as some normal infants may go up to 10 days between stools. Babies can also be weighed before and after feeds. Failure to thrive is a medical term which denotes poor weight gain and physical growth failure over an extended period of time in infancy. ...

Expressing breast milk

Manual breast pump

When direct breastfeeding is not possible, a mother can express (artificially remove and store) her milk. With manual massage or using a breast pump, a woman can express her milk and keep it in freezer storage bags, a supplemental nursing system, or a bottle ready for use. Breast milk may be kept at room temperature for up to ten hours, refrigerated for up to eight days or frozen for up to four to six months. Research suggests that the antioxidant activity in expressed breast milk decreases over time but it still remains at higher levels than in infant formula.^[59] Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2083x2780, 248 KB)A manual breast pump taken with an Olmpus C8080W. File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2083x2780, 248 KB)A manual breast pump taken with an Olmpus C8080W. File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Manual breast pump A breast pump is a mechanical device (powered manually or by electricity) that extracts milk from the breasts of a woman who is lactating. ... A supplemental nursing system (SNS) is used by breastfeeding mothers of newborns if they are having difficulty establishing their milk supply. ... An infant being fed by bottle A baby bottle is a bottle with a teat to drink directly from. ... For other uses, see Room temperature (disambiguation). ...

Expressing breast milk can maintain a mother's milk supply when she and her child are apart. If a sick baby is unable to feed, expressed milk can be fed through a nasogastric tube. A nasogastric tube (NG tube) is a plastic tube, inserted into a nostril through the nose, into the throat, down the oesophagus and into the stomach. ...

Expressed milk can also be used when a mother is having trouble breastfeeding, such as when a newborn causes grazing and bruising. If an older baby bites the nipple, the mother's reaction - a jump and a cry of pain - is usually enough to discourage the child from biting again. (Another possibility is responding to the bite by drawing the baby so close that his nose is covered and he cannot breathe without releasing.^[60]) Babies or toddlers that are truly feeding cannot physically bite the nipple.

"Exclusively Expressing", "Exclusively pumping" and "EPing" are terms for a mother who feeds her baby exclusively on her breastmilk while not physically breastfeeding. This may arise because her baby is unable or unwilling to latch on to the breast. With good pumping habits, particularly in the first 12 weeks when the milk supply is being established, it is possible to produce enough milk to feed the baby for as long as the mother wishes. Kellymom [6] has a page of links relating to exclusive pumping.

It is generally advised to delay using a bottle to feed expressed breast milk until the baby is 4-6 weeks old and is good at sucking directly from the breast.^[61] Because It takes less effort to suck from a bottle, a baby might lose its desire to suck from the breast. This is called nursing strike or nipple confusion. To avoid this when feeding expressed breast milk (EBM) before 4-6 weeks of age, it is recommended that breast milk be given by other means such as feeding spoons or feeding cups. Also, EBM should be given by someone other than the breastfeeding mother (or wet nurse), so that the baby can learn to associate direct feeding with the mother (or wet nurse) and associate bottle feeding with other people.^{[citation needed]}

Some women donate their expressed breast milk (EBM) to others, either directly or through a milk bank. Though some dislike the idea of feeding their own child with another woman's milk, others appreciate being able to give their baby the benefits of breast milk. Feeding expressed breast milk—either from donors or the baby's own mother—is the feeding method of choice for premature babies.^[62] The transmission of some viral diseases through breastfeeding can be prevented by expressing breast milk and subjecting it to Holder pasteurisation.^[63] A common alternate meaning of virus is computer virus. ... Pasteurization is the process of heating food for the purpose of killing harmful organisms such as bacteria, viruses, protozoa, molds, and yeasts. ...

Mixed feeding

Expressed breast milk (EBM) or infant formula can be fed to an infant by bottle

Predominant or mixed breastfeeding means feeding breast milk along with infant formula, baby food and even water, depending on the age of the child. Babies feed differently with artificial teats than from a breast. When feeding from the breast, the tongue massages the milk out rather than sucking, and the nipple does not go as far into the mouth; when feeding from a bottle, an infant will suck harder and the milk may come in more rapidly. Therefore, mixing breastfeeding and bottle-feeding (or using a pacifier) before the baby is used to feeding from its mother can induce the infant to prefer the bottle to the breast. Orthodontic teats, which are generally slightly longer, are closer to the nipple. Some mothers supplement feed with a small syringe or flexible cup to reduce the risk of artificial nipple preference. This was taken from openphoto. ... This was taken from openphoto. ... An infant being fed by bottle. ... Baby food is any food that is made specifically for infants, roughly between the ages of six months to two years. ... A pacifier A pacifier (North American English), dummy (British, New Zealand, and Australian English) or soother (Canadian and Irish English), is a rubber, plastic, or silicone nipple given to an infant or other young child to suck upon. ...

Tandem breastfeeding

Feeding two children at the same time is called tandem breastfeeding The most common reason for tandem breastfeeding is the birth of twins, although women with closely spaced children can and do continue to nurse the older as well as the younger. As the appetite and feeding habits of each baby may not be the same, this could mean feeding each according to their own individual needs, and can also include breastfeeding them together, one on each breast. For other uses, see Twin (disambiguation). ...

In cases of triplets or more, it is a challenge for a mother to organize feeding around the appetites of all the babies. While breasts can respond to the demand and produce large quantities of milk, it is common for women to use alternatives. However, some mothers have been able to breastfeed triplets successfully ^{[64][65] [66]}. Quadruplet, quintuplet, etc. ...

Tandem breastfeeding may also occur when a woman has a baby while breastfeeding an older child. During the late stages of pregnancy the milk will change to colostrum, and some older nurslings will continue to feed even with this change, while others may wean due to the change in taste or drop in supply. Feeding a child while being pregnant with another can also be considered a form of tandem feeding for the nursing mother, as she also provides the nutrition for two.^[67]

Extended breastfeeding

Breastfeeding past two years is called extended breastfeeding or "sustained breastfeeding" by supporters and those outside the U.S.^[68]) Some women breastfeed a child until the age of 3 or more. Supporters of extended breastfeeding believe that all the benefits of human milk, nutritional, immunological and emotional, continue for as long as a child nurses. Often the older child will nurse infrequently or sporadically as a way of bonding with the mother.^{[citation needed]}

Shared breastfeeding

In developing nations in Africa, it is sometimes common for more than one woman to breastfeed a child. Shared breastfeeding is a risk factor for HIV infection in infants.^[69] A woman who is engaged to breastfeed another's baby is known as a wet nurse. Islam has codified the relationship between this woman and the infants she nurses, and also between the infants when they grow up, so that milk siblings are considered as blood siblings and cannot marry. A developing country is a country with low average income compared to the world average. ... A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ... Species Human immunodeficiency virus 1 Human immunodeficiency virus 2 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS, a condition in humans in which the immune system begins to fail, leading to life-threatening opportunistic infections). ... A wet nurse is a woman who nurses a baby not her own. ... For people named Islam, see Islam (name). ... Brother and Sister redirect here. ... In Islamic sharia legal terminology, a mahram (Arabic محرم, also transcribed mahrim or maharem) is an unmarriageable kin with whom sexual intercourse would be considered incestuous, a punishable taboo. ...

Weaning

Weaning is the process of introducing the infant to ordinary food and reducing the supply of breast milk. The infant is fully weaned once it relies on ordinary food for all its nutrition and it no longer receives any breast milk. Most mammals stop producing the enzyme lactase at the end of weaning, and become lactose intolerant. Many humans have a mutation that allows the production of lactase throughout life and can drink milk - usually cow or goat milk - well beyond the age of weaning.^[70] Ribbon diagram of the enzyme TIM, surrounded by the space-filling model of the protein. ... Lactase is a member of the β-galactosidase family of enzyme: enzymes that hydrolysis β 1,4 bonded attachments off of galactose. ... Lactose intolerance is the name given to the condition (found in the majority of humans) in which lactase, an enzyme needed for proper metabolization of lactose, is not produced in adulthood. ...

In the past, bromocriptine was sometimes used to reduce the engorgement experienced by many women during weaning. However, it was discovered that when used for this purpose, this medication posed serious health risks to women, such as stroke, and the U.S. FDA withdrew this indication for the drug in 1994.^[71] Bromocriptine is an ergoline derivative dopamine agonist that is used in the treatment of pituitary tumors and Parkinsons disease. ... Breast engorgement occurs in the mammary glands when too much breast milk is contained within them. ... For other uses, see Stroke (disambiguation). ... The United States Food and Drug Administration is the government agency responsible for regulating food, dietary supplements, drugs, cosmetics, medical devices, biologics and blood products in the United States. ...

History of breastfeeding

Famille d’un Chef Camacan se préparant pour une Fête ("Family of a Camacan chief preparing for a Festival") by Jean-Baptiste Debret shows a woman breastfeeding a child in the background.

Main article: History of breastfeeding

Prior to the twentieth century, alternatives to breastfeeding were rare. Attempts in 15th century Europe to use cow or goat's milk were not very positive. In the 18th century, flour or cereal mixed with broth were introduced as substitutes for breastfeeding, but this did not have a favorable outcome, either. True commercial infant formulas appeared on the market in the mid 19th Century but their use did not become widespread until after WWII. As the superior qualities of breast milk became better-established in medical literature, breastfeeding rates have increased and countries have enacted measures to protect the rights of infants and mothers to breastfeed. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Jean Baptiste Debret Jean-Baptiste Debret (1768-1848) was a French painter, who produced many valuable lithographs depicting the peoples of Brazil. ... For most of human history, breastfeeding has been the natural and normal means of feeding infants. ... An infant being fed by bottle. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000...

See also

• Baby-friendly hospital
• Baby-led weaning
• Breast shell
• Erotic lactation
• Human milk banking in North America
• Milk line
• Nursing chair

Baby-friendly hospital is a designation awarded by the World Health Organization and the United Nations Childrens Fund to hospitals worldwide that foster evidence based strategies concerning infant feeding. ... BLW redirects here. ... Breast shells are hollow plastic disks worn inside the brassiere to protect the nipple from becoming flattened. ... Erotic lactation means breastfeeding of an adult partner or re-lactation for primarily erotic reasons. ... According to a joint statement of WHO and UNICEF The best food for a baby who cannot be breastfed is milk expressed from the mother’s breast or from another healthy mother….The best food for any baby whose own mother’s milk is not available is the breastmilk of... The milk lines are two parallel lines, formed by thickenings of the epidermis along the ventral surface of mammals of both sexes. ... A Nursing chair is a low seated partially upholstered chair used at least since Victorian times for a womans use while nursing an infant. ...

Footnotes

A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 123rd day of the year (124th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 63rd day of the year (64th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 23rd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 23rd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... This article is about the branch of medicine. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 74th day of the year (75th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Dr. Katherine A. Dettwyler is an anthropology professor at Millersville University in Millersville, Pennsylvania and an adjunct professor at the University of Delaware. ... WHO redirects here. ... Year 2001 (MMI) was a common year starting on Monday (link displays the 2001 Gregorian calendar). ... is the 328th day of the year (329th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 72nd day of the year (73rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Dr. Jack Newman, MD (1946-) is a Canadian physician specializing in breastfeeding support and advocacy. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 146th day of the year (147th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 214th day of the year (215th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 236th day of the year (237th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 100th day of the year (101st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

References

• Hausman, Bernice (2003). Mother's Milk: Breastfeeding Controversies in American Culture. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-96656-6. 
• Huggins, Kathleen (1999). The Nursing Mother's Companion, 4th ed., Harvard Common Press. ISBN 1-55832-152-7. 
• Mohrbacher N, Stock J (2003). The Breastfeeding Answer Book. La Leche League International, Schaumburg, Illinois. ISBN 0-912500-92-1. 
• Stuart-Macadam P, Dettwyler K (1995). Breastfeeding: Biocultural Perspectives (Foundations of Human Behavior). Aldine de Gruyter. ISBN 0-202-01192-5. 
• Leeson C, Kattenhorn M, Deanfield J, Lucas A (2001). "Duration of breast feeding and arterial distensibility in early adult life: population based study". BMJ 322 (7287): 643-7. doi:10.1136/bmj.322.7287.643. PMID 11250848. 
• Health risks of not breastfeeding US Department of Health & Human Services

Dr. Katherine A. Dettwyler is an anthropology professor at Millersville University in Millersville, Pennsylvania and an adjunct professor at the University of Delaware. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ...

External links

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Breastfeeding

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• Human Milk Secretion: An Overview from the US National Institute of Health
• Reports regarding breastfeeding and U.S. law from the Congressional Research Service (CRS)
• Breast-Feeding Best Bet for Babies — U.S. Food and Drug Administration article
• [7] — Find useful information on pregnancy, baby, birth, breastfeeding, nursing rooms, child care, kindergartens