Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus
Emperor of the Roman Empire
Bust of Emperor Caligula in the Louvre
Reign	37–41 (Consul from 39)
Full name	Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus
Born	August 31, 12(12-08-31) AD
Died	January 24, 41 (aged 28) AD (age 29)
Predecessor	Tiberius
Successor	Claudius
Wife/wives	1) Junia Claudilla, 33 - 34
	2) Livia Orestilla, 37 or 38
	3) Lollia Paulina, 38
	4) Caesonia, ? - 41
Issue	Julia Drusilla
Dynasty	Julio-Claudian
Father	Germanicus
Mother	Agrippina the Elder

Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (August 31, 12 – January 24, 41), more commonly known by his nickname Caligula, was the third Roman Emperor and a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, ruling from 37 to 41 A.D. Caligula can refer to the following: Caligula -- Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus, a Roman Emperor Caligula (film), a 1979 film Caligula (play), a play written by Albert Camus. ... Ordinary Magistrates Extraordinary Magistrates Titles and Honors Emperor Politics and Law This article discusses the nature of the imperial dignity, and its dynastic development throughout the history of the Empire. ... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ... Bust of Gaius Caligula in the Louvre, Paris File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... This article is about the museum. ... Events March 18 - The Roman Senate annuls Tiberius will and proclaims Caligula Roman Emperor. ... Events January 24 - Roman Emperor Gaius Caesar (Caligula), known for his eccentricity and cruel despotism, is assassinated by his disgruntled Praetorian Guards. ... The List of Roman Consuls to the Death of Commodus 33 Imperator Caesar Divi filius II, L. Volcacius Tullus 32 Cn. ... is the 243rd day of the year (244th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... This article is about the year 12. ... is the 24th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events January 24 - Roman Emperor Gaius Caesar (Caligula), known for his eccentricity and cruel despotism, is assassinated by his disgruntled Praetorian Guards. ... For other persons named Tiberius, see Tiberius (disambiguation). ... For other persons named Claudius, see Claudius (disambiguation). ... Junia Claudilla (? - AD 34) was the first wife of the Roman Emperor Caligula. ... For other uses, see 33 (disambiguation). ... For alternate uses, see Number 34. ... Livia Orestilla was the second wife of the Roman Emperor Caligula. ... Events March 18 - The Roman Senate annuls Tiberius will and proclaims Caligula Roman Emperor. ... For alternate uses, see Number 38. ... Lollia Paulina was an Empress, and third wife to Emperor Caligula. ... For alternate uses, see Number 38. ... Milonia Caesonia (PIR2 M 590) (6-41) was a Roman Empress. ... Events January 24 - Roman Emperor Gaius Caesar (Caligula), known for his eccentricity and cruel despotism, is assassinated by his disgruntled Praetorian Guards. ... For the identically named daughter of Germanicus, see Drusilla (sister of Caligula). ... Template:Julio-Claudian Dynasty The Julio-Claudian Dynasty refers to the first five Roman Emperors: Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. ... Germanicus Julius Caesar Claudianus (24 May 15 BC–October 10, 19) was a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty of the early Roman Empire. ... Agrippina the Elder, wife of Germanicus (Vipsania) Agrippina (PIR1 V 463) 14 BC – 18 October AD 33), most commonly known as Agrippina Major or Agrippina the Elder, was one of the most prominent women in the Roman Empire in the early 1st century AD. She was the daughter of Marcus... is the 243rd day of the year (244th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... This article is about the year 12. ... is the 24th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events January 24 - Roman Emperor Gaius Caesar (Caligula), known for his eccentricity and cruel despotism, is assassinated by his disgruntled Praetorian Guards. ... Ordinary Magistrates Extraordinary Magistrates Titles and Honors Emperor Politics and Law This article discusses the nature of the imperial dignity, and its dynastic development throughout the history of the Empire. ... Template:Julio-Claudian Dynasty The Julio-Claudian Dynasty refers to the first five Roman Emperors: Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. ...

In general, only some details of his life are known. What is known, however, is that during his brief reign, Caligula focused much of his attention on ambitious construction projects and territorial expansion. He worked to increase the authority of the principate and struggled to maintain his position against several conspiracies to overthrow him. He was eventually assassinated in 41 by several of his own guards in a conspiracy involving the Roman Senate. The Principate is, according to its etymological derivation from the Latin word princeps, meaning chief or first, the political regime dominated by such a political leader, whether or not he is formally head of state and/or head of government. ... The Roman Senate (Latin: Senatus) was the main governing council of both the Roman Republic, which started in 509 BC, and the Roman Empire. ...

Though Caligula was popular with the Roman public throughout his reign, the scarce surviving sources focus upon anecdotes of his alleged cruelty, extravagance and sexual perversity, presenting him as an insane tyrant.

Family

See Julio-Claudian Family Tree.

Born as Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus on August 31, 12, at the resort of Antium.^[1] He was the third of six surviving children born to Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder.^[2] Gaius' brothers were Nero and Drusus.^[2] His sisters were Julia Livilla, Drusilla and Agrippina the Younger.^[2] Gaius was also nephew to Claudius (the future emperor).^[3] Template:Julio-Claudian Dynasty The Julio-Claudian Dynasty refers to the first five Roman Emperors: Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. ... For other persons named Octavian, see Octavian (disambiguation). ... For other Roman women named Julia Caesaris, see Julia Caesaris Julia the Elder (October 39 BC - AD 14), known to her contemporaries as Julia Caesaris filia or Julia Augusti filia (Classical Latin: IVLIA•CAESARIS•FILIA or IVLIA•AVGVSTI•FILIA[1]) was the daughter and only natural child of Augustus. ... Gaius Julius Caesar Vipsanianus (20 BC - AD 4), most commonly known as Gaius Caesar, was the oldest son of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder. ... Lucius Julius Caesar (17 BC-2 AD), most commonly known as Lucius Caesar, was the second son of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder. ... Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Postumus, (12 BC-14 AD) also known as Agrippa Postumus or Postumus Agrippa, was a son of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder. ... For other persons named Tiberius, see Tiberius (disambiguation). ... For other persons named Tiberius, see Tiberius (disambiguation). ... Drusus the Younger, son of Tiberius. ... Germanicus Julius Caesar Claudianus (24 May 15 BC–October 10, 19) was a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty of the early Roman Empire. ... For the identically named daughter of Germanicus, see Drusilla (sister of Caligula). ... Tiberius Gemellus, son of Drusus the Younger and Livilla Tiberius Julius Caesar Nero , known as Tiberius Gemellus, (10 October AD 19–AD 37 or 38) was the son of Drusus and Livilla, the grandson of Tiberius, and the cousin of Gaius Caligula. ... For other persons named Claudius, see Claudius (disambiguation). ... Antonia (30–66 AD) was Claudius only child from his second marriage to Aelia Paetina. ... Octavia was the name of three women of the Julio-Claudian Dynasty of ancient Rome: two were sisters of Augustus Caesar, and the younger was the daughter of Claudius and wife of Nero. ... Britannicus (41 - 55 A.D.) was the son of the Roman emperor Claudius and his third wife Messalina. ... For other uses, see Nero (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Nero (disambiguation). ... Claudia Augusta was the only daughter of the Roman Emperor Nero by his second wife Poppaea Sabina. ... The Julio-Claudian dynasty of the early Roman Empire has a family tree complicated by multiple marriages between the members of the gens Julia and the gens Claudia. ... is the 243rd day of the year (244th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... This article is about the year 12. ... Anzio (2003 pop. ... Germanicus Julius Caesar Claudianus (24 May 15 BC–October 10, 19) was a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty of the early Roman Empire. ... Agrippina the Elder, wife of Germanicus (Vipsania) Agrippina (PIR1 V 463) 14 BC – 18 October AD 33), most commonly known as Agrippina Major or Agrippina the Elder, was one of the most prominent women in the Roman Empire in the early 1st century AD. She was the daughter of Marcus... Nero Julius Caesar Germanicus (AD 6–AD 30) was a close relative to the Roman Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. ... Drusus Caesar , also referred to as Drusus III, (7 - 33 AD) was a member of a noble family of ancient Rome. ... Julia Livilla, daughter of Germanicus Julia Livilla or Julia Germanici filia (Lesbos, early 18 AD-Pandateria (?) late 41 or early 42 AD) was the youngest child of Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder and one of Caligulas sisters. ... This article is about the sister of the Roman Emperor Caligula. ... Julia Agrippina; known as Agrippina Minor (Latin for the ‘younger’, Classical Latin: IVLIA•AGRIPPINA; from the year 50, called IVLIA•AVGVSTA•AGRIPPINA[1], Greek: η Ιουλία Αγκιππίνη, November 6, 15 - between 19-23 March, 59), was a Roman Empress. ... For other persons named Claudius, see Claudius (disambiguation). ...

Gaius' father, Germanicus, was a prominent member of the Julio-Claudian family and was revered as one of the most beloved generals of the Roman Empire.^[4] He was the son of Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia Minor. Germanicus was grandson to Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia, as well as the adoptive grandson of Augustus.^[5] For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ... Bust of Nero Claudius Drusus, in the Musée du Cinquantinaire, Brussels Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus, born Decimus Claudius Drusus and variously called Drusus, Drusus I, Drusus Claudius Nero, or Drusus the Elder (14 January 38 - 9 BC) was the youngest son of Livia, wife of Augustus, and her first... Julia Antonia Cretica Minor (the younger) (31 January 36 BC - September/October 37 AD) or Antonia the Younger or simply known as Antonia. ... Tiberius Claudius Nero (c. ... Livia Drusilla, after 14 AD called Livia Augusta (Classical Latin: LIVIA•DRVSILLA, later LIVIA•AVGVSTA[1]) (58 BC-AD 29) was the wife of Caesar Augustus (also known as Octavian) and the most powerful woman in the early Roman Empire, acting several times as regent and being Augustus faithful advisor. ... For other persons named Octavian, see Octavian (disambiguation). ...

Agrippina the Elder was the daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder.^[2] She was also a granddaughter of Augustus and Scribonia.^[2] Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (c. ... For other Roman women named Julia Caesaris, see Julia Caesaris Julia the Elder (October 39 BC - AD 14), known to her contemporaries as Julia Caesaris filia or Julia Augusti filia (Classical Latin: IVLIA•CAESARIS•FILIA or IVLIA•AVGVSTI•FILIA[1]) was the daughter and only natural child of Augustus. ... Scribonia (70 BC/68 BC-16) was the daughter of Lucius Scribonius Libo and Cornelia Sulla, the granddaughter of Pompey the Great and Lucius Cornelius Sulla. ...

Early life

Travel with his father

A caliga.

As a boy of just two or three, Gaius accompanied his father, Germanicus, on military campaigns in the north of Germania and became the mascot of his father's army.^[6] The soldiers were amused that Gaius was dressed in a miniature soldier's uniform, including boots and armor.^[6] He was soon given his nickname Caligula, meaning "Little (Soldier's) boots" in Latin, after the small boots he wore as part of his uniform.^[7] Gaius, though, reportedly grew to dislike this nickname.^[8] Download high resolution version (3456x2304, 756 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Download high resolution version (3456x2304, 756 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Caligae (Latin; singular Caliga) are heavy military sandals as worn in ancient Rome. ... Germanicus Julius Caesar Claudianus (24 May 15 BC–October 10, 19) was a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty of the early Roman Empire. ... Map of the Roman Empire and the free Germania, Magna Germania, in the early 2nd century For other uses, see Germania (disambiguation). ...

At the age of seven, Caligula also accompanied Germanicus on his expedition to Syria.^[9] Upon return, Caligula's father died on October 10, 19. Suetonius claims that Germanicus was poisoned in Syria by an agent of Tiberius who viewed Germanicus as a political rival.^[10] is the 283rd day of the year (284th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For other uses, see number 19. ... Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus ( 69/75 - after 130), also known as Suetonius, was a prominent Roman historian and biographer. ... For other persons named Tiberius, see Tiberius (disambiguation). ...

Destruction of his family

After the death of his father, Caligula lived with his mother until relations between her and Tiberius deteriorated.^[9] Tiberius would not allow Agrippina to remarry for fear her husband would be a rival.^[11] Agrippina and Caligula's brother, Nero Caesar, were banished in 29 on charges of treason.^[12][13] The adolescent Caligula was then sent to live first with his great-grandmother, and Tiberius' mother, Livia.^[9] Following Livia's death, he was sent to live with his grandmother Antonia.^[9] In 30, his brother, Drusus Caesar, was imprisoned on charges of treason and his brother Nero died in exile from either starvation or suicide.^[14][13] Suetonius writes that after the banishment of his mother and brothers, Caligula and his sisters were nothing more than prisoners of Tiberius under close watch of soldiers.^[15] Nero Julius Caesar Germanicus (AD 6–AD 30) was a close relative to the Roman Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. ... 29 is my favourite colour!!!!!!!! Events Romans captured Sofia. ... Livia Drusilla, after 14 AD called Livia Augusta (Classical Latin: LIVIA•DRVSILLA, later LIVIA•AVGVSTA[1]) (58 BC-AD 29) was the wife of Caesar Augustus (also known as Octavian) and the most powerful woman in the early Roman Empire, acting several times as regent and being Augustus faithful advisor. ... Events The Sermon on the Mount (according to proponents of the 33 theory) April 7 - Crucifixion of Jesus (suggested date, but it is also suggested that he died on April 3, AD 33) Births Quintus Petillius Cerialis, brother-in-law of Vespasian Deaths April 7 - Judas Iscariot, disciple of Jesus... Drusus Caesar , also referred to as Drusus III, (7 - 33 AD) was a member of a noble family of ancient Rome. ...

Life under Tiberius

In 31, Caligula was remanded to the personal care of Tiberius on Capri, where he lived for six years.^[9] A surprise to many, Caligula was spared by Tiberius.^[16] According to historians, Caligula was an excellent natural actor and, recognizing danger, hid all his resentment towards Tiberius.^[17][9] An observer said of Caligula, "Never was there a better servant or a worse master!"^[9][17] Events Aelius Sejanus named co-Consul to the Emperor Tiberius Naevius Sutorius Macro becomes the leader of the Praetorian Guard after Sejanus is executed. ... For other uses, see Capri (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Actor (disambiguation). ...

In 33, Tiberius gave Caligula an honorary quaestorship, a position he held until his reign.^[18] Meanwhile, both Caligula's mother and brother, Drusus, died in prison.^[19][20] Caligula was briefly married to Junia Claudilla in 33, though she died in childbirth the following year.^[21] Caligula spent time befriending the Praetorian Prefect, Naevius Sutorius Macro, an important ally.^[21] Macro spoke well of Caligula to Tiberius, attemping to quell any ill will or suspicion the Emperor felt towards Caligula.^[22] For other uses, see 33 (disambiguation). ... Quaestores were elected officials of the Roman Republic who supervised the treasury and financial affairs of the state, its armies and its officers. ... Quintus Naevius Sutorius Macro (or Quintus Naevius Cordus Sutorius Macro) (21 BC - 38 AD) was the Prefect of the Roman Praetorian Guard after the execution of Aelius Sejanus in October, 31. ...

In 35, Caligula was named joint heir to the throne along with Tiberius Gemellus.^[23] For alternate uses, see Number 35. ... Tiberius Gemellus, son of Drusus the Younger and Livilla Tiberius Julius Caesar Nero , known as Tiberius Gemellus, (10 October AD 19–AD 37 or 38) was the son of Drusus and Livilla, the grandson of Tiberius, and the cousin of Gaius Caligula. ...

Emperor

Early reign

Caligula Depositing the Ashes of his Mother and Brother in the Tomb of his Ancestors, by Eustache Le Sueur, 1647

When Tiberius died on March 16, 37, his estate and the titles of the Principate were left to Caligula and Tiberius' own grandson, Gemellus, who were to serve as joint heirs. Despite Tiberius being 77 and on his death bed, some ancient historians still claim he was murdered.^[24][21] Tacitus writes that the Praetorian Prefect, Macro, smothered Tiberius with a pillow to hasten Caligula's accession, much to the joy of the Roman people,^[24] and Suetonius writes that Caligula may have carried out the killing.^[21] Philo and Josephus, though, record Tiberius dying a natural death.^[25] Backed by Macro, Caligula had Tiberius’ will nullified with regards to Gemellus on grounds of insanity, but otherwise carried out Tiberius' wishes.^[26] Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 448 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (747 × 1000 pixel, file size: 77 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 448 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (747 × 1000 pixel, file size: 77 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Eustache Le Sueur (November 19, 1617 - April 30, 1655), one of the founders of the French Academy of painting, was born at Paris, where he passed his whole life. ... March 16 is the 75th day of the year (76th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events March 18 - The Roman Senate annuls Tiberius will and proclaims Caligula Roman Emperor. ... The Principate is, according to its etymological derivation from the Latin word princeps, meaning chief or first, the political regime dominated by such a political leader, whether or not he is formally head of state and/or head of government. ... Tiberius Gemellus, son of Drusus the Younger and Livilla Tiberius Julius Caesar Nero , known as Tiberius Gemellus, (10 October AD 19–AD 37 or 38) was the son of Drusus and Livilla, the grandson of Tiberius, and the cousin of Gaius Caligula. ... For other uses, see Tacitus (disambiguation). ... Quintus Naevius Sutorius Macro (or Quintus Naevius Cordus Sutorius Macro) (21 BC - 38 AD) was the Prefect of the Roman Praetorian Guard after the execution of Aelius Sejanus in October, 31. ... Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus ( 69/75 - after 130), also known as Suetonius, was a prominent Roman historian and biographer. ... Philo (20 BC - 50 AD), known also as Philo of Alexandria and as Philo Judaeus And as Yedidia, was a Hellenized Jewish philosopher born in Alexandria, Egypt. ... A fanciful representation of Flavius Josephus, in an engraving in William Whistons translation of his works Josephus (37 – sometime after 100 CE),[1] who became known, in his capacity as a Roman citizen, as Titus Flavius Josephus,[2] was a 1st-century Jewish historian and apologist of priestly and...

Caligula accepted the powers of the Principate as conferred by the Senate and entered Rome on March 28 amid a crowd that hailed him as "our baby" and "our star," among other nicknames.^[27] Caligula is described as the first emperor who was admired by everyone in "all the world, from the rising to the setting sun."^[28] Caligula was loved by many for being the beloved son of the popular Germanicus,^[27] but also because he was not Tiberius.^[29] It was also said by Suetonius that over one-hundred and sixty thousand animals were sacrificed during three months of public rejoicing to usher in his reign.^[30][31] Philo describes the first seven months of Caligula's reign as completely blissful.^[32] The Roman Senate (Latin: Senatus) was the main governing council of both the Roman Republic, which started in 509 BC, and the Roman Empire. ... is the 87th day of the year (88th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Germanicus Julius Caesar Claudianus (24 May 15 BC–October 10, 19) was a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty of the early Roman Empire. ... For other persons named Tiberius, see Tiberius (disambiguation). ...

Caligula's first acts were said to be generous in spirit, though many were political in nature.^[26] To gain support, he granted bonuses to those in the military including the Praetorian Guard, city troops and the army outside of Italy.^[26] He destroyed Tiberius' treason papers, declared that treason trials were a thing of the past and recalled exiles.^[33] He helped those who had been harmed by the Imperial tax system, banished sex offenders from the empire and put on lavish spectacles for the public, such as gladiator battles.^[34][35] Caligula also collected and brought back the bones of his mother and of his brothers and deposited their remains in the tomb of Augustus.^[36] The Praetorian Guard of Augustus - 1st century. ... For other uses, see Treason (disambiguation) or Traitor (disambiguation). ... “Taxes” redirects here. ...

Illness, conspiracies and a change in attitude

Following an auspicious start to his reign, Caligula fell seriously ill in October of 37. Philo is the sole historian to describe this illness,^[37] though Cassius Dio mentions it in passing.^[38] Philo claims that Caligula’s increased bath-taking, drinking, and sex after becoming emperor caused him to catch the virus.^[39] It was said that the entire empire was paralyzed with sadness and sympathy over Caligula’s affliction.^[40] Caligula completely recovered from this illness, but Philo highlights Caligula's near-death experience as a turning point in his reign.^[41] There is some debate if and when a change in Caligula occurred. Josephus claims that Caligula was a noble and moderate ruler for the first two years of his rule before a turn for the worse occurred.^[42] Philo (20 BC - 50 AD), known also as Philo of Alexandria and as Philo Judaeus And as Yedidia, was a Hellenized Jewish philosopher born in Alexandria, Egypt. ... Cassius Dio Cocceianus (ca. ... A fanciful representation of Flavius Josephus, in an engraving in William Whistons translation of his works Josephus (37 – sometime after 100 CE),[1] who became known, in his capacity as a Roman citizen, as Titus Flavius Josephus,[2] was a 1st-century Jewish historian and apologist of priestly and...

Shortly after recovering from his illness, Caligula had several loyal individuals killed who had promised their lives for his in the event of a recovery.^[43] Caligula had his wife banished and his father-in-law, Marcus Silanus, and his cousin, Tiberius Gemellus, were forced to commit suicide.^[44][43] Tiberius Gemellus, son of Drusus the Younger and Livilla Tiberius Julius Caesar Nero , known as Tiberius Gemellus, (10 October AD 19–AD 37 or 38) was the son of Drusus and Livilla, the grandson of Tiberius, and the cousin of Gaius Caligula. ...

There is evidence that the deaths of Silanus and Gemellus were prompted by plots to overthrow Caligula. Philo claims Gemellus, in line to become emperor, plotted against Caligula while he was ill.^[45] Silanus, prior to killing himself, was formally put on trial by Caligula.^[46] Julius Graecinus was ordered to prosecute Silanus, but refused and was executed as well.^[46] It is unknown if the plans of Gemellus and Silanus were related or separate. Suetonius claims that the plots were nothing more than Caligula's imagination.^[47] Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus ( 69/75 - after 130), also known as Suetonius, was a prominent Roman historian and biographer. ...

Public reform

Quadran celebrating the abolishment of a tax in 38 CE by Caligula. The obverse of the coin contains a picture of the liberty cap which refers the liberation of the people from the tax burden.

In 38, Caligula focused his attention on political and public reform. He published the accounts of public funds, which had not been made public during the reign of Tiberius. He aided those who lost property in fires, abolishing certain taxes and gave out prizes to the public and gymnastic events. He also allowed new members into the equestrian and senatorial orders.^[48] Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... The quadrans (literally meaning a a quarter) was low value Roman bronze coin worth 1/4th of an as. ... For alternate uses, see Number 38. ...

Perhaps most significantly, he restored the practice of democratic elections.^[49] Cassius Dio said that this act "though delighting the rabble, grieved the sensible, who stopped to reflect, that if the offices should fall once more into the hands of the many ... many disasters would result".^[50] Cassius Dio Cocceianus (ca. ...

During the same year, though, Caligula also was criticized for executing people without full trials. The most significant execution was that of Macro, to whom, in many ways, Caligula owed his status as emperor.^[38]

Financial crisis and famine

According to Cassius Dio, a financial crisis emerged in 39.^[38] Suetonius claims that this crisis began in 38.^[51] Caligula’s political payments for support, generosity and extravagance had exhausted the state’s treasury. Ancient historians claim that Caligula began falsely accusing, fining and even killing individuals for the purpose of seizing their estates.^[52] A number of other desperate measures by Caligula are described by historians. In order to gain funds, Caligula asked the public to lend the state money.^[53] Caligula levied taxes on lawsuits, marriage and prostitution.^[54] Caligula began auctioning the lives of the gladiators at shows.^[52][55] Wills that left items to Tiberius were interpreted now to leave the items to Caligula.^[56] Centurions who had acquired property during plundering were forced to turn over spoils to the state.^[56] The current and past highway commissioners were accused of incompetence and embezzlement and forced to repay money.^[56] Cassius Dio Cocceianus (ca. ... Events Roman Empire Tigellinus, minister and favorite of the later Roman emperor Nero, is banished for adultery with Caligulas sisters. ... Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus ( 69/75 - after 130), also known as Suetonius, was a prominent Roman historian and biographer. ... For alternate uses, see Number 38. ...

The Vatican Obelisk was first brought from Egypt to Rome by Caligula. It was the centerpiece of a large racetrack he built.

A brief famine of an unknown size occurred, perhaps caused by this financial crisis. Suetonius claims that it was from public carriages being seized by Caligula.^[52] Seneca claims grain imports were disturbed by Caligula using boats for a pontoon bridge.^[57] Image File history File links Metadata No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links Metadata No higher resolution available. ...

Construction

Despite financial difficulties, Caligula embarked on a number of construction projects during his reign. Some were for the public good while others were for himself.

Josephus claims Caligula's greatest contribution was having the harbours at Rhegium and Sicily improved which allowed grain imports from Egypt to increase.^[58] These improvements may have been in response to the famine. A fanciful representation of Flavius Josephus, in an engraving in William Whistons translation of his works Josephus (37 – sometime after 100 CE),[1] who became known, in his capacity as a Roman citizen, as Titus Flavius Josephus,[2] was a 1st-century Jewish historian and apologist of priestly and... Categories: Italy-related stubs | Coastal cities | Towns in Calabria ... Sicily ( in Italian and Sicilian) is an autonomous region of Italy and the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 25,708 km² (9,926 sq. ...

Caligula completed the temple of Augustus and the theatre of Pompey and began an amphitheatre beside the Saepta.^[59] He also had the imperial palace expanded.^[60] He began the aqueducts Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus, which Pliny the Elder considered engineering marvels.^[61] He built a large racetrack known as the circus of Gaius and Nero and had an Egyptian obelisk (now known as the Vatican Obelisk) transported to Rome by sea and erected in the middle of it.^[62] At Syracuse, he repaired the city walls and the temples of the gods.^[59] He had new roads built and pushed to keep roads in good condition.^[63] He had planned to rebuild the palace of Polycrates at Samos, to finish the temple of Didymaean Apollo at Ephesus and to found a city high up in the Alps.^[59] He also planned to dig a canal through the Isthmus in Greece and sent a chief centurion to survey the work.^[59] Aqua Claudia (Latin, literally the Claudian water) was an aqueduct which like the Anio Novus was begun by Caligula in 38 A.D. and completed by Claudius in 52¹. Its main springs, the Caeruleus and Curtius, were situated 300 paces to the left of the thirty-eighth milestone of the... Anio Novus (named after a river Anio at the forty-second mile of the Via Sublacensis from which the water was taken originally) is an aqueduct, which, like the Aqua Claudia, was begun by Caligula in 38 A.D.¹ and completed in 52 by Claudius, who dedicated them both on... Pliny the Elder: an imaginative 19th Century portrait. ...

The hull of one of two ships recovered from Lake Nemi during the 1930s. This massive vessel served as an elaborate floating palace to the emperor.

In 39, Caligula performed a spectacular stunt by ordering a temporary floating bridge to be built using ships as pontoons, stretching for over two miles from the resort of Baiae to the neighboring port of Puteoli.^[64] It was said that the bridge was to rival that of Persian King Xerxes' crossing of the Hellespont.^[64] Caligula, a man who could not swim,^[65] then proceeded to ride his favorite horse, Incitatus, across, wearing the breastplate of Alexander the Great.^[64] This act was in defiance of Tiberius' soothsayer Thrasyllus of Mendes prediction that he had "no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Bay of Baiae".^[64] Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Lake Nemi (Latin: Nemorensis Lacus) is a small circular volcanic lake in the Lazio region of Italy 30 kilometers south of Rome, taking its name from Nemi, the largest town in the area, that overlooks it from a height. ... The hull of one of the two ships recovered from Lake Nemi. ... Events Roman Empire Tigellinus, minister and favorite of the later Roman emperor Nero, is banished for adultery with Caligulas sisters. ... Pontoon bridge across the James River at Richmond, Virginia, 1865. ... For the car body style, see Ponton (automobile). ... Baiae (Italian: Baia), in the Campania region of Italy on the Bay of Naples, today a frazione of the comune of Bacoli, was for several hundred years a fashionable and luxurious coastal resort, especially towards the end of the period of the Roman Republic. ... Puteoli, the ancient predecessor of Pozzuoli, was an Italian city of Roman times on the coast of Campania, on the north shore of a bay running north from the Bay of Naples. ... Incitatus was the name of Roman emperor Caligulas favored horse. ... For the film of the same name, see Alexander the Great (1956 film). ... Thrasyllus of Mendes was an Egyptian astrologer, astronomer and mathematician who lived during the reign of the Emperor Tiberius, whom he served. ...

Caligula also had two large ships constructed for himself. These two sunken ships were found at the bottom of Lake Nemi. The ships are among the largest vessels in the ancient world. The smaller of the ships was designed as a temple dedicated to Diana. The larger ship was essentially an elaborate floating palace that counted marble floors and plumbing among its amenities. The hull of one of the two ships recovered from Lake Nemi. ... Lake Nemi (Latin: Nemorensis Lacus) is a small circular volcanic lake in the Lazio region of Italy 30 kilometers south of Rome, taking its name from Nemi, the largest town in the area, that overlooks it from a height. ... Diana can refer to: In royalty: Diana, Princess of Wales, the first wife of HRH The Prince of Wales In mythology: Diana (mythology), Ancient Roman Goddess of the moon, the hunt, and chastity People bearing the name: Diana, Iranian-Norwegian model and pornographic actress Diana Muldaur, American television and film...

Feud with the Senate

In 39, relations between Caligula and the Roman Senate deteriorated.^[66] On what they disagreed is unknown. A number of factors, though, aggravated this feud. Prior to Caligula's appointment, The Roman Senate was accustomed to ruling without an emperor in Rome since Tiberius' departure for Capri in 26.^[67] Additionally, Tiberius' treason trials had eliminated a number of pro-Julian senators such as Gallus Asinius.^[68] Events Roman Empire Tigellinus, minister and favorite of the later Roman emperor Nero, is banished for adultery with Caligulas sisters. ... For other persons named Tiberius, see Tiberius (disambiguation). ... Events Pontius Pilate is appointed as Prefect of Judaea. ... Gaius Asinius Gallus was an ambitious Roman senator with family connections to the Julio-Claudian house. ...

Caligula reviewed Tiberius' records of treason trials and decided that numerous senators, based on their actions during these trials, were not trustworthy.^[66] He ordered a new set of investigations and trials.^[66] He replaced the consul and had several senators put to death.^[69] Suetonius claims that other senators were degraded by being forced to wait on him and run beside his chariot.^[69] Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus ( 69/75 - after 130), also known as Suetonius, was a prominent Roman historian and biographer. ...

Soon after his break with the Senate, Caligula was met with a number of additional conspiracies against him.^[70] A conspiracy involving his brother-in-law, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, was foiled in late 39.^[70] Soon after, the governor of Germany, Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus, was executed for connections to a conspiracy.^[70] Events Roman Empire Tigellinus, minister and favorite of the later Roman emperor Nero, is banished for adultery with Caligulas sisters. ... This article should belong in one or more categories. ...

Western expansion

In 40, Caligula expanded the Roman Empire into Mauretania and made a significant attempt at expanding into Britannia. The later action was fully realized by Rome under Claudius. Events Roman Empire Caligula embarks on a campaign to conquer Britain, and fails miserably. ... In Antiquity, Mauretania was originally an independent Berber kingdom on the Mediterranean coast of north Africa (named after the Maure tribe, after whom the Moors were named), corresponding to western Algeria, and northern Morocco. ... For other uses, see Britannia (disambiguation). ... For other persons named Claudius, see Claudius (disambiguation). ...

Mauretania was a client kingdom of Rome ruled by Ptolemy of Mauretania. Caligula invited Ptolemy to Rome and then had him suddenly executed.^[71] Mauretania was annexed by Caligula and divided into two provinces.^[72] This annexation of Mauretania led to a rebellion of some magnitude that was put down under Claudius.^[73] Details on these events are unclear. Cassius Dio had written an entire chapter on the annexation of Mauretania by Caligula, but it is now lost.^[74] Bust of Ptolemy of Mauretania, c. ... For other persons named Claudius, see Claudius (disambiguation). ... Cassius Dio Cocceianus (ca. ...

There also seemed to be a northern campaign to Britannia that was aborted.^[74] This campaign is derided by ancient historians with accounts of Gauls dressed up as Germanic tribesmen at his triumph and Roman troops ordered to collect sea-shells as "spoils of the sea".^[75] Due to the lack of sources, what precisely occurred and why is a matter of debate even among the primary sources for Caligula's reign. Modern historians have put forward numerous theories in an attempt to explain these actions. This trip to the English Channel could have merely been a training and scouting mission.^[76] The mission may have been to accept the surrender of the British chieftain Adminius.^[77] It is possible that his troops refused to embark on a mission across the channel and hence Caligula ordered them to collect seashells as a sarcastic reward.^[78] "Seashells", or conchae in Latin, may be a metaphor for something else such as female genitalia (perhaps the troops visited brothels) or boats (perhaps they captured several small British boats).^[79] Gaul (Latin: ) was the name given,in ancient times, to the region of Western Europe comprising present-day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Switzerland and the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine river. ... Adminius was a son of Cunobelinus, ruler of the Catuvellauni, a tribe of Iron Age Britain. ...

Acting like a god

Ruins of the temple of Castor and Pollux in the Forum Romanum. Ancient resources as well as recent archeological evidence suggest that, at one point, Caligula had the palace extended to annex this structure.

In 40, Caligula began implementing very controversial policies that introduced religion into his political role. Caligula began appearing in public dressed as various gods and demigods such as Hercules, Mercury, Venus and Apollo.^[80] Reportedly, he began referring to himself as a god when meeting with politicians and he was referred to as Jupiter on occasion in public documents.^[81][82] A sacred precinct was set apart for his worship at Miletus in the province of Asia and two temples were erected for worship of him in Rome.^[82] The Temple of Castor and Pollux on the Forum was linked directly to the Imperial residence on the Palatine and dedicated to Caligula.^[82][83] He would appear here on occasion and present himself as a god to the public. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1218x1933, 1379 KB) File links The following pages link to this file: Temple of Castor and Pollux Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1218x1933, 1379 KB) File links The following pages link to this file: Temple of Castor and Pollux Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. ... The Roman Forum (Forum Romanum) was a central area of ancient Rome in which commerce, business, trading and the administration of justice took place. ... Events Roman Empire Caligula embarks on a campaign to conquer Britain, and fails miserably. ... For other uses, see Hercules (disambiguation). ... A sculpture of the Roman god Mercury by 17th-century Flemish artist Artus Quellinus. ... Marble Venus of the Capitoline Venus type, Roman (British Museum) Venus was a major Roman goddess principally associated with love and beauty, the rough equivalent of the Greek goddess Aphrodite. ... For other uses, see Apollo (disambiguation). ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Caligula's religious policy was a subtle, but important departure from the policy of his predecessors. According to Cassius Dio, living Emperors could be worshiped as divine in the east and dead Emperors could be worshiped as divine in Rome.^[84] Augustus also had the public worship his spirit on occasion, but Dio describes this as an extreme act that emperors generally shied away from.^[84] Caligula took things a step further and had those in Rome, including Senators, worship him as a physical living god.^[85] Cassius Dio Cocceianus (ca. ... For other persons named Octavian, see Octavian (disambiguation). ...

Eastern policy

Caligula needed to quell several riots and conspiracies in the eastern territories during his reign. Aiding him in his actions was his good friend, Herod Agrippa, who became governor of the territories of Batanaea and Trachonitis after Caligula became emperor in 37.^[86] This entry incorporates text from Eastons Bible Dictionary, 1897, with some modernisation. ... Events March 18 - The Roman Senate annuls Tiberius will and proclaims Caligula Roman Emperor. ...

The cause of tensions in the east was complicated, involving the spread of Greek culture, Roman law and the rights of Jews. Philo, though, placed the blame with Caligula and claimed that Caligula's desire to be worshiped was at odds with Jewish monotheism.^[87] He said that Caligula "regarded the Jews with most especial suspicion, as if they were the only persons who cherished wishes opposed to his."^[87] Philo (20 BC - 50 AD), known also as Philo of Alexandria and as Philo Judaeus And as Yedidia, was a Hellenized Jewish philosopher born in Alexandria, Egypt. ...

Caligula did not trust the prefect of Egypt, Aulus Avilius Flaccus. Flaccus had been loyal to Tiberius, had conspired against Caligula's mother and had connections with Egyptian separtists.^[88] In 38, Caligula sent Agrippa to Alexandria unannounced to check on Flaccus.^[89] According to Philo, the visit was met with jeers from the Greek population who saw Agrippa as the king of the Jews.^[90] Flaccus tried to placate both the Greek population and Caligula by having statues of the emperor placed in Jewish synagogues.^[91] As a result, riots broke out in city.^[92] Caligula responded by removing Flaccus from his position and executing him.^[93] For alternate uses, see Number 38. ...

In 39, Agrippa accused Herod Antipas, the tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, of planning a rebellion against Roman rule with the help of Parthia. Herod Antipas confessed and Caligula exiled him. Agrippa was rewarded with his territories and now controlled most of Judea. ^[42] Events Roman Empire Tigellinus, minister and favorite of the later Roman emperor Nero, is banished for adultery with Caligulas sisters. ... Herod Antipas (short for Antipatros) was an ancient leader (tetrarch, meaning ruler of a quarter) of Galilee and Perea. ... A tetrarch is a Greek term that strictly identifies one of four governors of a divided province. ... Galilee (Arabic al-jaleel الجليل, Hebrew hagalil הגליל), meaning circuit, is a large area overlapping with much of the North District of Israel. ... Perea (the country beyond), a portion of the kingdom of Herod the Great occupying the eastern side of the Jordan River valley, from about one third the way down from the Sea of Galilee to about one third the way down the eastern shore of the Dead Sea; it did... Parthia[1] (Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was a civilization situated in the northeast of modern Iran, but at its height covering all of Iran proper, as well as regions of the modern countries of Armenia, Iraq, Georgia, eastern Turkey, eastern Syria, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Pakistan, Kuwait, the Persian Gulf...

Riots again erupted in Alexandria in 40 between Jews and Greeks.^[94] Jews were accused of not honoring the emperor.^[95] Also, disputes occurred in the city of Jamnia.^[96] Jews were angered by the erection of a clay altar and destroyed it.^[96] In response, Caligula ordered the erection of a statue of himself in the Jewish Temple of Jerusalem.^[97] Events Roman Empire Caligula embarks on a campaign to conquer Britain, and fails miserably. ... The Jerusalem Temple (Hebrew: beit ha-mikdash) was the center of Israelite and Jewish worship, primarily for the offering of sacrifices known as the korbanot. ...

Fearing civil war if the order were carried out, it was delayed for nearly a year by the governor of Syria, Publius Petronius.^[98] Agrippa finally convinced Caligula to reverse the order.^[99] A Roman governor was an official either elected or appointed to be the chief adminstator of Roman law throughout one or more of Ancient Romes many provinces. ...

Scandals

Roman sestertius depicting Caligula, c. 38. The reverse shows Caligula's three sisters, Agrippina, Drusilla and Iulia Livilla, with whom Caligula was rumoured to have carried on incestuous relationships.

Surviving sources present a number of outlandish stories about Caligula that attempt to illustrate cruelty, debauchery and insanity. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... The sestertius was an ancient Roman coin. ...

The contemporary sources, Philo of Alexandria and Seneca the Younger, describe an insane Emperor who was self-absorbed, angry, killed on a whim and who indulged in too much spending and sex.^[100] He is accused of sleeping with other men's wives and bragging about it,^[101] killing for mere amusement,^[102] purposely wasting money on his bridge, causing starvation,^[103] and wanting a statue of himself erected in the Temple of Jerusalem for his worship.^[97] Philo (20 BCE - 40 CE) was an Alexandrian Jewish philosopher born in Alexandria, Egypt. ... Bust, traditionally thought to be Seneca, now identified by some as Hesiod. ... The Jerusalem Temple (Hebrew: beit ha-mikdash) was the center of Israelite and Jewish worship, primarily for the offering of sacrifices known as the korbanot. ...

While repeating the earlier stories, the later sources of Suetonius and Cassius Dio add additional tales of insanity. They accuse Caligula of incest with his sisters; Agrippina, Drusilla and Julia Livilla, and say he prostituted them to other men.^[104] They claim he sent troops on illogical military exercises.^[105][74] They also allege he made the palace into a literal brothel.^[106] Perhaps most famous, they say that Caligula tried to make his horse, Incitatus, a consul and a priest.^[107] Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus ( 69/75 - after 130), also known as Suetonius, was a prominent Roman historian and biographer. ... Cassius Dio Cocceianus (ca. ... Julia Agrippina; known as Agrippina Minor (Latin for the ‘younger’, Classical Latin: IVLIA•AGRIPPINA; from the year 50, called IVLIA•AVGVSTA•AGRIPPINA[1], Greek: η Ιουλία Αγκιππίνη, November 6, 15 - between 19-23 March, 59), was a Roman Empress. ... This article is about the sister of the Roman Emperor Caligula. ... Julia Livilla, daughter of Germanicus Julia Livilla or Julia Germanici filia (Lesbos, early 18 AD-Pandateria (?) late 41 or early 42 AD) was the youngest child of Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder and one of Caligulas sisters. ... Incitatus was the name of Roman emperor Caligulas favored horse. ...

The validity of these claims is debatable. In Roman political culture, insanity and sexual perversity were often presented hand-in-hand with poor government.^[108]

Assassination and aftermath

Renaissance picture of Caligula.

Caligula's actions as Emperor were described as being especially harsh to the Senate, the nobility and the equestrian order.^[109] According to Josephus, these actions led to several failed conspiracies against Caligula.^[110] Eventually, a successful murder was planned by officers within the Praetorian Guard led by Cassius Chaerea.^[111] The plot is described as having been planned by three men, but many in the Senate, army and equestrian order were said to have been informed of it and involved in it.^[112] Image File history File links Cor-aabr001903. ... Image File history File links Cor-aabr001903. ... In a political sense, conspiracy refers to a group of persons united in the goal of usurping or overthrowing an established political power. ... The Praetorian Guard of Augustus - 1st century. ... Cassius Chaerea (fl. ...

According to Josephus, Chaerea had political motivations for the assassination.^[113] Suetonius, on the other hand, only claims Caligula called Chaerea derogatory names.^[114] Caligula considered Chaerea effeminate because of a weak voice and for not being firm with tax collection.^[115] Caligula would mock Chaerea with watchwords like "Priapus" and "Venus".^[116] Bronze sculpture of Priapus making an offering to his phallus, House of the Vettii, Pompeii Fresco of Priapus, House of the Vettii, Pompeii. ... Marble Venus of the Capitoline Venus type, Roman (British Museum) Venus was a major Roman goddess principally associated with love and beauty, the rough equivalent of the Greek goddess Aphrodite. ...

On January 24, 41, Chaerea and other guardsmen accosted Caligula while he was addressing an acting troupe of young men during a series of games and dramatics held for the Divine Augustus.^[117] Details on the events vary somewhat from source to source, but they agree that Chaerea was first to stab Caligula followed by a number of conspirators.^[118] Suetonius records that Caligula's death was similar to that of Julius Caesar. He claims that both the elder Gaius Julius Caesar (Julius Caesar) and the younger Gaius Julius Caesar (Caligula) were stabbed 30 times by conspirators led by a man named Cassius (Cassius Longinus and Cassius Charea).^[119] By the time Caligula's loyal Germanic guard responded, the emperor was already dead. The Germanic guard, stricken with grief and rage, responded with a rampaging attack on the assassins, conspirators, innocent senators and bystanders alike.^[120] is the 24th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events January 24 - Roman Emperor Gaius Caesar (Caligula), known for his eccentricity and cruel despotism, is assassinated by his disgruntled Praetorian Guards. ... For other uses, see Julius Caesar (disambiguation). ... Caius Cassius Longinus featured on a denarius (42 BC). ...

The Senate attempted to use Caligula's death as an opportunity to restore the Republic.^[121] Chaerea attempted to convince the military to support the Senate.^[122] The military, though, remained loyal to the office of the emperor.^[122] The grieving Roman people assembled and demanded that Caligula's murderers be brought to justice.^[123] Uncomfortable with lingering imperial support, the assassins sought out and stabbed Caligula's wife, Caesonia, and killed their infant daughter, Julia Drusilla, by smashing her head against a wall.^[124] They were unable to reach Caligula's uncle, Claudius, who was spirited out of the city to a nearby Praetorian camp.^[125] Claudius became emperor after procuring the support of the Praetorian guard and ordered the execution of Chaerea and any other known conspirators involved in the death of Caligula.^[126] Milonia Caesonia (PIR2 M 590) (6-41) was a Roman Empress. ... For the identically named daughter of Germanicus, see Drusilla (sister of Caligula). ... For other persons named Claudius, see Claudius (disambiguation). ...

Legacy

Historiography

The history of Caligula’s reign is extremely problematic. Only two sources have surived that were contemporary with Caligula— the works of Philo and Seneca. Philo’s works, On the Embassy to Gaius and Flaccus, give some details on Caligula’s early reign, but mostly focus on events surrounding the Jewish population in Judea and Egypt whom he sympathizes with. Seneca’s various works give mostly scattered anecdotes on Caligula’s personality. Seneca was almost put to death by Caligula in 39 likely due to his associations with conspirators.^[127] Philo (20 BC - 50 AD), known also as Philo of Alexandria and as Philo Judaeus And as Yedidia, was a Hellenized Jewish philosopher born in Alexandria, Egypt. ... Seneca may refer to: Roman figures (any links to Seneca in Roman pages should be relinked to one of these two) Marcus (or Lucius) Annaeus Seneca also called rhetor, Roman orator and father of Seneca the philosopher and dramatist. ... Events Roman Empire Tigellinus, minister and favorite of the later Roman emperor Nero, is banished for adultery with Caligulas sisters. ...

At one time, there were detailed contemporary histories on Caligula, but they are now lost. Additionally, the historians who wrote them are described as biased, either overly critical or praising of Caligula.^[128] Nonetheless, these lost primary sources, along with the works of Seneca and Philo, were the basis of surviving secondary and tertiary histories on Caligula written by the next generations of historians. A few of the contemporary historians are known by name. Fabius Rusticus and Cluvius Rufus both wrote condemning histories on Caligula that are now lost. Fabius Rusticus was a friend of Seneca who was known for historical embelishment and misrepresentation.^[129] Cluvius Rufus was a senator involved in the assassination of Caligula.^[130] Caligula’s sister, Agrippina the Younger, wrote an autobiography that certainly included a detailed explanation of Caligula’s reign, but it too is lost. Agrippina was banished by Caligula for her connection to Marcus Lepidus, who conspired against Caligula.^[131] The inheritance of Nero, Agrippina's son and the future emperor, was seized by Caligula. Gaetulicus, a poet, produced a number of flattering writings about Caligula, but they too are lost. Fabius Rusticus was a Roman historian who was quoted on several occasions by Tacitus. ... Cluvius Rufus was a Roman senator, governor and historian who was mentioned on several occasions by Tacitus, Suetonius, Josephus and Plutarch. ... Julia Agrippina; known as Agrippina Minor (Latin for the ‘younger’, Classical Latin: IVLIA•AGRIPPINA; from the year 50, called IVLIA•AVGVSTA•AGRIPPINA[1], Greek: η Ιουλία Αγκιππίνη, November 6, 15 - between 19-23 March, 59), was a Roman Empress. ... Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, or Marcus Aemilius L.f. ... For other uses, see Nero (disambiguation). ... This article should belong in one or more categories. ...

The bulk of what is known of Caligula comes from Suetonius and Cassius Dio, who were both of the Patrician class. Suetonius wrote his history on Caligula eighty years after his death, while Cassius Dio wrote his history over 180 years after Caligula’s death. Though Cassius Dio’s work is invaluable because it alone gives a loose chronology of Caligula’s reign, his surviving work is only a summary written by John Xiphilinus, an 11th century monk. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus ( 69/75 - after 130), also known as Suetonius, was a prominent Roman historian and biographer. ... Cassius Dio Cocceianus (ca. ... Joannes Xiphilinus, epitomator of Dio Cassius, lived at Constantinople during the latter half of the 11th century AD. He was a monk and the nephew of Patriarch John VIII of Constatinople, a well-known preacher (Migne, Patrologia Graeca, cxx. ...

A handful of other sources also add a limited perspective on Caligula. Josephus gives a detailed description of Caligula’s assassination. Tacitus provides some information on Caligula’s life under Tiberius. Tacitus, the most objective of ancient historians, did write a detailed history of Caligula, but this portion of his Annals is lost. Pliny the Elder’s Natural History also has a few brief references to Caligula. A fanciful representation of Flavius Josephus, in an engraving in William Whistons translation of his works Josephus (37 – sometime after 100 CE),[1] who became known, in his capacity as a Roman citizen, as Titus Flavius Josephus,[2] was a 1st-century Jewish historian and apologist of priestly and... For other uses, see Tacitus (disambiguation). ... For other persons named Tiberius, see Tiberius (disambiguation). ... Pliny the Elder: an imaginative 19th Century portrait. ...

There are few surviving sources on Caligula and no surviving source paints Caligula in a favorable light. The paucity and bias of sources has resulted in significant gaps in the reign of Caligula. Little is written on the first two years of Caligula’s reign. Additionally, there are only limited details on later significant events, such as the annexation of Mauretania, Caligula’s military actions in Britannia, and his feud with the Roman Senate. In Antiquity, Mauretania was originally an independent Berber kingdom on the Mediterranean coast of north Africa (named after the Maure tribe, after whom the Moors were named), corresponding to western Algeria, and northern Morocco. ... For other uses, see Britannia (disambiguation). ... The Roman Senate (Latin: Senatus) was the main governing council of both the Roman Republic, which started in 509 BC, and the Roman Empire. ...

The question of insanity

All surviving sources, except Pliny the Elder, claim Caligula was insane. It is not known whether they are speaking figuratively or literally, though. Additionally, given Caligula's unpopularity among the surviving sources, it is difficult to separate fact from fiction. Recent sources are divided in attempting to ascribe a medical reason for Caligula's behavior, citing as possibilities encephalitis, epilepsy or meningitis. The question of whether or not Caligula was insane remains unanswered. Pliny the Elder: an imaginative 19th Century portrait. ... Encephalitis is an acute inflammation of the brain, commonly caused by a viral infection. ... Meningitis is the inflammation of the protective membranes covering the central nervous system, known collectively as the meninges. ...

Bust of Caligula, 1st century.

Philo of Alexandria, Josephus and Seneca also claim Caligula was insane, but claim this madness was a personality trait that came through experience.^{[42][132][133]} Seneca claims that Caligula became arrogant, angry and insulting once becoming emperor and uses his personality flaws as examples his readers can learn from.^[134] Josephus claims power made Caligula incredibly conceited and led him to think he was a god.^[42] Philo of Alexandria reports that Caligula became ruthless after nearly dying of his illness in 39.^[135] Juvenal claims he was given a magic potion that drove him insane. Image File history File links Gaius_Caligula_Head. ... Image File history File links Gaius_Caligula_Head. ... The 1st century was that century that lasted from 1 to 100 according the Gregorian calendar. ... Philo (20 BCE - 40 CE) was an Alexandrian Jewish philosopher born in Alexandria, Egypt. ... A fanciful representation of Flavius Josephus, in an engraving in William Whistons translation of his works Josephus (37 – sometime after 100 CE),[1] who became known, in his capacity as a Roman citizen, as Titus Flavius Josephus,[2] was a 1st-century Jewish historian and apologist of priestly and... Seneca may refer to: Roman figures (any links to Seneca in Roman pages should be relinked to one of these two) Marcus (or Lucius) Annaeus Seneca also called rhetor, Roman orator and father of Seneca the philosopher and dramatist. ... Philo (20 BCE - 40 CE) was an Alexandrian Jewish philosopher born in Alexandria, Egypt. ... Woodcut of Juvenal from the Nuremberg Chronicle Decimus Iunius Iuvenalis, Anglicized as Juvenal, was a Roman satiric poet of the late 1st century and early 2nd century. ...

Epilepsy

Suetonius said that Caligula suffered from "falling sickness" when he was young.^[136] Modern historians have theorized that Caligula lived with a daily fear of seizures.^[137] Despite swimming being a part of imperial education, Caligula could not swim.^[138] Epileptics are encouraged not to swim because light reflecting off water can induce seizures.^[139] Additionally, Caligula reportedly talked to the full moon.^[140] Epilepsy was also long associated with the moon.^[141] Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus ( 69/75 - after 130), also known as Suetonius, was a prominent Roman historian and biographer. ... This article is about the neurological disorder as it affects humans. ...

Hyperthyroidism

Some modern historians claim that Caligula suffered from hyperthyroidism.^[142] This diagnosis is mainly attributed to Caligula's irritability and his "stare" as described by Pliny the Elder. Hyperthyroidism (or overactive thyroid gland) is the clinical syndrome caused by an excess of circulating free thyroxine (T4) or free triiodothyronine (T3), or both. ...

Ancestors

Germanicus Julius Caesar Claudianus (24 May 15 BC–October 10, 19) was a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty of the early Roman Empire. ... Bust of Nero Claudius Drusus, in the Musée du Cinquantinaire, Brussels Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus, born Decimus Claudius Drusus and variously called Drusus, Drusus I, Drusus Claudius Nero, or Drusus the Elder (14 January 38 - 9 BC) was the youngest son of Livia, wife of Augustus, and her first... Tiberius Claudius Nero (c. ... Livia Livia Drusa Augusta, Livia Drusilla, or Julia Augusta (58 BC-AD 29) was the wife of Caesar Augustus and the most powerful woman in Roman history, acting several times as regent and being Augustus faithful advisor. ... Julia Antonia Cretica Minor (the younger) (31 January 36 BC - September/October 37 AD) or Antonia the Younger or simply known as Antonia. ... Bust of Mark Antony Marcus Antonius (Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N[1]) ( January 14 83 BC – August 1, 30 BC), known in English as Mark Antony, was a Roman politician and general. ... Octavia Minor (69 - 11 BC), also known as Octavia the Younger or simply Octavia, was the sister of the first Roman Emperor, Augustus, and half sister of Octavia Thurina Major. ... Agrippina the Elder, wife of Germanicus (Vipsania) Agrippina (PIR1 V 463) 14 BC – 18 October AD 33), most commonly known as Agrippina Major or Agrippina the Elder, was one of the most prominent women in the Roman Empire in the early 1st century AD. She was the daughter of Marcus... Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (c. ... Lucius Vipsanius Agrippa is the father of Roman Politician and General Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and distinguished Roman woman Vipsania Polla. ... For other Roman women named Julia Caesaris, see Julia Caesaris Julia the Elder (October 39 BC - AD 14), known to her contemporaries as Julia Caesaris filia or Julia Augusti filia (Classical Latin: IVLIA•CAESARIS•FILIA or IVLIA•AVGVSTI•FILIA[1]) was the daughter and only natural child of Augustus. ... For other persons named Octavian, see Octavian (disambiguation). ... Scribonia (70 BC/68 BC-16) was the daughter of Lucius Scribonius Libo and Cornelia Sulla, the granddaughter of Pompey the Great and Lucius Cornelius Sulla. ...

Notes

A diminutive is a formation of a word used to convey a slight degree of the root meaning, smallness of the object or quality named, encapsulation, intimacy, or endearment. ... An infix is an affix inserted inside an existing word. ...

References

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Caligula

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Primary sources

• Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 59[1]
• Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, (trans. W.Whiston), Books XVIII–XIX [2]
• Philo of Alexandria, (trans. C.D.Yonge, London, H. G. Bohn, 1854–1890):
  • On the Embassy to Gaius [3]
  • Flaccus[4]
• Seneca the Younger
  • On Firmness [5]
  • On Anger [6]
  • To Marcia, On Consolation [7]
  • On Tranquility of Mind [8]
  • On the Shortness of Life [9]
  • To Polybius, On Consolation [10]
  • To Helvia, On Consolation [11]
  • On Benefits [12]
  • On the Terrors of Death (Epistle IV) [13]
  • On Taking One's Own Life (Epistle LXXVII) [14]
  • On the Value of Advice (Epistle XCIV) [15]
• Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula[16]
• Tacitus, Annals, Book 6 [17]

Cassius Dio Cocceianus (ca. ... A fanciful representation of Flavius Josephus, in an engraving in William Whistons translation of his works Josephus (37 – sometime after 100 CE),[1] who became known, in his capacity as a Roman citizen, as Titus Flavius Josephus,[2] was a 1st-century Jewish historian and apologist of priestly and... Philo (20 BCE - 40 CE) was an Alexandrian Jewish philosopher born in Alexandria, Egypt. ... Bust, traditionally thought to be Seneca, now identified by some as Hesiod. ... Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus ( 69/75 - after 130), also known as Suetonius, was a prominent Roman historian and biographer. ... For other uses, see Tacitus (disambiguation). ...

Secondary material

• Caligula: the corruption of power by Anthony A. Barrett (Batsford 1989) ISBN 0-7134-5487-3
• Grant, Michael, The Twelve Caesars. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1975
• Hurley, Donna W., An Historical and Historiographical Commentary on Suetonius' "Life of C. Caligula". Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press. 1993.
• Biography from De Imperatoribus Romanis
• Biography of Gaius Caligula
• Straight Dope article
• Caligula
• A chronological account of his reign
• A critical account of a number of his reported activities
• His genealogical tree
• Caligula at BBC History
• Official Film Site