Nepenthes mirabilis in flower, growing on a road cut in Palau

Carnivorous plants (sometimes called insectivorous plants) are plants that derive some or most of their nutrients (but not energy) from trapping and consuming animals or protozoans, most focusing on insects and other arthropods. Carnivorous plants usually grow in places where the soil is thin or poor in nutrients, especially nitrogen, such as acidic bogs and rock outcroppings. Charles Darwin wrote the first well-known treatise on carnivorous plants in 1875.^[1] Download high resolution version (957x1449, 372 KB)Photograph of a pitcher plant on a rock face in Palau. ... Download high resolution version (957x1449, 372 KB)Photograph of a pitcher plant on a rock face in Palau. ... Binomial name Nepenthes mirabilis (Lour. ... For other uses, see Plant (disambiguation). ... A nutrient is either a chemical element or compound used in an organisms metabolism or physiology. ... For other uses, see Animal (disambiguation). ... Protozoa (in Greek protos = first and zoon = animal) are single-celled creatures with nuclei that show some characteristics usually associated with animals, most notably mobility and heterotrophy. ... Orders Subclass Apterygota Archaeognatha (bristletails) Thysanura (silverfish) Subclass Pterygota Infraclass Paleoptera (Probably paraphyletic) Ephemeroptera (mayflies) Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies) Infraclass Neoptera Superorder Exopterygota Grylloblattodea (ice-crawlers) Mantophasmatodea (gladiators) Plecoptera (stoneflies) Embioptera (webspinners) Zoraptera (angel insects) Dermaptera (earwigs) Orthoptera (grasshoppers, etc) Phasmatodea (stick insects) Blattodea (cockroaches) Isoptera (termites) Mantodea (mantids) Psocoptera... Subphyla and Classes Subphylum Trilobitomorpha Trilobita - trilobites (extinct) Subphylum Chelicerata Arachnida - spiders,scorpions, etc. ... General Name, symbol, number nitrogen, N, 7 Chemical series nonmetals Group, period, block 15, 2, p Appearance colorless gas Standard atomic weight 14. ... Lütt-Witt Moor, a bog in Henstedt-Ulzburg in northern Germany. ... For other people of the same surname, and places and things named after Charles Darwin, see Darwin. ... 1875 (MDCCCLXXV) was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ...

True facts is thought to have evolved in at least 10 separate lineages of plants, and these are now represented by more than a dozen genera in 5 families. These include about 625 species that attract and trap prey, produce digestive enzymes, and absorb the resulting available nutrients. Additionally, over 300 protocarnivorous plant species in several genera show some but not all these characteristics. For other uses, see Genus (disambiguation). ... Mucilage-tipped bracts and immature flower of Passiflora foetida, a protocarnivorous plant. ...

Trapping mechanisms

The primitive pitchers of Heliamphora chimantensis are an example of pitfall traps.

Five basic trapping mechanisms are found in carnivorous plants. Image File history File links Size of this preview: 400 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (467 × 700 pixel, file size: 130 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 400 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (467 × 700 pixel, file size: 130 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Binomial name Heliamphora chimantensis Wistuba, Carow & Harbarth (2002) Heliamphora chimantensis (after Chimanta Tepui) is a species of Marsh Pitcher Plant endemic to Chimanta Tepui in Venezuela. ...

1. Pitfall traps (pitcher plants) trap prey in a rolled leaf that contains a pool of digestive enzymes or bacteria.
2. Flypaper traps use a sticky mucilage.
3. Snap traps utilize rapid leaf movements.
4. Bladder traps suck in prey with a bladder that generates an internal vacuum.
5. Lobster-pot traps force prey to move towards a digestive organ with inward pointing hairs.

These traps may be active or passive, depending on whether movement aids the capture of prey. For example, Triphyophyllum is a passive flypaper that secretes mucilage, but whose leaves do not grow or move in response to prey capture. Meanwhile, sundews are active flypapers whose leaves undergo rapid growth, aiding in the retention and digestion of prey. Pitcher of Nepenthes distillatoria. ... Phyla Actinobacteria Aquificae Chlamydiae Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi Chloroflexi Chrysiogenetes Cyanobacteria Deferribacteres Deinococcus-Thermus Dictyoglomi Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria Firmicutes Fusobacteria Gemmatimonadetes Lentisphaerae Nitrospirae Planctomycetes Proteobacteria Spirochaetes Thermodesulfobacteria Thermomicrobia Thermotogae Verrucomicrobia Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are unicellular microorganisms. ... Mucilage is a thick gluey substance, often produced by plants. ... Thigmonasty or seismonasty is the nastic response of a plant or fungus to touch, heat or vibration. ... Look up Vacuum in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Trichomes, from the Greek meaning growth of hair, are fine outgrowths or appendages on plants and protists. ... Binomial name Triphyophyllum peltatum (Hutch. ... This article is about the plant. ...

Pitfall traps

Main article: Pitcher plant

Pitfall traps are thought to have evolved independently on at least four occasions. The simplest ones are probably those of Heliamphora, the sun pitcher plant. In this genus, the traps are clearly derived evolutionarily from a simple rolled leaf whose margins have sealed together. These plants live in areas of high rainfall in South America such as Mount Roraima, and consequently have a problem ensuring their pitchers do not overflow. To counteract this problem, natural selection has favoured the evolution of an overflow, similar to that of a bathroom sink - a small gap in the zipped-up leaf margins allows excess water to flow out of the pitcher. Pitcher of Nepenthes distillatoria. ... The genus Heliamphora contains approximately eight species of pitcher plants native to South America. ... Pitcher of Nepenthes distillatoria. ... For other uses, see Genus (disambiguation). ... This article is about evolution in biology. ... South America South America is a continent crossed by the equator, with most of its area in the Southern Hemisphere. ... Mount Roraima is the highest of the table-top mountains (called Tepuis) of the Guiana Highlands (or Guayana Highlands). ... For other uses, see Natural selection (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Sink (disambiguation). ...

Heliamphora is a member of the Sarraceniaceae, a New World family in the order Ericales (heathers and allies). Heliamphora is limited to South America, but the family contains two other genera, Sarracenia and Darlingtonia, which are endemic to Florida and California respectively. S. purpurea subsp. purpurea (the northern pitcher plant) has a more cosmopolitan distribution, found as far north as Canada. Sarracenia is the pitcher plant genus most commonly encountered in cultivation, because it is relatively hardy and easy to grow. Genera Darlingtonia Heliamphora Sarracenia Families of Flowering Plants as of 2002-10-20 Sarraceniaceae is the Pitcher plant family, belonging to order Ericales, previously Nepenthales. ... Frontispiece of Peter Martyr dAnghieras De orbe novo (On the New World). Carte dAmérique, Guillaume Delisle, 1722. ... Families See text. ... Heather may be: In botany, the plant Calluna vulgaris, or, more loosely, various species of the closely related genera Erica and Cassiope, low evergreen shrubs (also called heaths). The term is also used to describe land which is vegetated with these plants; In apparel or textiles, interwoven yarns with a... Sarracenia range (all species) Species See text. ... Binomial name Darlingtonia californica Torr. ... Official language(s) English Capital Tallahassee Largest city Jacksonville Largest metro area Miami metropolitan area Area  Ranked 22nd  - Total 65,795[1] sq mi (170,304[1] km²)  - Width 361 miles (582 km)  - Length 447 miles (721 km)  - % water 17. ... Official language(s) English Capital Sacramento Largest city Los Angeles Largest metro area Greater Los Angeles Area  Ranked 3rd  - Total 158,302 sq mi (410,000 km²)  - Width 250 miles (400 km)  - Length 770 miles (1,240 km)  - % water 4. ... Purple Pitcher Plant, Sarracenia pupurea, is a carnivorous plant in the family Sarraceniaceae. ... A cosmopolitan distribution is a term applied to a biological category of living things meaning that this category can be found anywhere around the world. ...

Darlingtonia californica: note the small entrance to the trap underneath the swollen 'balloon', and the colourless patches that confuse prey trapped inside.

In the genus Sarracenia, the problem of pitcher overflow is solved by an operculum, which is essentially a flared leaflet that covers the opening of the rolled-leaf tube, and protects it from rain. Possibly because of this improved waterproofing, Sarracenia species secrete enzymes such as proteases and phosphatases into the digestive fluid at the bottom of the pitcher; Heliamphora relies on bacterial digestion alone. The enzymes digest the proteins and nucleic acids in the prey, releasing amino acids and phosphate ions, which the plant absorbs. Darlingtonia californica, the cobra plant, possesses an adaptation also found in Sarracenia psittacina and to a lesser extent in Sarracenia minor: the operculum is balloon-like, and almost seals the opening to the tube. This balloon-like chamber is pitted with areolae, chlorophyll-free patches through which light can penetrate. Insects, mostly ants, enter the chamber via the opening underneath the balloon. Once inside, they tire themselves trying to escape from these false exits, until they eventually fall into the tube. Prey access is increased by the 'fish tails', outgrowths of the operculum that give the plant its name. Some seedling Sarracenia species also have long, overhanging opercular outgrowths; Darlingtonia may therefore represent an example of neoteny. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (2048x1536, 1349 KB) Summary Description: Darlingtonia californica Picture taken by: NoahElhardt Date: 7/8/05 Location: Rocky Creek Trail, OR Licensing File links The following pages link to this file: Carnivorous plant Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (2048x1536, 1349 KB) Summary Description: Darlingtonia californica Picture taken by: NoahElhardt Date: 7/8/05 Location: Rocky Creek Trail, OR Licensing File links The following pages link to this file: Carnivorous plant Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from... Binomial name Darlingtonia californica Torr. ... In botany, operculum may be used to describe any of the following: A flap of the sporangium of a moss, covering the peristome (appendages surrounding the mouth of a moss capsule). ... Proteases (proteinases, peptidases, or proteolytic enzymes) are enzymes that break peptide bonds between amino acids of proteins. ... A phosphatase is an enzyme that dephosphorylates its substrate; i. ... A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin, showing coloured alpha helices. ... Look up nucleic acid in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... This article is about the class of chemicals. ... A phosphate, in inorganic chemistry, is a salt of phosphoric acid. ... Egyptian Cobra, Naga haje This article is about snakes. ... Cross section of the breast of a human female. ... Chlorophyll gives leaves their green color Space-filling model of the chlorophyll molecule Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in most plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. ... Neoteny describes a process by which paedomorphism is achieved, and is a subject studied in the field of developmental biology. ...

Brocchinia reducta: a carnivorous bromeliad

The second major group of pitcher plants are the monkey cups or tropical pitcher plants of the genus Nepenthes. In the hundred or so species of this genus, the pitcher is born at the end of a tendril, which grows as an extension to the midrib of the leaf. Most species catch insects, although the larger ones, particularly N. rajah, also occasionally take small mammals and reptiles. These pitchers represent a convenient source of food to small insectivores. N. bicalcarata possesses two sharp thorns that project from the base of the operculum over the entrance to the pitcher, providing some protection from raids by freeloading mammals. Download high resolution version (480x640, 82 KB)Brocchinea reducta, photographed at the 2003 Hampton Court flower show File links The following pages link to this file: Carnivorous plant Brocchinia reducta ... Download high resolution version (480x640, 82 KB)Brocchinea reducta, photographed at the 2003 Hampton Court flower show File links The following pages link to this file: Carnivorous plant Brocchinia reducta ... Brocchinia reducta is one of few carnivorous bromeliads. ... The term Monkey cup is based on the fact monkeys have been seen drinking rainwater from the pitcher cups of the Nepenthaceae family of tropical plants, which are a species of Carnivorous Plant. ... Species See text The genus Nepenthes (Tropical Pitcher Plants or Monkey Cups) in the monotypic family Nepenthaceae contains roughly 80-100 species, (depending on author), several natural and many cultivated hybrids. ... In botany, a tendril is a specialized stem, leaf or petiole with a threadlike shape that is used by climbing plants for support and attachment, generally by twining around whatever it touches. ... line in the center of a petal ... Binomial name Hook. ... Orders Subclass Monotremata Monotremata Subclass Marsupialia Didelphimorphia Paucituberculata Microbiotheria Dasyuromorphia Peramelemorphia Notoryctemorphia Diprotodontia Subclass Placentalia Xenarthra Dermoptera Desmostylia Scandentia Primates Rodentia Lagomorpha Insectivora Chiroptera Pholidota Carnivora Perissodactyla Artiodactyla Cetacea Afrosoricida Macroscelidea Tubulidentata Hyracoidea Proboscidea Sirenia The mammals are the class of vertebrate animals primarily characterized by the presence of mammary... Orders  Crocodilia - Crocodilians scary crocodiles. ...

The pitfall trap has evolved independently in at least two other groups. The Albany pitcher plant Cephalotus follicularis is a small pitcher plant from Western Australia, with moccasin-like pitchers. The rim of its pitcher's opening (the peristome) is particularly pronounced (both secrete nectar) and provides a thorny overhang to the opening, preventing trapped insects from climbing out. The lining of most pitcher plants is covered in a loose coating of waxy flakes, which are slippery for insects, prey that are often attracted by nectar bribes secreted by the peristome, and by bright flower-like anthocyanin patterning. In at least one species, Sarracenia flava, the nectar bribe is laced with coniine, a toxic alkaloid also found in hemlock, which probably increases the efficiency of the traps by intoxicating prey. Binomial name Cephalotus follicularis Cephalotus is a monotypic genus of southwest Australian pitcher plants, containing the single species Cephalotus follicularis, commonly called the Albany Pitcher Plant or the Western Australian Pitcher Plant. ... Slogan or Nickname: Wildflower State or the Golden State Other Australian states and territories Capital Perth Government Constitutional monarchy Governor Ken Michael Premier Alan Carpenter (ALP) Federal representation  - House seats 15  - Senate seats 12 Gross State Product (2005-06)  - Product ($m)  $107,910 (4th)  - Product per capita  $53,134/person... The word moccasin was first introduced into English in 1612, from a Virginia Algonquian language, most likely Powhatan (makasin ‘shoe’), though similar words exist in Narragansett (mokussin), Micmac (m’kusun), and Ojibwa (makasin). ... In bryophyte mosses, the peristome is a specialed structure in the sporangium that allows for gradual spore discharge, instead of releasing them all at once. ... In Greek mythology, nectar and ambrosia are the food of the gods. ... candle wax This page is about the substance. ... Plants with abnormally high anthocyanin quantities are popular as ornamental plants - here, a selected purple-leaf cultivar of European Beech Anthocyanins (from Greek: (anthos) = flower + (kyanos) = blue) are water-soluble vacuolar flavonoid pigments that appear red to blue, according to pH. They are synthesized exclusively by organisms of the plant... Coniine or 2-propylpiperidine is a poisonous alkaloid found in poison hemlock. ... Chemical structure of ephedrine, a phenethylamine alkaloid An alkaloid is, strictly speaking, a naturally occurring amine produced by a plant,[1] but amines produced by animals and fungi are also called alkaloids. ... Species Conium chaerophylloides (Thunb. ...

The final carnivore with a pitfall-like trap is the bromeliad, Brocchinia reducta. Like most relatives of the pineapple, the tightly-packed, waxy leaf bases of the strap-like leaves of this species form an urn. In most bromeliads, water collects readily in this urn, and may provide habitats for frogs, insects and more usefully for plant, diazotrophic (nitrogen-fixing) bacteria. In Brocchinia, the urn is a specialised insect trap, with a loose, waxy lining and a population of digestive bacteria. Genera See text Bromeliads include epiphytes, such as Spanish moss, and ground plants, such as the Pineapple. ... Brocchinia reducta is one of few carnivorous bromeliads. ... For other uses, see Pineapple (disambiguation). ... Maya funerary urn For the computing term, see Uniform Resource Name. ... Habitat (which is Latin for it inhabits) is the place where a particular species live and grow. ... Distribution of frogs (in black) Suborders Archaeobatrachia Mesobatrachia Neobatrachia - List of Anuran families The frogness babe is an amphibian in the order Anura (meaning tail-less from Greek an-, without + oura, tail), formerly referred to as Salientia (Latin saltare, to jump). ... Orders Subclass Apterygota Archaeognatha (bristletails) Thysanura (silverfish) Subclass Pterygota Infraclass Paleoptera (Probably paraphyletic) Ephemeroptera (mayflies) Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies) Infraclass Neoptera Superorder Exopterygota Grylloblattodea (ice-crawlers) Mantophasmatodea (gladiators) Plecoptera (stoneflies) Embioptera (webspinners) Zoraptera (angel insects) Dermaptera (earwigs) Orthoptera (grasshoppers, etc) Phasmatodea (stick insects) Blattodea (cockroaches) Isoptera (termites) Mantodea (mantids) Psocoptera... Diazotrophs are microorganisms that fix atmospheric nitrogen gas in to a more usable form such as ammonia. ... Phyla/Divisions Actinobacteria Aquificae Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi Chlamydiae/Verrucomicrobia Chloroflexi Chrysiogenetes Cyanobacteria Deferribacteres Deinococcus-Thermus Dictyoglomi Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria Firmicutes Fusobacteria Gemmatimonadetes Nitrospirae Omnibacteria Planctomycetes Proteobacteria Spirochaetes Thermodesulfobacteria Thermomicrobia Thermotogae Bacteria (singular, bacterium) are a major group of living organisms. ...

Flypaper traps

The flypaper trap is based on a sticky mucilage, or glue. The leaf of flypaper traps is studded with mucilage-secreting glands, which may be short and nondescript (like those of the butterworts), or long and mobile (like those of many sundews). Flypapers have evolved independently at least five times. Mucilage is a thick gluey substance, often produced by plants. ... Species See text The genus Pinguicula, or butterworts, is a group of 79 carnivorous plants in the family Lentibulariaceae. ... This article is about the plant. ...

Pinguicula gigantea with prey. The insect was too large and was able to escape.

In the genus Pinguicula, the mucilage glands are quite short (sessile), and the leaf, whilst shiny (giving the genus its common name of 'butterwort'), does not appear carnivorous. However, this belies the fact that the leaf is an extremely effective trap of small flying insects (such as fungus gnats), and whose surface responds to prey by relatively rapid growth. This thigmotropic growth may involve rolling of the leaf blade (to prevent rain from splashing the prey off the leaf surface), or 'dishing' of the surface under the prey, to form a shallow digestive pit. Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 710 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (800 × 676 pixel, file size: 176 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Description: A plant bug on a Pinguicula gigantea. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 710 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (800 × 676 pixel, file size: 176 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Description: A plant bug on a Pinguicula gigantea. ... Binomial name A. Lau Pinguicula gigantea is a tropical species of carnivorous plant in the family Lentibulariaceae. ... Species See text The genus Pinguicula, or butterworts, is a group of 79 carnivorous plants in the family Lentibulariaceae. ... Look up sessile in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Species See text The genus Pinguicula, or butterworts, is a group of 79 carnivorous plants in the family Lentibulariaceae. ... Fungus gnats are small, dark, short-lived flies, of the families Sciaridae and Mycetophilidae (order Diptera), whose larvae feed on plant roots or fungi and aid in the decomposition of organic matter. ... Thigmotropism is a tropism in which an organism moves or grows in response to touch or contact stimuli. ...

The leaf of a Drosera capensis "bending" in response to the trapping of an insect.

The sundew genus (Drosera) consists of over 100 species of active flypapers, whose mucilage glands are borne at the end of long tentacles, which frequently grow fast enough in response to prey (thigmotropism) to aid the trapping process. The tentacles of D. burmanii can bend 180° in a minute or so. Sundews are extremely cosmopolitan, and are found on all the continents except the Antarctic mainland. They are most diverse in Australia, the home to the large subgroup of pygmy sundews such as D. pygmaea, and to a number of tuberous sundews such as D. peltata, which form tubers that aestivate during the dry summer months. These species are so dependent on insect sources of nitrogen that they generally lack the enzyme nitrate reductase, which most plants require to assimilate soil-borne nitrate into organic forms. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (786x1067, 580 KB) Summary Photo Information Description: The leaf of a Drosera capensis bending in response to the trapping of an insect. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (786x1067, 580 KB) Summary Photo Information Description: The leaf of a Drosera capensis bending in response to the trapping of an insect. ... Binomial name Drosera capensis L. The Cape sundew, Drosera capensis, is a carnivorous plant in the family Droseraceae. ... This article is about the plant. ... Categories: Plant stubs | Carnivorous plants | Magnoliopsida ... Tentacles can refer to the elongated flexible organs that are present in some animals, especially invertebrates, and sometimes to the hairs of the leaves of some insectivorous plants. ... Thigmotropism is a tropism in which an organism moves or grows in response to touch or contact stimuli. ... For other uses, see Antarctica (disambiguation). ... Estivation or aestivation (from Latin aestas, summer) is a state of dormancy similar to hibernation. ... Nitrate reducatse are group of enzymes which reduce nitrate to nitrite This article belongs in one or more categories. ...

Closely related to Drosera is the Portuguese dewy pine, Drosophyllum, which differs from the sundews in being passive. Its leaves are incapable of rapid movement or growth. Unrelated, but similar in habit, are the Australian rainbow plants (Byblis). Drosophyllum is unusual in that it grows under near-desert conditions; almost all other carnivores are either bog plants or grow in moist tropical areas. Categories: Plant stubs | Carnivorous plants | Magnoliopsida ... Binomial name Drosophyllum lusitanicum (L.) Link Drosophyllum is a genus of carnivorous plants containing the single species Drosophyllum lusitanicum or Dewy pine. ... Species See text. ... This article is about arid terrain. ... Lütt-Witt Moor, a bog in Henstedt-Ulzburg in northern Germany. ...

Recent molecular data (particularly the production of plumbagin) indicate that the remaining flypaper, Triphyophyllum peltatum, a member of the Dioncophyllaceae, is closely related to Drosophyllum, and forms part of a larger clade of carnivorous and non-carnivorous plants with the Droseraceae, Nepenthaceae, Ancistrocladaceae and Plumbaginaceae. This plant is usually encountered as a liana, but in its juvenile phase, the plant is carnivorous. This may be related to a requirement for specific nutrients for flowering. Plumbagin is a plant-derived naphthoquinone possessing a number of pharmacological activities. ... Flypaper is paper coated with an extremely sticky substance that traps flies and other flying insects when they land upon it. ... Binomial name Triphyophyllum peltatum (Hutch. ... Genera Dioncophyllum Triphyophyllum Habropetalum The Dioncophyllaceae is a small family of angiosperms previously placed in the Theales, but now placed by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group into the Caryophyllales. ... A clade is a term belonging to the discipline of cladistics. ... Genus Aldrovanda Dionaea Drosera Drosophyllum The Droseraceae are a family of carnivorous plants, commonly known as the sundew family. ... Genera Nepenthes Anurosperma Families of Flowering Plants as of 2002-10-20 Nepenthaceae is a family of pitcher plants. ... Genera Ancistrocladus Ancistrocladaceae is the botanical name for a family of flowering plants. ... Genera (examples) Armeria Ceratostigma Limonium Plumbago The Plumbaginaceae are a family of flowering plants that includes a number of popular garden species, which are grown world wide for their attractive flowers. ... Liana tangle across a forest in the Western Ghats Woman swinging on a liana in Aokigahara forest, Japan A canopy that has formed over Monkey Ladder Vine A liana is a woody climber [1] that starts at ground level, and uses trees to climb up to the canopy where it...

Snap traps

The snap traps of Dionaea muscipula close rapidly when triggered to trap prey between two lobes.

The only two active snap traps – the Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula) and the waterwheel plant (Aldrovanda vesiculosa) – are believed to have had a common ancestor with similar adaptations. Their trapping mechanism has also been described as a 'mouse trap' or 'man trap', based on their shape or rapid movement. However, the term snap trap is preferred as other designations are misleading, particularly with respect to the intended prey. Aldrovanda is aquatic, and specialised in catching small invertebrates; Dionaea is terrestrial and catches a variety of arthropods, including spiders.^[2] Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1527x1670, 761 KB) Summary Description: The trap of a Venus fly trap, showing trigger hairs. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1527x1670, 761 KB) Summary Description: The trap of a Venus fly trap, showing trigger hairs. ... For other uses, see Venus Flytrap (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Venus Flytrap (disambiguation). ... Binomial name Dionaea muscipula Soland. ... Species See text. ... Species See text. ... Missing link is a term for a transitional form from the fossil record that connects an earlier species to a later one, or which connects two different species to an earlier ancestor. ...

The traps are very similar, with leaves whose terminal section is divided into two lobes, hinged along the midrib. Trigger hairs (three on each lobe in Dionaea, many more in the case of Aldrovanda) inside the trap lobes are sensitive to touch. When the trigger hairs are bent, stretch-gated ion channels in the membranes of cells at the base of the trigger hair open, generating an action potential that propagates to cells in the midrib.^[3] These cells respond by pumping out ions, which may either cause water to follow by osmosis (collapsing the cells in the midrib) or cause rapid acid growth.^[4] The mechanism is still debated, but in any case, changes in the shape of cells in the midrib allow the lobes, held under tension, to snap shut,^[3] flipping rapidly from convex to concave^[5] and interring the prey. This whole process takes less than a second. In the Venus flytrap, spurious closure in response to raindrops and blown-in debris is prevented by the leaf's having a simple memory: for the lobes to shut, two stimuli are required, 0.5 to 30 seconds apart. Ion channels are pore-forming proteins that help to establish and control the small voltage gradient that exists across the plasma membrane of all living cells (see cell potential) by allowing the flow of ions down their electrochemical gradient. ... Look up cell membrane in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... A. A schematic view of an idealized action potential illustrates its various phases as the action potential passes a point on a cell membrane. ... Acid growth refers to the ability of plant cells to quickly stretch. ... In physiology, a stimulus is a detectable change in the internal or external environment. ...

The snapping of the leaves is a case of thigmonasty (undirected movement in response to touch). Further stimulation of the lobe's internal surfaces by the struggling insects causes the lobes to grow together towards the prey: thigmotropism, sealing the lobes hermetically, and forming a stomach in which digestion occurs over a period of one to two weeks. Leaves can be reused three or four times before they become unresponsive to stimulation. Thigmonasty or seismonasty is the nastic response of a plant or fungus to touch, heat or vibration. ... Thigmotropism is a tropism in which an organism moves or grows in response to touch or contact stimuli. ... A hermetic seal is an airtight seal. ... In anatomy, the stomach is a bean-shaped hollow muscular organ of the gastrointestinal tract involved in the second phase of digestion, following mastication. ...

Bladder traps

The tip of one stolon of Utricularia vulgaris, showing stolon, branching leaf-shoots, and transparent bladder traps.

Genlisea violacea traps and leaves.

Bladder traps are exclusive to the genus Utricularia, or bladderworts. The bladders (vesicula) pump ions out of their interiors. Water follows by osmosis, generating a partial vacuum inside the bladder. The bladder has a small opening, sealed by a hinged door. In aquatic species, the door has a pair of long trigger hairs. Aquatic invertebrates such as Daphnia touch these hairs and deform the door by lever action, releasing the vacuum. The invertebrate is sucked into the bladder, where it is digested. Many species of Utricularia (such as U. sandersonii) are terrestrial, growing on waterlogged soil, and their trapping mechanism is triggered in a slightly different manner. Bladderworts lack roots, but terrestrial species have anchoring stems that resemble them. Temperate aquatic bladderworts generally die back to a resting turion during the winter months, and U. macrorhiza appears to regulate the number of bladders it bears in response to the prevailing nutrient content of its habitat. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1504x1132, 232 KB) A strand of UK pond bladderwort, probably . ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1504x1132, 232 KB) A strand of UK pond bladderwort, probably . ... Species See text The genus Utricularia contains the 200 or more species of bladderworts, belonging to the Bladderwort family (Lentibulariaceae). ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 600 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (1024 × 1024 pixel, file size: 71 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Description: Genlisea violacea unearthed to show subterranean traps. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 600 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (1024 × 1024 pixel, file size: 71 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Description: Genlisea violacea unearthed to show subterranean traps. ... Binomial name A.St. ... Species See text The genus Utricularia contains the 200 or more species of bladderworts, belonging to the Bladderwort family (Lentibulariaceae). ... This article is about the electrically charged particle. ... Osmosis is the spontaneous net movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from a region of high solvent potential to an area of low solvent potential, up a solute concentration gradient. ... Look up Vacuum in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Species Subgenus Daphnia Subgenus Hyalodaphnia D. galeata Subgenus Ctenodaphnia Daphnia are small, mostly planktonic, crustaceans, between 0. ... Levers can be used to exert a large force over a small distance at one end by exerting only a small force over a greater distance at the other. ... A terrestrial plant is one that grows on land. ... For other uses, see Root (disambiguation). ... A turion (from Latin turio=shoot) is a specialised overwintering bud produced by aquatic herbs, especially in the genera Potamogeton, Aldrovanda and Utricularia. ...

Lobster-pot traps

A lobster pot trap is a chamber that is easy to enter, and its exit either difficult to find or obstructed by inward-pointing bristles. Lobster pots are the trapping mechanism in Genlisea, the corkscrew plants. These plants appear to specialise in aquatic protozoa. A Y-shaped modified leaf allows prey to enter but not exit. Inward-pointing hairs force the prey to move in a particular direction. Prey entering the spiral entrance that coils around the upper two arms of the 'Y' are forced to move inexorably towards a 'stomach' in the lower arm of the 'Y', where they are digested. Prey movement is also thought to be encouraged by water movement through the trap, produced in a similar way to the vacuum in bladder traps, and probably evolutionarily related to it. Species See text Genlisea (corkscrew plants), is a genus of approximately 15 species of carnivorous plant in the family Lentibulariaceae. ... For other uses, see Corkscrew (disambiguation). ... Leishmania donovani, (a species of protozoan) in a bone marrow cell Protozoa (in Greek proto = first and zoa = animals) are one-celled eukaryotes (that is, unicellular microbes whose cells have membrane-bound nuclei) that commonly show characteristics usually associated with animals, mobility and heterotrophy. ...

Outside of Genlisea, features reminiscent of lobster-pot traps can be seen in Sarracenia psittacina, Darlingtonia californica, and, some horticulturalists argue, Nepenthes aristolochioides. Binomial name Sarracenia psittacina Michx. ... Binomial name Darlingtonia californica Torr. ... Binomial name Nepenthes aristolochioides Jebb & Cheek (1997) Distribution of . ...

Borderline carnivores

Main article: Protocarnivorous plant

To be a fully fledged carnivore, a plant must attract, kill, and digest prey;^[6][7] and it must benefit from absorbing the products of the digestion (mostly amino acids and ammonium ions).^[8] To many horticulturalists, these distinctions are a matter of taste. There is a spectrum of carnivory found in plants: from completely non-carnivorous plants like cabbages, to borderline carnivores, to unspecialised and simple traps, like Heliamphora, to extremely specialised and complex traps, like that of the Venus flytrap. Mucilage-tipped bracts and immature flower of Passiflora foetida, a protocarnivorous plant. ... For the industrial process, see anaerobic digestion. ... Prey can refer to: Look up Prey in Wiktionary, the free dictionary A prey animal eaten by a predator in an act called predation. ... This article is about the class of chemicals. ... A ball-and-stick model of the ammonium cation Ammonium is also an old name for the Siwa Oasis in western Egypt. ... Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ...

Roridula gorgonias: a borderline carnivore that gains nutrients from its 'prey' via the droppings of a predatory bug

The borderline carnivores include Roridula and Catopsis berteroniana. Catopsis is a borderline carnivorous bromeliad, like Brocchinia reducta. However, unlike the phosphatase of B. reducta, C. berteroniana has not been shown to produce digestive enzymes.^[9] In these pitfall traps, prey simply fall into the urn, assisted by the waxy scales located on the rim. Roridula has a more intricate relationship with its prey. The plants in this genus produce sticky leaves with resin-tipped glands, and look extremely similar to some of the larger sundews. However, they do not directly benefit from the insects they catch. Instead, they form a mutualistic symbiosis with species of assassin bug (genus Pameridea), which eat the trapped insects. The plant benefits from the nutrients in the bugs' faeces.^[10] Roridula gorgonias, photographed at Kew Gardens, April 2005 File links The following pages link to this file: Carnivorous plant Roridula ... Roridula gorgonias, photographed at Kew Gardens, April 2005 File links The following pages link to this file: Carnivorous plant Roridula ... Roridula distribution Species Roridula dentata Roridula gorgonias Roridula is a South African genus of plants that, whilst having many of the adaptations of a carnivorous plant, such as the possession of insect-trapping sticky hairs, does not directly digest the animals it traps. ... Roridula distribution Species Roridula dentata Roridula gorgonias Roridula is a South African genus of plants that, whilst having many of the adaptations of a carnivorous plant, such as the possession of insect-trapping sticky hairs, does not directly digest the animals it traps. ... Binomial name Catopsis berteroniana Catopsis berteroniana is an epiphytic bromeliad thought to be a possible carnivorous plant, similar to Brocchinia reducta, although the evidence is equivocal. ... Brocchinia reducta is one of few carnivorous bromeliads. ... A phosphatase is an enzyme that dephosphorylates its substrate; i. ... In biology, mutualism is an interaction between two or more species, where both species derive benefit. ... For other uses, see Symbiosis (disambiguation). ... Subfamilies Harpactorinae Peiratinae Tegeinae Triatominae etc. ... Species Pameridea marlothi Pameridea roridulae Pameridea is a genus of insects comprising two species. ... Horse feces Feces, faeces, or fæces (see spelling differences) is a waste product from an animals digestive tract expelled through the anus (or cloaca) during defecation. ...

A number of species in the Martyniaceae (previously Pedaliaceae), such as Ibicella lutea, have sticky leaves that trap insects. However, these plants have not been shown conclusively to be carnivorous.^[11] Likewise, the seeds of Shepherd's Purse,^[11] urns of Paepalanthus bromelioides,^[12] bracts of Passiflora foetida,^[13] and flower stalks and sepals of triggerplants (Stylidium)^[14] appear to trap and kill insects, but their classification as carnivores is contentious. Martyniaceae is a family of flowering plants in order Lamiales that are restricted to the New World. ... Genera Ceratotheca Dicerocaryum Harpagophytum Holubia Josephinia Linariopsis Pedaliodiscus Pedalium Pterodiscus Rogeria Sesamothamnus Sesamum - sesame Uncarina Pedaliaceae (pedalium family or sesame family) is a flowering plant family classified in the order Scrophulariales in the Cronquist system and Lamiales in the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system. ... Binomial name Ibicella lutea (Lindl. ... Binomial name Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. ... Binomial name Paepalanthus bromelioides Silv. ... Binomial name Passiflora foetida L. The Foetid Passion Flower or Stinking Passion Flower (Passiflora foetida), also known as the Wild Maracuja, is a creeping vine which has an edible fruit and leaves that have a mildly rank aroma. ... Species See text. ...

The production of specific prey-digesting enzymes (proteases, ribonucleases, phosphatases, etc.), is sometimes used as a criterion for carnivory. However, this would probably discount Byblis,^[10] Heliamphora,^[15] and Darlingtonia,^[16] all of which appear to rely on the enzymes of symbiotic bacteria to break down their prey, but are generally considered as carnivores. However, discounting the enzyme-based definition leaves open the question of Roridula. There is no reason why a plant's possession of symbiotic bacteria that allow it to benefit from trapped prey should allow the plant to be considered carnivorous, whilst possession of symbiotic bugs should not. Proteases (proteinases, peptidases, or proteolytic enzymes) are enzymes that break peptide bonds between amino acids of proteins. ... Ribonuclease (RNase) is an enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of RNA into smaller components. ... A phosphatase is an enzyme that dephosphorylates its substrate; i. ... Byblis Categories: Plant stubs | Carnivorous plants | Lamiales ... Common Clownfish (Amphiprion ocellaris) in their Magnificent Sea Anemone (Heteractis magnifica) home. ... Phyla/Divisions Actinobacteria Aquificae Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi Chlamydiae/Verrucomicrobia Chloroflexi Chrysiogenetes Cyanobacteria Deferribacteres Deinococcus-Thermus Dictyoglomi Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria Firmicutes Fusobacteria Gemmatimonadetes Nitrospirae Omnibacteria Planctomycetes Proteobacteria Spirochaetes Thermodesulfobacteria Thermomicrobia Thermotogae Bacteria (singular, bacterium) are a major group of living organisms. ...

Evolution

Artist's restoration of Archaeamphora longicervia, the earliest known carnivorous plant.

The evolution of carnivorous plants is obscured by the paucity of their fossil record. Very few fossils have been found, and then usually only as seed or pollen. Carnivorus plants are generally herbs and their traps primary growth. They generally do not form readily fossilisable structures such as thick bark or wood. The traps themselves would probably not be preserved in any case. Image File history File links Size of this preview: 413 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (1377 × 2000 pixel, file size: 1,011 KB, MIME type: image/png) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Carnivorous plant... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 413 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (1377 × 2000 pixel, file size: 1,011 KB, MIME type: image/png) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Carnivorous plant... Binomial name Archaeamphora longicervia Li (2005) Archaeamphora longicervia is an extinct species of pitcher plant bearing close affinities to extant members of the family Sarraceniaceae. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Fossil. ... For other uses, see Fossil (disambiguation). ... A ripe red jalapeño cut open to show the seeds For other uses, see Seed (disambiguation). ... SEM image of pollen grains from a variety of common plants: sunflower (Helianthus annuus), morning glory (Ipomoea purpurea), prairie hollyhock (Sidalcea malviflora), oriental lily (Lilium auratum), evening primrose (Oenothera fruticosa), and castor bean (Ricinus communis). ...

Still, much can be deduced from the structure of current traps. Pitfall traps are quite clearly derived from rolled leaves. The vascular tissues of Sarracenia is a case in point. The keel along the front of the trap contains a mixture of leftward and rightward facing vascular bundles, as would be predicted from the fusion of the edges of an adaxial (stem-facing) leaf surface. Flypapers also show a simple evolutionary gradient from sticky, non-carnivorous leaves, through passive flypapers to active forms. Molecular data show the Dionaea-Aldrovanda clade is closely related to Drosera,^[17] but the traps are so dissimilar that the theory of their origin -- very fast-moving flypapers became less reliant on glue -- remains rather speculative. Cross section of celery stalk, showing vascular bundles, which include both phloem and xylem. ... This page is a candidate for speedy deletion. ...

There are over a quarter of a million species of flowering plants. Of these, only around five hundred are known to be carnivorous. True carnivory has probably evolved independently at least ten times; however, some of these 'independent' groups probably descended from a recent common ancestor with a predisposition to carnivory. Some groups (the Ericales and Caryophyllales) seem particularly fertile ground for carnivorous preadaptation, although in the former case, this may be more to do with the ecology of the group than its morphology, as most of the members of this group grow in low-nutrient habitats such as heath and bog. Classes Magnoliopsida - Dicots Liliopsida - Monocots The flowering plants or angiosperms are the most widespread group of land plants. ... Families See text. ... Families See text. ... In evolutionary biology, preadaptation describes a situation where an organism uses a preexisting anatomical structure inherited from an ancestor for a potentially unrelated purpose. ... For the journal, see Ecology (journal). ... The term morphology in biology refers to the outward appearance (shape, structure, colour, pattern) of an organism or taxon and its component parts. ... Heath comes from Old English hæð tract of wasteland, from Proto-Germanic *khaiþijo (cognate with Old Irish ciad; see also heather, heathen) refers to a wild meadow or open, unploughed country, see Heath (habitat). ... Lütt-Witt Moor, a bog in Henstedt-Ulzburg in northern Germany. ...

It has been suggested that all trap types are modifications of a similar basic structure - the hairy leaf.^[18] Hairy (or more specifically, stalked-glandular) leaves can catch and retain drops of rainwater, especially if shield-shaped or peltate, thus promoting bacteria growth. Insects land on the leaf, become mired by the surface tension of the water, and suffocate. Bacteria jumpstart decay, releasing from the corpse nutrients that the plant can absorb through its leaves. This foliar feeding can be observed in most non-carnivorous plants. Plants that were better at retaining insects or water therefore had a selective advantage. Rainwater can be retained by cupping the leaf, leading to pitfall traps. Alternatively, insects can be retained by making the leaf stickier by the production of mucilage, leading to flypaper traps. Chart illustrating leaf morphology terms cordate leaf elliptic leaf deltoid leaf In botany, the following terms are used to describe the shape of plant leaves: Acicular (acicularis): Slender and pointed, needle-like Acuminate (acuminata): Tapering to a long point Aristate (aristata): Ending in a stiff, bristle-like point Bipinnate (bipinnata... Surface tension is an effect within the surface layer of a liquid that causes that layer to behave as an elastic sheet. ... Suffocation can mean two things: Suffocation, or Asphyxia, is a medical condition where the body is depraved of oxygen. ... This page may meet Wikipedias criteria for speedy deletion. ... For other uses, see Body (disambiguation). ... It has been suggested that Foliar spraying be merged into this article or section. ... Mucilage is a thick gluey substance, often produced by plants. ...

The pitfall traps may have evolved simply by selection pressure for the production of more deeply cupped leaves, followed by 'zipping up' of the margins and subsequent loss of most of the hairs, except at the bottom, where they help retain prey.

The lobsterpot traps of Genlisea are difficult to interpret. They may have developed from bifurcated pitchers that later specialised on ground dwelling prey. Or perhaps the prey-guiding protrusions of bladder traps became more substantial than the net-like funnel found in most aquatic bladderworts. Whatever their origin, the helical shape of the lobsterpot is an adaptation that displays as much trapping surface as possible in all directions when buried in moss. For other uses, see Moss (disambiguation). ...

The traps of Catopsis berteroniana are unlikely to have descended from a hairy leaf or sepal.

The traps of the bladderworts may have derived from pitchers that specialised in aquatic prey when flooded, like Sarracenia psittacina does today. Escaping prey in terrestrial pitchers have to climb or fly out of a trap, and both of these can be prevented by wax, gravity and narrow tubes. However, a flooded trap can be swum out of, so in Utricularia, a one-way lid may have developed to form the door of a proto-bladder. Later, this may have become active by the evolution of a partial vacuum inside the bladder, tripped by prey brushing against trigger hairs on the door of the bladder. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Binomial name Catopsis berteroniana Catopsis berteroniana is an epiphytic bromeliad thought to be a possible carnivorous plant, similar to Brocchinia reducta, although the evidence is equivocal. ...

Flypaper traps include the various true flypapers and the snap traps of Aldrovanda and Dionaea. The production of sticky mucilage is found in many non-carnivorous genera, and the passive glue traps in Byblis and Drosophyllum could easily have evolved.

The active glue traps use rapid plant movements to trap their prey. Rapid plant movement can result from actual growth, or from rapid changes in cell turgor, which allow cells to expand or contract by quickly altering their water content. Slow-moving flypapers like Pinguicula exploit growth, but the Venus flytrap uses such rapid turgor changes that glue became unnecessary. The stalked glands that once made it and which are so evident in Drosera have become the teeth and trigger hairs - an example of natural selection hijacking preexisting structures for new functions. Rapid plant movement encompasses movement in plant structures occurring over a very short period of time, usually under one second. ... Turgor (also called turgor pressure or osmotic pressure) is the pressure that can build in a space that is enclosed by a membrane that is permeable to a solvent of a solution such as water but not to the solutes of the soluton. ... In evolutionary biology, preadaptation describes a situation where an organism uses a preexisting anatomical structure inherited from an ancestor for a potentially unrelated purpose. ...

Recent taxonomic analysis^[19] of the relationships within the Caryophyllales indicate that the Droseraceae, Triphyophyllum, Nepenthaceae and Drosophyllum, whilst closely related, are embedded within a larger clade that includes non-carnivorous groups such as the tamarisks, Ancistrocladaceae, Polygonaceae and Plumbaginaceae. Interestingly, the tamarisks possess specialised salt-excreting glands on their leaves, as do several of the Plumbaginaceae (such as the sea lavender, Limonium), which may have been co-opted for the excretion of other chemical, such as proteases and mucilage. Some of the Plumbaginaceae (e.g. Ceratostigma) also have stalked, vascularised glands that secrete mucilage on their calyces and aid in seed dispersal and possibly in protecting the flowers from crawling parasitic insects. These are probably homologous with the tentacles of the carnivorous genera. Perhaps carnivory evolved from a protective function, rather than a nutritional one. The balsams (such as Impatiens), which are closely related to the Sarraceniaceae and Roridula similarly possess stalked glands. Families See text. ... Genus Aldrovanda Dionaea Drosera Drosophyllum The Droseraceae are a family of carnivorous plants, commonly known as the sundew family. ... Binomial name Triphyophyllum peltatum (Hutch. ... Genera Nepenthes Anurosperma Families of Flowering Plants as of 2002-10-20 Nepenthaceae is a family of pitcher plants. ... It has been suggested that Clade be merged into this article or section. ... Species See text The genus Tamarix (tamarisk) comprises about 50-60 species of flowering plants in the family Tamaricaceae, native to drier areas of Eurasia and Africa. ... Genera Ancistrocladus Ancistrocladaceae is the botanical name for a family of flowering plants. ... Genera See text The Polygonaceae, or the Knotweed Family, are a group of dicots including buckwheat, sorrel (but not wood sorrel), rhubarb, and knotgrass. ... Genera (examples) Armeria Ceratostigma Limonium Plumbago The Plumbaginaceae are a family of flowering plants that includes a number of popular garden species, which are grown world wide for their attractive flowers. ... Species About 120-150 species; see text Sea-lavender (also Sea Lavender, Sealavender) or Statice is a genus Limonium of flowering plants with about 120 species. ... Tetramerous flower of the Primrose Willowherb (Ludwigia octovalvis) showing petals and sepals A sepal (from Latin separatus separate + petalum petal) is a part of the flower of angiosperms or flower plants. ... Species See text Impatiens namchabarwensis Impatiens rosulata Impatiens parviflora Impatiens is a genus of about 900-1000 species of flowering plants in the family Balsaminaceae. ... Genera Darlingtonia Heliamphora Sarracenia Families of Flowering Plants as of 2002-10-20 Sarraceniaceae is the Pitcher plant family, belonging to order Ericales, previously Nepenthales. ... Roridula distribution Species Roridula dentata Roridula gorgonias Roridula is a South African genus of plants that, whilst having many of the adaptations of a carnivorous plant, such as the possession of insect-trapping sticky hairs, does not directly digest the animals it traps. ...

The only traps that are unlikely to have descended from a hairy leaf or sepal are the carnivorous bromeliads (Brocchinia and Catopsis). These plants use the urn - a fundamental part of a bromeliad - for a new purpose, and build on it by the production of wax and the other paraphernalia of carnivory.

Ecology and modelling of carnivory

Carnivorous plants are widespread but rather rare. They are almost entirely restricted to habitats such as bogs, where soil nutrients are extremely limiting, but where sunlight and water are readily available. Only under such extreme conditions is carnivory favoured to an extent that makes the adaptations obvious. Habitat (which is Latin for it inhabits) is the place where a particular species live and grow. ... Lütt-Witt Moor, a bog in Henstedt-Ulzburg in northern Germany. ... Sol redirects here. ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ...

The archetypal carnivore, the Venus flytrap, grows in soils with almost immeasurable nitrate and calcium levels. Plants need nitrogen for protein synthesis, calcium for cell wall stiffening, phosphate for nucleic acid synthesis, and iron for chlorophyll synthesis. The soil is often waterlogged, which favours the production of toxic ions such as ammonium, and its pH is an acidic 4 to 5. Ammonium can be used as a source of nitrogen by plants, but its high toxicity means that concentrations high enough to fertilise are also high enough to cause damage. For other uses, see Archetype (disambiguation). ... Trinitrate redirects here. ... For other uses, see Calcium (disambiguation). ... Plant cells separated by transparent cell walls. ... Look up nucleic acid in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Chlorophyll gives leaves their green color Space-filling model of the chlorophyll molecule Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in most plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. ... Waterlogging is a verbal noun meaning the saturation of such as ground or the filling of such as a boat with water. ... A ball-and-stick model of the ammonium cation Ammonium is also an old name for the Siwa Oasis in western Egypt. ... For other uses, see PH (disambiguation). ...