Lactose is a disaccharide found in milk. It is pivotally composed of a molecule of β-D-galactose and a molecule of β-D-glucose bonded by a β1-4 glycosidic linkage.

Carbohydrates (from 'hydrates of carbon') or saccharides (Greek σάκχαρον meaning "sugar") are simple organic compounds that are aldehydes or ketones with many hydroxyl groups added, usually one on each carbon atom that is not part of the aldehyde or ketone functional group. Carbohydrates are the most abundant of the four major classes of biomolecules, which also include proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. They fill numerous roles in living things, such as the storage and transport of energy (starch, glycogen) and structural components (cellulose in plants, chitin in animals). Additionally, carbohydrates and their derivatives play major roles in the working process of the immune system, fertilization, pathogenesis, blood clotting, and development. Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Image File history File links Lactose_chaise. ... Image File history File links Lactose_chaise. ... Lactose is a disaccharide that consists of β-D-galactose and β-D-glucose molecules bonded through a β1-4 glycosidic linkage. ... Sucrose, a common disaccharide A disaccharide is a sugar (a carbohydrate) composed of two monosaccharides. ... A glass of cows milk. ... Galactose (also called brain sugar) is a type of sugar found in dairy products, in sugar beets and other gums and mucilages. ... Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. ... A glycosidic bond is formed between a hemiacetal group of a sugar molecule (such as glucose) and an alcohol functional group to form an acetal. ... Hydrate is a term which means different things in inorganic chemistry and organic chemistry. ... General Name, symbol, number carbon, C, 6 Chemical series nonmetals Group, period, block 14, 2, p Appearance black (graphite) colorless (diamond) Standard atomic weight 12. ... Magnification of grains of sugar, showing their monoclinic hemihedral crystalline structure. ... Benzene is the simplest of the arenes, a family of organic compounds An organic compound is any member of a large class of chemical compounds whose molecules contain carbon and hydrogen; therefore, carbides, carbonates, carbon oxides and elementary carbon are not organic (see below for more on the definition controversy... An aldehyde. ... Ketone group A ketone(key tone) is either the functional group characterized by a carbonyl group (O=C) linked to two other carbon atoms or a chemical compound that contains this functional group. ... // Hydroxyl group The term hydroxyl group is used to describe the functional group -OH when it is a substituent in an organic compound. ... In organic chemistry, functional groups (or moieties) are specific groups of atoms within molecules, that are responsible for the characteristic chemical reactions of those molecules. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin, showing coloured alpha helices. ... A polyunsaturated triglyceride. ... Look up nucleic acid in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Starch (CAS# 9005-25-8) is a complex carbohydrate which is insoluble in water; it is used by plants as a way to store excess glucose. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Cellulose as polymer of β-D-glucose Cellulose in 3D Cellulose (C6H10O5)n is a polysaccharide of beta-glucose. ... Structure of the chitin molecule, showing two of the N-Acetylglucosamine units that repeat to form long chains in beta-1,4 linkage. ... A scanning electron microscope image of a single neutrophil (yellow), engulfing anthrax bacteria (orange). ... Categories: Biology stubs ... Pathogenesis is the mechanism by which a certain etiological factor causes disease (pathos = disease, genesis = development). ... Coagulation is the thickening or congealing of any liquid into solid clots. ... Views of a Foetus in the Womb, Leonardo da Vinci, ca. ...

The basic carbohydrate units are called monosaccharides, such as glucose, galactose, and fructose. The general stoichiometric formula of an unmodified monosaccharide is (C·H₂O)_n, where n is any number of three or greater.^[1] Monosaccharides can be linked together in almost limitless ways. Two joined monosaccharides are called disaccharides, such as sucrose and lactose. Carbohydrates containing between about three to six monosaccharide units are termed oligosaccharides; anything larger than this is a polysaccharide. Polysaccharides, such as starch, glycogen, or cellulose, can reach many thousands of units in length. Many carbohydrates contain one or more modified monosaccharide units that have had one or more groups replaced or removed. For example, deoxyribose, a component of DNA, is a modified version of ribose; chitin is composed of repeating units of N-acetylglucosamine, a nitrogen-containing form of glucose. The names of carbohydrates often end in the suffix -ose. Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates. ... Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. ... Galactose (also called brain sugar) is a type of sugar found in dairy products, in sugar beets and other gums and mucilages. ... Fructose (or levulose) is a simple sugar (monosaccharide) found in many foods and is one of the three most important blood sugars along with glucose and galactose. ... It has been suggested that Stoichiometric coefficient and Gas stoichiometry be merged into this article or section. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Sucrose, a common disaccharide A disaccharide is a sugar (a carbohydrate) composed of two monosaccharides. ... Sucrose (common name: table sugar, also called saccharose) is a disaccharide (glucose + fructose) with the molecular formula C12H22O11. ... Lactose is a disaccharide that consists of β-D-galactose and β-D-glucose molecules bonded through a β1-4 glycosidic linkage. ... An oligosaccharide is a saccharide polymer containing a small number (typically three to six) of component sugars, also known as simple sugars. ... Polysaccharides (sometimes called glycans) are relatively complex carbohydrates. ... Starch (CAS# 9005-25-8) is a complex carbohydrate which is insoluble in water; it is used by plants as a way to store excess glucose. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Cellulose as polymer of β-D-glucose Cellulose in 3D Cellulose (C6H10O5)n is a polysaccharide of beta-glucose. ... Deoxyribose Deoxyribose, also known as D-Deoxyribose and 2-deoxyribose, is an aldopentose — a monosaccharide containing five carbon atoms, and including an aldehyde functional group. ... The structure of part of a DNA double helix Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is a nucleic acid molecule that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms. ... Ribose Ribose, primarily seen as D-ribose, is an aldopentose — a monosaccharide containing five carbon atoms, and including an aldehyde functional group. ... Structure of the chitin molecule, showing two of the N-Acetylglucosamine units that repeat to form long chains in beta-1,4 linkage. ... N-Acetylglucosamine (N-Acetyl-D-Glucosamine, or GlcNAc, or NAG) is a monosaccharide derivative of glucose. ... General Name, symbol, number nitrogen, N, 7 Chemical series nonmetals Group, period, block 15, 2, p Appearance colorless gas Standard atomic weight 14. ...

Monosaccharides

Main article: Monosaccharide

D-glucose is an aldohexose with the formula (C·H₂O)₆. The red atoms highlight the aldehyde group, and the blue atoms highlight the asymmetric center furthest from the aldehyde; because this -OH is on the right of the Fischer projection, this is a D sugar.

Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates in that they cannot be hydrolyzed to smaller carbohydrates. The general chemical formula of an unmodified monosaccharide is (C·H₂O)_n, where n is any number of three or greater. Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates. ... Image File history File links D-glucose_color_coded. ... Image File history File links D-glucose_color_coded. ... Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. ... An aldehyde. ... The term chiral (pronounced ) is used to describe an object which is non-superimposable on its mirror image. ... Fischer projection of D-glucose In chemistry (particularly organic chemistry and biochemistry), a Fischer projection is a two-dimensional representation of a three-dimensional organic molecule by projection. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ...

Classification of monosaccharides

Monosaccharides are classified according to three different characteristics: the placement of its carbonyl group, the number of carbon atoms it contains, and its chiral handedness. If the carbonyl group is an aldehyde, the monosaccharide is an aldose; if the carbonyl group is a ketone, the monosaccharide is a ketose. The smallest possible monosaccharide, those with three carbon atoms, are called trioses. Those with four are called tetroses, five are called pentoses, six are hexoses, and so on. These two systems of classification are often combined. For example, glucose is an aldohexose (a six-carbon aldehyde), ribose is an aldopentose (a five-carbon aldehyde), and fructose is a ketohexose (a six-carbon ketone). Carbonyl group In organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom : C=O. The term carbonyl can also refer to carbon monoxide as a ligand in an inorganic or organometallic complex (a metal carbonyl, e. ... General Name, symbol, number carbon, C, 6 Chemical series nonmetals Group, period, block 14, 2, p Appearance black (graphite) colorless (diamond) Standard atomic weight 12. ... The term chiral (pronounced ) is used to describe an object which is non-superimposable on its mirror image. ... An aldehyde. ... Fischer projection of D-glyceraldehyde An aldose is a monosaccharide (a certain type of sugar) containing one aldehyde group per molecule and having a chemical formula of the form CnH2nOn (n>=3). ... Ketone group A ketone(key tone) is either the functional group characterized by a carbonyl group (O=C) linked to two other carbon atoms or a chemical compound that contains this functional group. ... Fructose, an example of a ketose. ... A triose is a monosaccharide containing three carbon atoms. ... A tetrose is a monosaccharide with 4 carbon atoms. ... A pentose is a monosaccharide with five carbon atoms. ... A hexose is a monosaccharide with six carbon atoms having the chemical formula C6H12O6. ... Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. ... An aldohexose is a hexose with an aldehyde group on one end. ... Ribose Ribose, primarily seen as D-ribose, is an aldopentose — a monosaccharide containing five carbon atoms, and including an aldehyde functional group. ... Aldopentose is a type of aldose which have five carbon atoms in their carbon chain. ... Fructose (or levulose) is a simple sugar (monosaccharide) found in many foods and is one of the three most important blood sugars along with glucose and galactose. ... A ketohexose is a hexose with a keto group on one end. ...

Each carbon atom bearing a hydroxyl group (-OH), with the exception of the first and last carbons, are asymmetric, making them stereocenters with two possible configurations each (the -H and -OH may be on either side). Because of this asymmetry, a number of isomers may exist for any given monosaccharide formula. The aldohexose D-glucose, for example, has the formula (C·H₂O)₆, of which all but two of its six carbons atoms are chiral centers, making D-glucose one of 2⁴ = 16 possible stereoisomers. In the case of glyceraldehyde, an aldotriose, there is one pair of possible stereoisomers, which are enantiomers and epimers (1,3-dihydroxyacetone, the corresponding ketose is a symmetric molecule with no stereocenters). The assignment of D or L is made according to the orientation of the asymmetric carbon furthest from the carbonyl group: if the hydroxyl group is on the right the molecule is a D sugar, otherwise it is an L sugar. Because D sugars are biologically far more common, the D is often omitted. Hydroxide is a functional group consisting of oxygen and hydrogen: -O−H It has a charge of 1-. The term hydroxyl group is used when the functional group -OH is counted as a substituent of an organic compound. ... The term chiral (pronounced ) is used to describe an object which is non-superimposable on its mirror image. ... In chemistry a stereogenic center is often mistaken for a chiral center. ... In chemistry, isomers are molecules with the same chemical formula and often with the same kinds of chemical bonds between atoms, but in which the atoms are arranged differently (analogous to a chemical anagram). ... Stereoisomerism is the arrangement of atoms in molecules whose connectivity remains the same but their arrangement in space is different in each isomer. ... Fischer projection of D-glyceraldehyde Glyceraldehyde is a triose monosaccharide with chemical formula C3H6O3. ... In chemistry two stereoisomers are said to be enantiomers if one can be superimposed on the mirror image of the other, and vice versa. ... In chemistry, an epimer is a stereoisomer that has a different configuration at only one of several stereogenic centers. ... Fischer projection of dihydroxyacetone Dihydroxyacetone (also know as DHA) is a triose carbohydrate with chemical formula C3H6O3. ...

Conformation

Pyran and furan, after which the pyranose and furanose configurations of monosaccharides are named.

The aldehyde or ketone group of a straight-chain monosaccharide will react reversibly with a hydroxyl group on a different carbon atom to form a hemiacetal or hemiketal, forming a heterocyclic ring with an oxygen bridge between two carbon atoms. Rings with five and six atoms are called furanose and pyranose forms, respectively, and exist in equilibrium with the straight-chain form. Image File history File links Pyran_and_furan. ... Image File history File links Pyran_and_furan. ... Glucose in its alpha-D-glucopyranose form Pyranose is a collective term for carbohydrates which have a chemical structure that includes a six-membered ring consisting of five carbons and one oxygen. ... A furanose is a simple sugar that contains a furan ring and is a sub-terminal ketone which gives it reducing power. ... A hemiacetal is a functional group or compound containing the function group in the form of: where R and R are any carbon backbones. ... A hemiacetal is a functional group or compound containing the function group in the form of: where R and R are any carbon backbones. ... Heterocyclic compounds are substances which contain a ring structure as found in benzene and the aromatic compounds, or aromatic hydrocarbons, but in which other atoms than carbon, such as sulfur, oxygen or nitrogen are found as part of the ring. ... A furanose is a simple sugar that contains a furan ring and is a sub-terminal ketone which gives it reducing power. ... Glucose in its alpha-D-glucopyranose form Pyranose is a collective term for carbohydrates which have a chemical structure that includes a six-membered ring consisting of five carbons and one oxygen. ...

During the conversion from straight-chain form to cyclic form, the carbon atom containing the carbonyl oxygen, called the anomeric carbon, becomes a chiral center with two possible configurations: the oxygen atom may take a position either above or below the plane of the ring. The resulting possible pair of stereoisomers are called anomers. In the α anomer, the -OH substituent on the anomeric carbon rests on the opposite side (trans) of the ring from the CH₂OH side branch. The alternative form, in which the CH₂OH substituent and the anomeric hydroxyl are on the same side (cis) of the plane of the ring, is called the β anomer. Because the ring and straight-chain forms readily interconvert, both anomers exist in equilibrium. It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Anomer. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Anomeric carbon. ... Cis-2-butene Trans-2-butene In chemistry, geometric isomerism or cis-trans isomerism is a form of stereoisomerism and describes the orientation of functional groups at the ends of a bond around which no rotation is possible. ... Apparatus for carrying out acid-base titration. ...

Use in cells

Monosaccharides are the major source of fuel for metabolism, being used both as an energy source (glucose being the most important in nature) and in biosynthesis. When monosaccharides are not needed by cells they are quickly converted into another form, such as polysaccharides. A few of the metabolic pathways in a cell. ... Biosynthesis is a phenomenon where chemical compounds are produced from simpler reagents. ...

Disaccharides

Sucrose, also known as table sugar, is a common disaccharide. It is composed of two linked monosaccharides: glucose (left) and fructose (right).

Main article: Disaccharide

Disaccharides are the simplest polysaccharides. They are composed of two monosaccharide units bound together by a covalent bond known as a glycosidic linkage formed via a dehydration reaction, resulting in the loss of a hydrogen atom from one monosaccharide and a hydroxyl group from the other, so the formula of unmodified disaccharides is C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁. Although there are numerous kinds of disaccharides, a handful of disaccharides are particularly notable. Image File history File links Saccharose. ... Image File history File links Saccharose. ... Sucrose (common name: table sugar, also called saccharose) is a disaccharide (glucose + fructose) with the molecular formula C12H22O11. ... Magnification of grains of sugar, showing their monoclinic hemihedral crystalline structure. ... Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. ... Fructose (or levulose) is a simple sugar (monosaccharide) found in many foods and is one of the three most important blood sugars along with glucose and galactose. ... Sucrose, a common disaccharide A disaccharide is a sugar (a carbohydrate) composed of two monosaccharides. ... Covalent bonding is a form of chemical bonding characterized by the sharing of one or more pairs of electrons between atoms, in order to produce a mutual attraction, which holds the resultant molecule together. ... A glycosidic bond is formed between a hemiacetal group of a sugar molecule (such as glucose) and an alcohol functional group to form an acetal. ... In chemistry, a dehydration reaction is a chemical reaction that involves the loss of water from the reacting molecule. ... General Name, Symbol, Number hydrogen, H, 1 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 1, 1, s Appearance colorless Atomic mass 1. ... Hydroxide is a functional group consisting of oxygen and hydrogen: -O−H It has a charge of 1-. The term hydroxyl group is used when the functional group -OH is counted as a substituent of an organic compound. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ...

Sucrose, pictured to the right, is the most abundant disaccharide and the main form in which carbohydrates are transported in plants. It is composed of one glucose molecule and one fructose molecule. The systematic name for sucrose, O-α-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-D-fructofuranoside, indicates four things: Sucrose (common name: table sugar, also called saccharose) is a disaccharide (glucose + fructose) with the molecular formula C12H22O11. ... For other uses, see Plant (disambiguation). ... Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. ... Fructose (or levulose) is a simple sugar (monosaccharide) found in many foods and is one of the three most important blood sugars along with glucose and galactose. ... There are millions of possible objects that can be described in science, too many to create common names for every one. ...

• Its monosaccharides: glucose and fructose
• Their ring types: glucose is a pyranose, and fructose is a furanose
• How they are linked together: the oxygen on the number 1 carbon (C1) of α-glucose is linked to the C2 of fructose.
• The -oside suffix indicates that the anomeric carbon of both monosacchaides participates in the glycosidic bond.

Lactose, a disaccharide composed of one galactose molecule and one glucose molecule, occurs naturally only in milk. The systematic name for lactose is O-β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1→4)-D-glucopyranose. Other notable disaccharides include maltose (two glucoses linked α-1,4) and cellobiose (two glucoses linked β-1,4). Glucose in its alpha-D-glucopyranose form Pyranose is a collective term for carbohydrates which have a chemical structure that includes a six-membered ring consisting of five carbons and one oxygen. ... A furanose is a simple sugar that contains a furan ring and is a sub-terminal ketone which gives it reducing power. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Anomer. ... Lactose is a disaccharide that consists of β-D-galactose and β-D-glucose molecules bonded through a β1-4 glycosidic linkage. ... Galactose (also called brain sugar) is a type of sugar found in dairy products, in sugar beets and other gums and mucilages. ... Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. ... A glass of cows milk. ... There are millions of possible objects that can be described in science, too many to create common names for every one. ... α-Maltose Maltose (also: malt sugar, di-glucose) is a disaccharide with the molecular formula C12H22O11. ... A disaccharide subunit of cellulose composed of two glucose molecules linked in a β(1→4) bond; which can only be hydrolyzed by bacteria. ...

Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides

Amylose is a linear polymer of glucose mainly linked with α(1→4) bonds. It can be made of several thousands of glucose units. It is one of the two components of starch, the other being amylopectin.

Main articles: Oligosaccharide and Polysaccharide

Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides are composed of longer chains of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic bonds. The distinction between the two is based upon the number of monosaccharide units present in the chain. Oligosaccharides typically contain between two and nine monosaccharide units, and polysaccharides contain greater than ten monosaccharide units. Definitions of how large a carbohydrate must be to fall into each category vary according to personal opinion. Examples of oligosaccharides include the disaccharides mentioned above, the trisaccharide raffinose and the tetrasaccharide stachyose. Image File history File links Amylose. ... Image File history File links Amylose. ... Amylose (CAS# 9005-82-7) is a linear polymer of glucose linked with mainly α(1→4) bonds. ... A polymer (from Greek: πολυ, polu, many; and μέρος, meros, part) is a substance composed of molecules with large molecular mass composed of repeating structural units, or monomers, connected by covalent chemical bonds. ... Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. ... Starch (CAS# 9005-25-8) is a complex carbohydrate which is insoluble in water; it is used by plants as a way to store excess glucose. ... Amylopectin is a highly branched polymer of glucose found in plants. ... An oligosaccharide is a saccharide polymer containing a small number (typically three to six) of component sugars, also known as simple sugars. ... Polysaccharides (sometimes called glycans) are relatively complex carbohydrates. ... Raffinose is a complex carbohydrate, a trisaccharide composed of galactose, fructose and glucose. ...

Oligosaccharides are found as a common form of protein posttranslational modification. Such posttranslational modifications include the Lewis oligosaccharides responsible for blood group incompatibilities, the alpha-Gal epitope responsible for hyperacute rejection in xenotransplanation, and O-GlcNAc modifications. A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin, showing coloured alpha helices. ... Posttranslational modification is the chemical modification of a protein after its translation. ... A blood type is a description an individuals characteristics of red blood cells due to substances (carbohydrates and proteins) on the cell membrane. ...

Polysaccharides represent an important class of biological polymer. Their function in living organisms is usually either structure or storage related. Starch is used as a storage polysaccharide in plants, being found in the form of both amylose and the branched amylopectin. In animals, the structurally similar but more densely branched glycogen is used instead. Glycogen's properties allow it to be metabolized more quickly, which suits the active lives of locomotive animals. A polymer (from Greek: πολυ, polu, many; and μέρος, meros, part) is a substance composed of molecules with large molecular mass composed of repeating structural units, or monomers, connected by covalent chemical bonds. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Starch (CAS# 9005-25-8) is a complex carbohydrate which is insoluble in water; it is used by plants as a way to store excess glucose. ... Amylose (CAS# 9005-82-7) is a linear polymer of glucose linked with mainly α(1→4) bonds. ... Amylopectin is a highly branched polymer of glucose found in plants. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

Cellulose and chitin are examples of structural polysaccharides. Cellulose is used in the cell walls of plants and other organisms, and is the most abundant organic molecule on earth.^[2] Chitin has a similar structure to cellulose but has nitrogen containing side branches, increasing its strength. It is found in arthropod exoskeletons and in the cell walls of some fungi. It has a variety of uses, for example in surgical threads. Other polysaccharides include callose, laminarin, xylan, and galactomannan. Cellulose as polymer of β-D-glucose Cellulose in 3D Cellulose (C6H10O5)n is a polysaccharide of beta-glucose. ... Structure of the chitin molecule, showing two of the N-Acetylglucosamine units that repeat to form long chains in beta-1,4 linkage. ... A cell wall is a fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell, located external to the cell membrane, that provides the cell with structural support, protection, and a filtering mechanism. ... General Name, symbol, number nitrogen, N, 7 Chemical series nonmetals Group, period, block 15, 2, p Appearance colorless gas Standard atomic weight 14. ... Subphyla and Classes Subphylum Trilobitomorpha Trilobita - trilobites (extinct) Subphylum Chelicerata Arachnida - spiders,scorpions, etc. ... An exoskeleton is an external anatomical feature that supports and protects an animals body, in contrast to the internal endoskeleton of, for example, a human. ... Divisions Chytridiomycota Zygomycota Ascomycota Basidiomycota The Fungi (singular: fungus) are a large group of organisms ranked as a kingdom within the Domain Eukaryota. ... For other uses, see Suture (disambiguation). ... Callose is a plant polysaccharide made from b 1,3 linked glucose monomers. ... Laminarin is a storage polysaccharide of the brown algae. ... Xylan Corporation was a start-up company founded by Steve Kim. ... Galactomannans are polysaccharides consisting of a mannose backbone with galactose side groups (more specifically, a (1-4)-linked beta-D-mannopyranose backbone with branchpoints from their 6-positions linked to alpha-D-galactose, i. ...

Nutrition

Grain products are rich sources of complex carbohydrates

Carbohydrates require less water to digest than proteins or fats and are the most common source of energy. Proteins and fat are vital building components for body tissue and cells, and thus it could be considered advisable not to deplete such resources by necessitating their use in energy production. Download high resolution version (640x891, 235 KB)http://gimp-savvy. ... Download high resolution version (640x891, 235 KB)http://gimp-savvy. ... This article is about cereals in general. ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin, showing coloured alpha helices. ... For other uses, see FAT. Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water. ... Biological tissue is a collection of interconnected cells that perform a similar function within an organism. ... Drawing of the structure of cork as it appeared under the microscope to Robert Hooke from Micrographia which is the origin of the word cell being used to describe the smallest unit of a living organism Cells in culture, stained for keratin (red) and DNA (green) The cell is the...

Carbohydrates are not essential nutrients: the body can obtain all its energy from protein and fats ^{[3] [4]}. The brain cannot burn fat and needs glucose for energy, but the body can make this glucose from protein. Carbohydrates and proteins, contain 4 kilocalories per gram while fats contain 9 kilocalories and alcohol contains 7 kilocalories per gram.^{[citation needed]} An essential nutrient is a nutrient required for normal body functioning that cannot be synthesized by the body. ... A calorie is a unit of measurement for energy. ...

Foods that are high in carbohydrates include breads, pastas, beans, potatoes, bran, rice and cereals. Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ... Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ... For other uses, see Bean (disambiguation). ... Potatoe is an archaic spelling of the word potato as a variant form, with the most recent usage cited from 1880: She found the parson in his garden. ... // wheat bran Bran is the hard outer layer of and consists of combined aleurone and pericarp. ... For other uses, see Rice (disambiguation). ... This article is about cereals in general. ...

Based on evidence for risk of heart disease and obesity, the Institute of Medicine recommends that American and Canadian adults get between 40-65% of dietary energy from carbohydrates.^[5] The Food and Agriculture Organization and World Health Organization jointly recommend that national dietary guidelines set a goal of 55-75% of total energy from carbohydrates, but only 10% should be from Free sugars (their definition of simple carbohydrates).^[6] The Institute of Medicine, a part of the National Academy of Sciences, is an American organization whose purpose is to provide national advice on issues relating to biomedical science, medicine, and health (National Academy of Sciences, n. ... Food energy is the amount of energy in food that is available through digestion. ... The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts to defeat hunger. ... The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) that acts as a coordinating authority on international public health. ...

The distinction between "good carbs" and "bad carbs" is an important attribute of low-carbohydrate diets, which promote a reduction in the consumption of grains and starches in favor of protein. The result is a reduction in insulin levels used to metabolize sugars, and an increase in the use of fat for energy through ketosis, a process also known as Rabbit starvation. Low-carbohydrate diets or low-carb diets are nutritional programs that advocate restricted carbohydrate consumption, based on research that ties consumption of certain carbohydrates with increased blood insulin levels, and overexposure to insulin with metabolic syndrome (the most recognized symptom of which is obesity). ... Insulin (from Latin insula, island, as it is produced in the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas) is an anabolic polypeptide hormone that regulates carbohydrate metabolism. ... Ketosis (IPA pronunciation: ) is a stage in metabolism occurring when the liver converts fat into fatty acids and ketone bodies which can be used by the body for energy. ... Rabbit starvation is the form of acute malnutrition caused by excess consumption of rabbit meat (and possibly other lean meats) coupled with a lack of other sources of nutrients. ...

Classification

Dietitians and nutritionists commonly classify carbohydrates as simple (monosaccharides and disaccharides) or complex (oligosaccharides and polysaccharides). The term complex carbohydrate was first used in the Senate Select Committee publication Dietary Goals for the United States (1977), where it denoted "fruit, vegetables and whole-grains".^[7] Dietary guidelines generally recommend that complex carbohydrates and nutrient-rich simple carbohydrates such as fruit and dairy products should make up the bulk of carbohydrate consumption. The USDA's Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005 dispenses with the simple/complex distinction, instead recommending fiber-rich foods and whole grains.^[8] Dietitians are experts in food and nutrition. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates. ... Sucrose, a common disaccharide A disaccharide is a sugar (a carbohydrate) composed of two monosaccharides. ... An oligosaccharide is a saccharide polymer containing a small number (typically three to six) of component sugars, also known as simple sugars. ... Polysaccharides (sometimes called glycans) are relatively complex carbohydrates. ... For other uses, see Fruit (disambiguation). ... Dairy products are generally defined as foodstuffs produced from milk. ... “USDA” redirects here. ...

The glycemic index and glycemic load systems are popular alternative classification methods which rank carbohydrate-rich foods based on their effect on blood glucose levels. The insulin index is a similar, more recent classification method which ranks foods based on their effects on blood insulin levels. This system assumes that high glycemic index foods and low glycemic index foods can be mixed to make the intake of high glycemic foods more acceptable. ^{[citation needed]} Glycemic index (also glycaemic index, GI) is a ranking system for carbohydrates based on their effect on blood glucose levels. ... The glycemic load (GL) is a ranking system for carbohydrate content in food portions based on their glycemic index (GI) and the portion size. ... In medicine, blood sugar is glucose in the blood. ... The Insulin Index is a measure used to quantify the amount of insulin response of various foods. ... Insulin (from Latin insula, island, as it is produced in the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas) is an anabolic polypeptide hormone that regulates carbohydrate metabolism. ...

The World Health Organisation and Food and Agriculture Organization's joint expert report on Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases (WHO Technical Report Series 916) advises carbohydrate consumption of 55-75% carbohydrate, but restricts "Free sugar" intake to 10%. Its definition is "The term "free sugars" refers to all monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods by the manufacturer, cook or consumer, plus sugars naturally present in honey, syrups and fruit juices." (page 56 of the report; note to Table 6: Ranges of population nutrient intake goals). This is their effective split between simple and complex carbohydrates.

Metabolism

Main article: Carbohydrate metabolism

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is responsible for some carbohydrate metabolism. ...

Catabolism

Catabolism is the metabolic reaction cells undergo in order to extract energy. There are two major metabolic pathways of monosaccharide catabolism: In biochemistry, a metabolic pathway is a series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell. ... Anabolism is the aspect of metabolism that contributes to growth. ...

1. Glycolysis
2. Citric acid cycle

Oligo/polysaccharides are cleaved first to smaller monosaccharides by enzymes called Glycoside hydrolases. The monosaccharide units can then enter into monosaccharide catabolism. Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway by which a 6-carbon glucose (Glc) molecule is oxidized to two molecules of pyruvic acid (Pyr). ... Overview of the citric acid cycle The citric acid cycle (also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle, the TCA cycle, or the Krebs cycle, after Hans Adolf Krebs who identified the cycle) is a series of chemical reactions of central importance in all living cells that use oxygen as part... Glycoside hydrolases (also called glycosidases) catalyze the hydrolysis of the glycosidic linkage to generate two smaller sugars. ...

Carbohydrate chemistry

Carbohydrates are reactants in many organic reactions. For example: Organic reactions are chemical reactions involving organic compounds. ...

• Carbohydrate acetalisation
• Cyanohydrin reaction
• Lobry-de Bruyn-van Ekenstein transformation
• Amadori rearrangement
• Nef reaction
• Wohl degradation
• Koenigs-Knorr reaction

An artificial carbohydrate is sorbitol. In carbohydrate chemistry carbohydrate acetalisation is an organic reaction and a very effective means of providing a protecting group. ... A Cyanohydrin reaction is an organic reaction by an aldehyde or ketone with a cyanide anion or a nitrile to form a cyanohydrin. ... The Lobry-de Bruyn-van Ekenstein transformation also known as the Lobry-de Bruyn-van-Alberda-van-Ekenstein transformation is a base catalyzed Aldose-Ketose-Isomerization in carbohydrate chemistry [1] . A typical rearrangement reaction is that between glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone in a chemical equilibrium. ... The Amadori rearrangement is an organic reaction describing the acid or base catalyzed isomerization or rearrangement reaction of the N-glycoside of an aldose or the glycosylamine to the corresponding 1-amino-1-deoxy-ketose. ... The Nef reaction is an organic reaction describing the acid hydrolysis of a salt of a primary or secondary nitroalkane to an aldehyde or a ketone and nitrous oxide [1]. The reaction was reported by the chemist J.U. Nef in 1894 [2]who treated the sodium salt of nitroethane... The Wohl degradation in carbohydrate chemistry is a chain contraction method for aldoses [1] The classic example is the conversion of glucose to arabinose in a series of reaction steps. ... The Koenigs-Knorr reaction in organic chemistry is the substitution reaction of a glycosyl halide with an alcohol to give a glycoside. ... Sorbitol, also known as glucitol, is a sugar alcohol the body metabolises slowly. ...

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

Carbohydrates

• Biochemistry
• Gluconeogenesis
• Glycolipid
• Glycoprotein
• Macromolecules
• Nutrition
• Pentose phosphate pathway
• Photosynthesis
• Sugar

Protein metabolism denotes the various biochemical processes responsible for the synthesis of proteins and amino acids, and the breakdown of proteins (catabolism). ... The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is responsible for some carbohydrate metabolism. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Human beings use 20 mg of iron each day for the production of new red blood cells, much of which is recycled from old red blood cells. ... Food chemistry is the study of chemical processes and interactions of all biological and non-biological components of foods. ... Food coloring spreading on a thin water film. ... Ribbon diagram of the enzyme TIM, surrounded by the space-filling model of the protein. ... This article is about flavor as a sensory impression. ... Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavor or improve its taste and appearance. ... A polyunsaturated triglyceride. ... Dietary minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen which are present in common organic molecules. ... A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin, showing coloured alpha helices. ... Retinol (Vitamin A) For the record label, see Vitamin Records A vitamin is an organic compound required in tiny amounts for essential metabolic reactions in a living organism. ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes and transformations in living organisms. ... Peptides (from the Greek πεπτος, digestible), are the family of short molecules formed from the linking, in a defined order, of various α-amino acids. ... Phenylalanine is one of the standard amino acids. ... Look up nucleic acid in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... A polyunsaturated triglyceride. ... Many terpenes are derived from conifer resins, here a pine. ... The orange ring surrounding Grand Prismatic Spring is due to carotenoid molecules, produced by huge mats of algae and bacteria. ... Polypyrrole A Polypyrrole (PPy) is a chemical compound formed from a number of connected pyrrole ring structures. ... A cofactor is any substance that needs to be present in addition to an enzyme to catalyze a certain reaction. ... Steroid skeleton of lanosterol. ... Molecular structure of flavone The term flavonoid refers to a class of plant secondary metabolites based around a phenylbenzopyrone structure. ... Chemical structure of ephedrine, a phenethylamine alkaloid An alkaloid is, strictly speaking, a naturally occurring amine produced by a plant,[1] but amines produced by animals and fungi are also called alkaloids. ... Polyketides are secondary metabolites from bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. ... A glycoside is a molecule where a sugar group is bonded through its anomeric carbon to a nonsugar group by either an oxygen or a nitrogen atom. ... Fischer projection of D-glyceraldehyde An aldose is a monosaccharide (a certain type of sugar) containing one aldehyde group per molecule and having a chemical formula of the form CnH2nOn (n>=3). ... Fructose, an example of a ketose. ... Glucose in its alpha-D-glucopyranose form Pyranose is a collective term for carbohydrates which have a chemical structure that includes a six-membered ring consisting of five carbons and one oxygen. ... A furanose is a simple sugar that contains a furan ring and is a sub-terminal ketone which gives it reducing power. ... A pentose is a monosaccharide with five carbon atoms. ... A hexose is a monosaccharide with six carbon atoms having the chemical formula C6H12O6. ... A heptose is a monosaccharide with seven carbon atoms. ... Cyclohexane conformation is a much studied topic in organic chemistry because of the complex interrelationship between the different conformers of cyclohexane and its derivatives. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Anomeric carbon. ... Mutarotation is the term given to the change in the specific rotation of plane polarized light, when it is passed through an aldohexose ( Monosaccharides with six carbon atoms and H-C=0 Group ). Mutarotation refers to the conversion of a pure anomer of a hemiacetal carbohydrate to an equilibrium mixture... Fischer projection of D-glyceraldehyde Glyceraldehyde is a triose monosaccharide with chemical formula C3H6O3. ... Fischer projection of dihydroxyacetone Dihydroxyacetone (also know as DHA) is a triose carbohydrate with chemical formula C3H6O3. ... Fischer projection of D-erythrose D-Erythrose is a tetrose carbohydrate with the chemical formula C4H8O4. ... Fischer projection of D-threose D-Threose is a tetrose carbohydrate with the chemical formula C4H8O4. ... Fischer projection of D-erythrulose D-Erythrulose (also known as erythrulose) is a tetrose carbohydrate with the chemical formula C4H8O4. ... Sedoheptulose is a keto-heptose - a simple sugar with 5 carbon atoms and a ketone functional group. ... A pentose is a monosaccharide with five carbon atoms. ... Fischer projection of L-arabinose The chemical structure of D-arabinofuranose Arabinose is an aldopentose — a monosaccharide containing five carbon atoms, and including an aldehyde (CHO) functional group. ... Deoxyribose Deoxyribose, also known as D-Deoxyribose and 2-deoxyribose, is an aldopentose — a monosaccharide containing five carbon atoms, and including an aldehyde functional group. ... Lyxose is an aldopentose — a monosaccharide containing five carbon atoms, and including an aldehyde functional group. ... Ribose Ribose, primarily seen as D-ribose, is an aldopentose — a monosaccharide containing five carbon atoms, and including an aldehyde functional group. ... Fischer projection of D-ribulose Ribulose is a ketopentose — a monosaccharide containing five carbon atoms, and including a ketone functional group. ... Xylose or wood sugar is an aldopentose — a monosaccharide containing five carbon atoms and including an aldehyde functional group. ... Xylulose is a sugar (a monosaccharide), one of the pentose series of carbohydrates. ... A hexose is a monosaccharide with six carbon atoms having the chemical formula C6H12O6. ... Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. ... Galactose (also called brain sugar) is a type of sugar found in dairy products, in sugar beets and other gums and mucilages. ... Mannose is a sugar, one of the hexose series of carbohydrates. ... Gulose is an aldohexose sugar. ... L-Idose is a 6 carbon monosaccharide(a hexose) It has an aldehyde group and is an aldose. ... Talose is an aldohexose sugar. ... Allose is an aldohexose sugar. ... Altrose is an aldohexose sugar. ... Fructose (or levulose) is a simple sugar (monosaccharide) found in many foods and is one of the three most important blood sugars along with glucose and galactose. ... Fischer projection of L-sorbose Sorbose is a ketose belonging to the group of sugars known as monosaccharides. ... Tagatose is a functional sweetener. ... D-Psicose (D-ribo-2-hexulose, C6H12O6) is an ultralow-energy monosaccharide sugar. ... Fucose is a hexose sugar with the chemical formula C6H12O5. ... Rhamnose is a naturally-occurring sugar. ... Sucrose, a common disaccharide A disaccharide is a sugar (a carbohydrate) composed of two monosaccharides. ... Sucrose (common name: table sugar, also called saccharose) is a disaccharide (glucose + fructose) with the molecular formula C12H22O11. ... Lactose is a disaccharide that consists of β-D-galactose and β-D-glucose molecules bonded through a β1-4 glycosidic linkage. ... Trehalose also known as mycose is a 1-alpha (disaccharide) sugar found extensively but not abundantly in nature. ... α-Maltose Maltose (also: malt sugar, di-glucose) is a disaccharide with the molecular formula C12H22O11. ... Polysaccharides (sometimes called glycans) are relatively complex carbohydrates. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Starch (CAS# 9005-25-8) is a complex carbohydrate which is insoluble in water; it is used by plants as a way to store excess glucose. ... Amylose (CAS# 9005-82-7) is a linear polymer of glucose linked with mainly α(1→4) bonds. ... Amylopectin is a highly branched polymer of glucose found in plants. ... Cellulose as polymer of β-D-glucose Cellulose in 3D Cellulose (C6H10O5)n is a polysaccharide of beta-glucose. ... Structure of the chitin molecule, showing two of the N-Acetylglucosamine units that repeat to form long chains in beta-1,4 linkage. ... Stachyose is an oligosaccharide (tetra-saccharide) consisting of two D-galactose units and one sucrose sequentially linked. ... Note: This article title may be easily confused with insulin. ... Dextrins are a group of low-molecular-weight carbohydrates produced by the hydrolysis of starch. ... Chondroitin sulfate Hyaluronan Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) or mucopolysaccharides are long unbranched polysaccharides consisting of a repeating disaccharide unit. ... Heparin, a highly sulfated glycosaminoglycan is widely used as an injectable anticoagulant and has the highest negative charge density of any known biological molecule. ... Chondroitin sulfate (CS) is a glycosaminoglycan (GAG) found in connective tissue and the nervous system, normally attached to a protein core. ... The repeating disaccharide unit of hyaluronan Hyaluronan (also called hyaluronic acid or hyaluronate) is a non-sulfated glycosaminoglycan distributed widely throughout connective, epithelial, and neural tissues. ... Heparan Sulfate (HS) is a linear polysaccharide found in all animal tissues. ... Dermatan sulfate is a glycosaminoglycan, formerly called a mucopolysaccharide, found mostly in skin, but also in blood vessels, heart valves, tendons, and lungs. ... Keratan sulfate, also called keratosulfate, is any of several sulfated glycosaminoglycans that have been found especially in the cornea, cartilage, and bone. ... Aminoglycosides are a group of antibiotics that are effective against certain types of bacteria. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Streptomycin is an antibiotic drug, the first of a class of drugs called aminoglycosides to be discovered, and was the first antibiotic remedy for tuberculosis. ... Tobramycin sulfate is an aminoglycoside antibiotic used to treat various types of bacterial infections, particularly Gram-negative infections. ... Neomycin is an aminoglycoside antibiotic that is found in many topical medications such as creams, ointments and eyedrops. ... Paromomycin sulfate (brand name Humatin) is a drug that fights intestinal amoeba infection, or amebiasis. ... Apramycin (also Nebramycin II) is an aminoglycoside antibiotic. ... Gentamicin is an aminoglycoside antibiotic, and can treat many types of bacterial infections, particularly Gram-negative infection. ... Netilmicin is an aminoglycoside antibiotic. ... Amikacin is an aminoglycoside antibiotic used to treat different types of bacterial infections. ...

References

1. ^ Matthews, C. E.; K. E. Van Holde; K. G. Ahern (1999) Biochemistry. 3rd edition. Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0-8053-3066-6
2. ^ N.A.Campbell (1996) Biology (4th edition). Benjamin Cummings NY. p.23 ISBN 0-8053-1957-3
3. ^ *http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/75/5/951-a
4. ^ *http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/reprint/136/5/1256?ijkey=ebf0450b5cf21e8d83dd43f62b5559254694f65f
5. ^ Food and Nutrition Board (2002/2005). Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Page 769. ISBN 0-309-08537-3
6. ^ Joint WHO/FAO expert consultation (2003). Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases (PDF). Geneva: World Health Organization. Pages 55-56. ISBN 92-4-120916-X
7. ^ Joint WHO/FAO expert consultation (1998), Carbohydrates in human nutrition, chapter 1. ISBN 92-5-104114-8.
8. ^ DHHS and USDA, Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005, Chapter 7 Carbohydrates

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External links

• Carbohydrates, including interactive models and animations (Requires MDL Chime)
• IUPAC-IUBMB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN): Carbohydrate Nomenclature
• Carbohydrates detailed
• Carbohydrates and Glycosylation - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology
• Consortium for Functional Glycomics