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An artist's rendering of a lunar base. (NASA)

The colonization of the Moon is the proposed establishment of permanent human communities on the Moon. Science fiction writers and advocates of space exploration have seen settlement of the Moon as a logical step in the expansion of humanity beyond the Earth. Image File history File links Emblem-important. ... On December 4, 2006, NASA announced the conclusion of its Global Exploration Strategy and Lunar Architecture Study. ... This artists rendering represents a concept of possible activities during future space exploration missions. ... This artists rendering represents a concept of possible activities during future space exploration missions. ... This article is about Earths moon. ... Science fiction is a form of speculative fiction principally dealing with the impact of imagined science and technology, or both, upon society and persons as individuals. ... Space exploration is the physical exploration of outer space, both by human spaceflights and by robotic spacecraft. ... A family of Russian settlers in the Caucasus region, ca. ... This article is about Earth as a planet. ...

Permanent human habitation on a planetary body other than the Earth is one of science fiction's central themes. As technology has advanced, and concerns about the future of humanity on Earth have increased, the argument that space colonization is an achievable and worthwhile goal has gained momentum. Because of its proximity to Earth, the Moon has been seen as a prime candidate for the location of humanity's first permanently occupied extraterrestrial base. Artists conception of a space habitat called the Stanford torus, by Don Davis Space colonization (also called space settlement, space humanization, space habitation, etc. ... This article is about Earths moon. ...

Should attempts at colonization go ahead, economic concerns are likely to lead to settlements being created near mines and processing centers, or near the poles where a continuous source of solar energy can be harnessed. While it would be relatively easy to resupply a lunar base from Earth, in comparison to a Martian base, the Moon is likely to play a large role in the development of long-duration closed-loop life support systems. Duplicating the ecology of Earth so that wastes can be recycled is essential to any long term effort of space exploration. The wealth and knowledge gained by extracting and refining resources on the Moon would positively affect efforts to build colonies elsewhere in the Solar System.

NASA's long range Vision for Space Exploration plan includes a return to the Moon, with a manned mission in 2019 and permanent staffing of a polar base by 2024.^[1][2] Russia has also announced similar plans to send a man to the moon by 2025 and establish a permanent base there several years later.^[3] The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) (IPA [ˈnæsə]) is an agency of the United States government, responsible for the nations public space program. ... Image from NASA site Two planned configurations for a return to the moon, heavy lift (left) and crew (right) The Vision for Space Exploration is the United States space policy announced on January 14, 2004 by President George W. Bush. ... 2019 (MMXIX) will be a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 2024 (MMXXIV) will be a leap year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 2025 (MMXXV) will be a common year starting on Tuesday in the Gregorian Calendar. ...

A Chinese space scientist has said that the People's Republic of China could be capable of landing a human on the moon by 2022^[4] (see Chinese Lunar Exploration Program), and Japan and India also have plans for a lunar base by 2030.^[5] Neither of these plans involve permanent residents on the Moon. Instead they call for sortie missions, in some cases followed by extended expeditions to the lunar base using rotating crew members, as is currently done for the International Space Station. 2022 (MMXXII) will be a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Insignia of the program Chinese Lunar Exploration Program (CLEP) (Chinese: ; pinyin: ) is a program of robotic explorations and human missions to the Moon undertaken by China National Space Administration (CNSA), Peoples Republic of Chinas space agency. ... 2030 (MMXXX) will be a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... ISS redirects here. ...

History

The notion of siting a colony on the Moon originated before the space age; Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, among others, suggested such a step^{[citation needed]}. From the 1950s onwards, a number of concepts and designs have been suggested by scientists, engineers and others. Artists conception of a space habitat called the Stanford torus, by Don Davis Space colonization, also called space settlement and space humanization, is the hypothetical permanent autonomous (self-sufficient) human habitation of locations outside Earth. ... The Artemis Project designed a plan to colonize Europa. ... The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter. ... Saturns moon Titan in natural color. ... Freeman Dyson has proposed that Trans-Neptunian Objects, rather than planets, are the major potential habitat of life in space. ... Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky (Константин Эдуардович Циолковский, Konstanty Ciołkowski) (September 5, 1857 new style – September 19, 1935) was a Russian and Soviet rocket scientist and pioneer of cosmonautics who spent most of his life in a log house on the outskirts of the Russian town of Kaluga. ...

Noted science fiction author Arthur C. Clarke proposed a lunar base of inflatable modules covered in lunar dust for insulation in 1954^{[citation needed]}. A spaceship, assembled in low Earth orbit, would be launched towards the Moon, and astronauts would set up the igloo-like modules and an inflatable radio mast. Subsequent steps would include the establishment of a larger, permanent dome; an algae-based air purifier; a nuclear reactor for the provision of power; and electromagnetic cannons to launch cargo and fuel to interplanetary vessels in space. Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Arthur C. Clarke Sir Arthur Charles Clarke, CBE (born 16 December 1917) is a British science-fiction author and inventor, most famous for his novel 2001: A Space Odyssey, and for collaborating with director Stanley Kubrick on the film of the same... Igloo An igloo (Inuit language: iglu, Inuktitut syllabics: ᐃᒡᓗ, house, plural: iglooit or igluit), translated sometimes as snowhouse, is a shelter constructed from blocks of snow, generally in the form of a dome. ... Algae have conventionally been regarded as simple plants within the study of botany. ... A Sharp FU-888SV Plasmacluster air purifier. ... Core of a small nuclear reactor used for research. ... A mass driver for lunar launch (artists conception) A mass driver or electromagnetic catapult is a method of spacecraft propulsion that would use a linear motor to accelerate payloads up to high speeds. ... This article is about transported goods. ... For other uses, see Fuel (disambiguation). ...

In 1959, John S. Rinehart suggested that the safest design would be a structure that could "[float] in a stationary ocean of dust," since there were, at the time this concept was outlined, theories that there could be mile-deep dust oceans on the Moon^{[citation needed]}. The design proposed consisted of a half-cylinder with half-domes at both ends, with a micrometeoroid shield placed above the base.

The Project Horizon was a 1959 study regarding the U.S. Army's plan to establish a fort on the Moon by 1967.^[6] H. H. Koelle, a German rocket engineer of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) was leading the Project Horizon study. The first landing would be carried out by two "soldier-astronauts" in 1965 and more construction workers would soon follow. Through numerous launches (61 Saturn I and 88 Saturn V), 245 tons of cargo would be transported to the outpost by 1966. Project Horizon was a study to determine the feasibility of the construction of a lunar base on the moon conducted in 1959. ... The Army is the branch of the United States armed forces which has primary responsibility for land-based military operations. ... Hermann Oberth (front) with officials of the ABMA in 1956. ...

Exploration phase

Main article: Exploration of the Moon

Exploration of the lunar surface by spacecraft began in 1959 when the Soviet Luna 2 mission crash-landed into the surface. The same year, the Luna 3 mission radioed photographs to Earth of the Moon's hitherto unseen far side, marking the beginning of a decade-long series of unmanned lunar explorations. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... CCCP redirects here. ... Luna 2 (E-1A series) was the second of the Soviet Unions Luna program spacecraft launched in the direction of the Moon. ... Luna 3 (E-3 series) was the third spacecraft sent successfully to the moon and was an early triumph in the human exploration of outer space. ... For other uses, see Photograph (disambiguation). ... Far side of the Moon. ...

Responding to the Soviet program of space exploration, US President John F. Kennedy in 1961 told the U.S. Congress on May 25: "I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal before this decade is out of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to the Earth." The same year the Soviet leadership made some of its first public pronouncements about landing a man on the Moon and establishing a lunar base. Motto: (traditional) In God We Trust (official, 1956–present) Anthem: The Star-Spangled Banner Capital Washington, D.C. Largest city New York City Official language(s) None at the federal level; English de facto Government Federal Republic  - President George W. Bush (R)  - Vice President Dick Cheney (R) Independence - Declared - Recognized... John Kennedy and JFK redirect here. ... The Congress of the United States is the legislative branch of the federal government of the United States of America. ... is the 145th day of the year (146th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

In 1962, John DeNike and Stanley Zahn published their idea of a sub-surface base located at the Sea of Tranquility^{[citation needed]}. This base would house a crew of 21, in modules placed 4 meters below the surface, which was believed to provide radiation shielding as well as the Earth's atmosphere does. They favored nuclear reactors for energy production, because they are more efficient than solar panels, and it would also overcome the problems with the long lunar nights. For life support system, an algae-based gas exchanger was proposed. The Sea of Tranquility of the Moon. ... For other uses, see Radiation (disambiguation). ... Core of a small nuclear reactor used for research. ... A photovoltaic module is composed of individual PV cells. ...

Manned exploration of the lunar surface began in 1968 when the Apollo 8 spacecraft orbited the Moon with three astronauts on board. This was mankind's first direct view of the far side. The following year, the Apollo 11 lunar module landed two astronauts on the Moon, proving the ability of humans to travel to the Moon, perform scientific research work and bring back sample materials. Apollo 8 was the second successful manned mission of the Apollo space program, in which Commander Frank Borman, Command Module Pilot James Lovell and Lunar Module Pilot William Anders became the first humans to orbit around the Moon. ... Apollo Spacecraft: Command Module, Service Module, Lunar Module. ... The Apollo 11 mission was the first manned mission to land on the Moon. ... Description Role: Lunar landing Crew: 2; CDR, LM pilot Dimensions Height: 20. ... This article is about the concept. ...

Additional missions to the Moon continued this exploration phase. The Apollo 12 mission landed next to Surveyor 3 spacecraft, demonstrating precision landing capability. Following the near-disaster of Apollo 13, Apollo 14 was the last mission on which astronauts were quarantined on their return from the Moon. The use of a manned vehicle was demonstrated with the Lunar Rover during Apollo 15. Apollo 16 made the first landing within the rugged lunar highlands. Apollo 12 was the sixth manned mission in the Apollo program and the second to land on the Moon. ... Surveyor 3 was the third lunar lander of the Surveyor program that explored the Moon. ... Original crew photo. ... Apollo 14 was the eighth manned mission in the Apollo program and the third mission to land on the Moon. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... For the Soviet robotic rovers, see Lunokhod programme. ... Apollo 15 was the ninth manned mission in the Apollo program and the fourth mission to land on the Moon. ... Apollo 16 was the tenth manned mission in the Apollo program and the fifth mission to land on the Moon. ...

However, interest in further exploration of the Moon was beginning to wane among the American public. Apollo 17 was the final Apollo lunar mission, and further planned missions were scrapped at the directive of President Nixon. Instead, focus was turned to the Space Shuttle and manned missions in near Earth orbit. Responding to this new direction, the Soviet government also decided to direct their energies toward building a matching shuttle system, though in the 1970s they did land two robotic rovers on the Moon in the Lunokhod program and returned three lunar soil samples as part of the Luna program. 1974 also saw the end of the Soviet Moonshot, two years after the last American manned landing. Apollo 17 was the eleventh manned space mission in the NASA Apollo program. ... Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913 – April 22, 1994) was the 37th President of the United States, serving from 1969 to 1974. ... This article is about the space vehicle. ... Lunokhod (Russian for Moon walker) 1 and 2 were a pair of unmanned lunar rovers landed on the Moon by the Soviet Union. ... The Luna programme was a series of 24 unmanned space missions sent to the Moon by the Soviet Union between 1959 and 1976. ... Details of the Soviet Moonshot were kept intensely secret until the arrival of glasnost. ...

In the decades following, interest in exploring the Moon faded considerably, and only a few dedicated enthusiasts supported a return. However, the discovery of hydrogen at the lunar poles^[7] rekindled some discussion, as did the potential growth of a Chinese space program ^{[citation needed]} that contemplated its own mission to the Moon. Subsequent research indicated that there was far less ice present than had originally been thought, but that there may still be some usable deposits of hydrogen in other forms.^[8] This article is about the chemistry of hydrogen. ...

In 2004, U.S. President George W. Bush called for a plan to return manned missions to the Moon by 2020. Propelled by this new initiative, NASA issued a new long-range plan that includes building a base on the Moon as a staging point to Mars. This plan envisions a Lunar outpost at one of the moon's poles by 2024, which, if well-sited, might be able to continually harness solar power; at the poles, temperature changes over the course of a lunar day are also less extreme^{[citation needed]} and reserves of water and useful minerals may be found nearby^{[citation needed]}. The European Space Agency, also, has a plan for a permanently manned lunar base by 2025.[3] [4] For other uses of terms redirecting here, see US (disambiguation), USA (disambiguation), and United States (disambiguation) Motto In God We Trust(since 1956) (From Many, One; Latin, traditional) Anthem The Star-Spangled Banner Capital Washington, D.C. Largest city New York City National language English (de facto)1 Demonym American... President is a title held by many leaders of organizations, companies, trade unions, universities, and countries. ... George Walker Bush (born July 6, 1946) is the forty-third and current President of the United States of America, originally inaugurated on January 20, 2001. ... Image from NASA site Two planned configurations for a return to the moon, heavy lift (left) and crew (right) The Vision for Space Exploration is the United States space policy announced on January 14, 2004 by President George W. Bush. ... On December 4, 2006, NASA announced the conclusion of its Global Exploration Strategy and Lunar Architecture Study. ... ESA redirects here. ...

Advantages and disadvantages

Putting aside the general questions of whether a human colony beyond the Earth is feasible or desirable (see: space colonization for a discussion of this question), proponents of space colonization point out that the Moon offers both advantages and disadvantages as a site for such a colony. This article is about Earth as a planet. ... Artists conception of a space habitat called the Stanford torus, by Don Davis Space colonization (also called space settlement, space humanization, space habitation, etc. ...

Advantages

Placing a colony on a natural body would provide an ample source of material for construction and other uses, including shielding from radiation. The energy required to send objects from the Moon to space is much less than from Earth to space. This could allow the Moon to serve as a construction site or fueling station for spacecraft^{[citation needed]}. Some proposals include using electric acceleration devices (Mass driver) to propel objects off the Moon without building rockets. Others have proposed momentum exchange tethers(see below). Furthermore, the Moon does have some gravity, which, experience to date indicates, may be vital for fetal development and long-term human health^{[citation needed]}. Whether the Moon's gravity (roughly one sixth of Earth's) is adequate for this purpose, however, remains to be seen. For other uses, see Construction (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Radiation (disambiguation). ... A mass driver for lunar launch (artists conception) A mass driver or electromagnetic catapult is a method of spacecraft propulsion that would use a linear motor to accelerate payloads up to high speeds. ... Gravity is a force of attraction that acts between bodies that have mass. ...

In addition, the Moon is the closest large body in the solar system to Earth. While some Earth-crosser asteroids occasionally pass closer, the Moon's distance is consistently within a small range close to 384,400 km. This proximity has several benefits: This article is about the Solar System. ... Diagram showing different asteroid paths. ... A kilometre (American spelling: kilometer) (symbol: km) is a unit of length equal to 1000 metres (from the Greek words khilia = thousand and metro = count/measure). ...

• The energy required to send objects from Earth to the Moon is lower than for most other bodies.
• Transit time is short. The Apollo astronauts made the trip in three days. Other chemical rockets such as would be used for any Moon missions in the next one to two decades at least, would take a similar length of time to make the trip.
• The short transit time would also allow emergency supplies to quickly reach a Moon colony from Earth, or allow a human crew to evacuate relatively quickly from the Moon to Earth in case of emergency. This could be an important consideration when establishing the first human colony.
• The round trip communication delay to Earth is less than three seconds, allowing normal voice and video conversation. The delay for other solar system bodies is minutes or hours; for example, round trip communication time between Earth and Mars ranges from about eight minutes to about forty minutes. This again would be of particular value in an early colony, where life-threatening problems requiring Earth's assistance could occur. (See, for example: Apollo 13)
• On the lunar near side, the Earth appears large and is always visible as an object 60 times brighter than the Moon does on Earth, unlike more distant locations where the earth would be seen merely as a star-like object, much as the planets appear from Earth. As a result, a Lunar colony might feel less remote to humans living there. The Apollo 8 astronauts, when behind the Moon, were the first humans to have no view of the Earth.
• A lunar base would provide an excellent site for any kind of observatory^{[citation needed]}. As the Moon's rotation is so slow, visible light observatories could perform observations for days at a time. It is possible to maintain near-constant observations on a specific target with a string of such observatories spanning the circumference of the Moon. Radio observatories could be considerably larger than the Arecibo radio observatory, due to the Moon's low gravity^{[citation needed]}. The fact that the Moon is geologically inactive along with the lack of widespread human activity result in a remarkable lack of mechanical disturbance, making it far easier to set up interferometric telescopes on the lunar surface, even at relatively higher frequencies such as visible light^{[citation needed]}.

Original crew photo. ... Apollo 8 was the second successful manned mission of the Apollo space program, in which Commander Frank Borman, Command Module Pilot James Lovell and Lunar Module Pilot William Anders became the first humans to orbit around the Moon. ... U.S. Space Shuttle astronaut Bruce McCandless II using a manned maneuvering unit. ... This article is about scientific observatories. ... The Arecibo Observatory is located approximately 9 miles south-southwest from Arecibo, Puerto Rico (near the extreme southwestern corner of Arecibo pueblo). ... Diagram showing a possible layout for an astronomical interferometer, with the mirrors laid out in a parabolic arrangement (similar to the shape of a conventional telescope mirror). ...

Disadvantages

There are several disadvantages to the Moon as a colony site:

• The long lunar night would impede reliance on solar power and require a colony to be designed that could withstand large temperature extremes. An exception to this restriction are the so-called "peaks of eternal light" located at the lunar north pole that are constantly bathed in sunlight. The rim of Shackleton Crater, towards the lunar south pole, also, has a near-constant solar illumination. Other areas near the poles that get light most of the time could be linked in a power grid.
• The Moon lacks light elements (volatiles), such as carbon and nitrogen, although there is some evidence of hydrogen near the north and south poles. Additionally, oxygen, though one of the most common elements in the regolith constituting the Moon's surface, is only found bound up in minerals that would require complex industrial infrastructure using very high energy to isolate. Some or all of these volatiles are needed to generate breathable air, water, food, and rocket fuel, all of which would need to be imported from Earth until other cheaper sources are developed. This would limit the colony's rate of growth and keep it dependent on Earth. The cost of volatiles could be reduced by constructing the upper stage of supply ships using materials high in volatiles, such as carbon fiber and other plastics, although converting these into forms useful for life would involve substantial difficulty. The 2006 announcement [5] by the Keck Observatory that the binary Trojan asteroid 617 Patroclus, and possibly large numbers of other Trojan objects in Jupiter's orbit, are likely composed of water ice, with a layer of dust, and the hypothesized large amounts of water ice on the closer, main-belt asteroid 1 Ceres, suggest that importing volatiles from this region via the Interplanetary Transport Network may be practical in the not-so-distant future. However, these possibilities are dependent on complicated and expensive resource utilization from the mid to outer solar system, which are not likely to become available to a Moon colony for a significant period of time. One of the lowest delta-V sources for volatiles for the Moon is Mars, suggesting that developing colonies on Mars first may in the long run be the easiest and least expensive way to establish a colony on the Moon.
• There is continuing uncertainty over whether the low one sixth g gravity on the Moon is strong enough to prevent detrimental effects to human health in the long term. Exposure to weightlessness over month-long periods has been demonstrated to cause deterioration of physiological systems, such as loss of bone and muscle mass and a depressed immune system. Similar effects could occur in a low-gravity environment, although virtually all research into the health effects of low gravity has been limited to zero gravity. Countermeasures such as an aggressive routine of daily exercise have proven at least partially effective in preventing the deleterious effects of low gravity.
• The lack of a substantial atmosphere for insulation results in temperature extremes and makes the Moon's surface conditions somewhat like a deep space vacuum. It also leaves the lunar surface exposed to just as much radiation as in interplanetary space. Although lunar materials would potentially be useful as a simple radiation shield for living quarters, shielding against solar flares during expeditions outside is more problematic.
• Also, the lack of an atmosphere increases the chances of the colonial site being hit by meteors, which would impact upon the surface directly, as they have done throughout the Moon's history. Even small pebbles and dust have the potential to damage or destroy insufficiently protected structures.
• Moon dust is an extremely abrasive glassy substance formed by micrometeorites and unrounded due to the lack of weathering. It sticks to everything, can damage equipment and it may be toxic. [6]
• Growing crops on the moon faces many difficult challenges due to the long lunar night (nearly 15 earth days), extreme variation in surface temperature, exposure to solar flares, and lack of bees for pollination. The use of electric lighting to compensate the 28 day/night might be difficult: a single acre of plants on Earth enjoys a peak 4 MW of sunlight power at noon. Experiments conducted by the Soviet space program in the 1970s suggest it is possible to grow conventional crops with the 15 day light, 15 day dark cycle. [7] A variety of concepts for lunar agriculture have been proposed [8] including the use of minimal artificial light to maintain plants during the night and the use of fast growing crops that might be started as seedlings with artificial light and be harvestable at the end of one lunar day. [9] One estimate suggested a 0.5 hectare space farm could feed 100 people. [10]

Solar power describes a number of methods of harnessing energy from the light of the sun. ... For other uses, see Temperature (disambiguation). ... Peak of Eternal Light (PEL) describes a point on a body within the solar system which is eternally bathed in sunlight. ... Shackleton is a lunar crater that lies at the south pole of the Moon. ... The periodic table of the chemical elements A chemical element, or element, is a type of atom that is defined by its atomic number; that is, by the number of protons in its nucleus. ... This article is about the chemistry of hydrogen. ... Regolith (Greek: blanket rock) is a layer of loose, heterogeneous material covering solid rock. ... Graphite-reinforced plastic or carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP or CRP), is a strong, light and very expensive composite material or fibre reinforced plastic. ... The Mauna Kea Observatory, an institute of the University of Hawaii, is considered one of the most important land-based observatories in the world for its isolated, unobstructed views of space without interference from man-made light sources. ... Image of the Trojan asteroids in front of and behind Jupiter along its orbital path. ... 617 Patroclus is the second Jovian Trojan asteroid to be discovered. ... 1 Ceres (IPA , Latin: ) is a dwarf planet in the asteroid belt. ... Artists concept of the Interplanetary Transport Network. ... The term g force or gee force refers to the symbol g, the force of acceleration due to gravity at the earths surface. ... Astronauts on the International Space Station display an example of weightlessness. ... Atmosphere is the general name for a layer of gases that may surround a material body of sufficient mass. ... Look up Vacuum in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Regolith. ... Soviet Soyuz rockets like the one pictured above were the first reliable means to transport objects into Earth orbit. ... A hectare (symbol ha) is a unit of area, equal to 10 000 square metres, commonly used for measuring land area. ...

Locations

Russian astronomer Vladislav V. Shevchenko proposed in 1988 three criteria that a lunar outpost should meet^{[citation needed]}: An astronomer or astrophysicist is a person whose area of interest is astronomy or astrophysics. ... Social activities: 1978 - present time - Chairman of the Lunar Task Group of the International Astronomical Unions Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature, member of the Working Group. ...

• good conditions for transport operations;
• a great number of different types of natural objects and features on the Moon of scientific interest; and
• natural resources, such as oxygen. The abundance of certain minerals, such as iron oxide, varies dramatically over the lunar surface.^[9] See: Geology of the Moon.

While a colony might be located anywhere, potential locations for a lunar colony fall into three broad categories. General Name, symbol, number oxygen, O, 8 Chemical series nonmetals, chalcogens Group, period, block 16, 2, p Appearance colorless (gas) pale blue (liquid) Standard atomic weight 15. ... Iron oxide pigment There are a number of iron oxides: Iron oxides Iron(II) oxide or ferrous oxide (FeO) The black-coloured powder in particular can cause explosions as it readily ignites. ... Exploring Shorty crater during the Apollo 17 mission to the Moon. ...

Polar regions

There are two reasons why the lunar poles might be attractive as locations for a human colony. First, there is evidence that water is present in some continuously shaded areas near the poles^{[citation needed]}. Second, because the Moon's axis of rotation is almost perfectly perpendicular to the ecliptic plane, it may be possible to power polar colonies exclusively with solar energy. Power collection stations can be located so that at least one is in sunlight at all times, yet all are close enough to each other to be connected in an electrical grid^{[citation needed]}. Some sites have nearly continuous sunlight. For example, Malapert mountain, located near the Shackleton crater at the lunar south pole, offers several advantages as a site: The axis of rotation of a rotating body is a line such that the distance between any point on the line and any point of the body remains constant under the rotation. ... The plane of the Ecliptic is well seen in this picture from the 1994 lunar prospecting Clementine spacecraft. ... Power line redirects here. ... Malapert is a lunar crater that lies near the southern limb of the Moon. ... Shackleton is a lunar crater that lies at the south pole of the Moon. ...

• It is exposed to the sun most of the time; two closely spaced arrays of solar panels would receive continuous power^{[citation needed]}.
• Its proximity to Shackleton Crater (116 km, or 69.8 mi) means that it could provide power and communications to the crater. This crater is potentially valuable for astronomical observation. An infrared instrument would benefit from the very cold temperatures. A radio telescope would benefit from being shielded from Earth's broad spectrum radio interference^{[citation needed]}.
• The nearby Shoemaker and other craters are in constant deep shadow, and might contain valuable concentrations of hydrogen and other volatiles^{[citation needed]}.
• At around 5,000 meters (16,500 ft) elevation, it offers line of sight communications over a large area, as well as to Earth^{[citation needed]}.
• The South Pole-Aitken basin is located at the south lunar pole. This is the largest known impact basin in the solar system, and should provide geologists access to deeper layers of the Moon's crust.

NASA chose to use a south-polar site for the lunar outpost reference design in the Exploration Systems Architecture Study chapter on Lunar Architecture.^[10] A photovoltaic module is composed of individual PV cells. ... For other uses, see Astronomy (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Infrared (disambiguation). ... The 64 meter radio telescope at Parkes Observatory A radio telescope is a form of directional radio antenna used in radio astronomy and in tracking and collecting data from satellites and space probes. ... Shoemaker is a lunar crater that is located near the southern pole of the Moon, within a half crater diameter of Shackleton crater. ... This article is about the chemistry of hydrogen. ... When viewing a scene, as in optics, photography, or even hunting, the line of sight is the straight line between the observer and the target. ... This article is about Earth as a planet. ... The South Pole-Aitken basin is an impact crater on Earths Moon. ... The Exploration Systems Architecture Study (ESAS) is the official title of a large-scale, system level study conducted by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) during the Summer of 2005 in response to the American president George W. Bushs announcement on January 14, 2004 of his goal of...

At the north pole, the rim of Peary crater has been proposed as a favorable location for a base^{[citation needed]}. Examination of images from the Clementine mission appear to show that parts of the crater rim are permanently illuminated by sunlight (except during lunar eclipses)^{[citation needed]}. As a result, the temperature conditions are expected to remain very stable at this location, averaging −50 °C (−58 °F)^{[citation needed]}. This is comparable to winter conditions in the Pole of Cold in Siberia, or in some parts of Antarctica. The Peary crater interior may also harbor hydrogen deposits^{[citation needed]}. Peary is the closest large crater to the lunar north pole. ... Clementine was a joint space project between the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO, previously the Strategic Defense Initiative Organization, or SDIO) and NASA. The objective of the mission was to test sensors and spacecraft components under extended exposure to the space environment and to make scientific observations of the Moon... The Poles of Cold are the places in the Northern and Southern hemispheres where the lowest air temperature was recorded. ... This article is about Siberia as a whole. ...

Although hydrogen appears to be concentrated at the poles, the presence of water ice has not yet been confirmed. A bistatic radar experiment performed during the Clementine mission suggested the presence of water ice around the south pole.^[11][12] The Lunar Prospector spacecraft reported enhanced hydrogen abundances not only at the south pole, but also at the north pole — actually more so.^[13] On the other hand, results reported using the Arecibo radio telescope have been interpreted by some to indicate that the anomalous Clementine radar signatures are not indicative of ice, but surface roughness.^[14] This interpretation, however, is not universally agreed upon.^[15] Clementine was a joint space project between the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO, previously the Strategic Defense Initiative Organization, or SDIO) and NASA. The objective of the mission was to test sensors and spacecraft components under extended exposure to the space environment and to make scientific observations of the Moon... NASAs Lunar Prospector The Lunar Prospector mission was the third selected by NASA for full development and construction as part of the Discovery Program. ... The Arecibo Observatory is located approximately 9 miles south-southwest from Arecibo, Puerto Rico (near the extreme southwestern corner of Arecibo pueblo). ...

Equatorial regions

The lunar equatorial regions are likely to have higher concentrations of Helium-3 because the solar wind has a higher angle of incidence.^{[citation needed]} They also enjoy an advantage in launching material from the Moon, but the advantage is slight due to the Moon's slow rotation. Helium-3 is a non-radioactive and light isotope of helium. ...

One site mentioned by Shevchenko as meeting his criteria^{[citation needed]} is Oceanus Procellarum. Several probes have landed in that area. There are many areas and features that could be subject to long-term study, such as the Reiner Gamma anomaly and the dark-floored Grimaldi crater. The Ocean of Storms of the Moon. ... Reiner Gamma (γ) is an albedo feature that is located on the Oceanus Procellarum, to the west of the Reiner crater on the Moon. ... Grimaldi is a large basin located near the western limb of the Moon. ...

Far side

The lunar far side lacks direct communication with Earth, though a communication satellite at the L2 Lagrangian point, or a network of orbiting satellites, could enable communication between the far side of the Moon and Earth. [11] The far side is also a good location for a large radio telescope because it is well shielded from the Earth.[12] Due to the lack of atmosphere, the location is also suitable for an array of optical telescopes, similar to the Very Large Telescope in Chile.[13] To date, there has been no ground exploration of the far side. Far side of the Moon. ... U.S. military MILSTAR communications satellite A communications satellite (sometimes abbreviated to comsat) is an artificial satellite stationed in space for the purposes of telecommunications using radio at microwave frequencies. ... A contour plot of the effective potential (the Hills Surfaces) of a two-body system (the Sun and Earth here), showing the five Lagrange points. ... Eight Inch refracting telescope. ... One of the four telescopes that make up the VLT, named Kueyen. ...

Scientists have estimated that the highest concentrations of He-3 will be found in the maria on the far side, as well as near side areas containing concentrations of the titanium-based mineral ilmenite. On the near side the Earth and its magnetic field partially shields the surface from the solar wind during each orbit. But the far side is fully exposed, and thus should receive a somewhat greater proportion of the ion stream.[14] The Lunar maria (singular: mare, IPA: //) are large, dark, basaltic plains on Earths Moon, formed by ancient volcanic eruptions. ... General Name, symbol, number titanium, Ti, 22 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 4, 4, d Appearance silvery metallic Standard atomic weight 47. ... For other uses, see Mineral (disambiguation). ... Ilmenite is a weakly magnetic iron-black or steel-gray mineral found in metamorphic and igneous rocks. ...

Structure

Habitat

A lunar base with an inflatable module. Conceptual drawing.

There have been numerous proposals regarding habitat modules. The designs have evolved throughout the years as mankind's knowledge about the Moon has grown, and as the technological possibilities have changed. The proposed habitats range from the actual spacecraft landers or their used fuel tanks, to inflatable modules of various shapes. Early on, some hazards of the lunar environment such as sharp temperature shifts, lack of atmosphere or magnetic field (which means higher levels of radiation and micrometeoroids) and long nights, were recognized and taken into consideration. Download high resolution version (1024x770, 656 KB)Inflatable module for lunar base File links The following pages link to this file: Colonization of the Moon Categories: NASA images ... Download high resolution version (1024x770, 656 KB)Inflatable module for lunar base File links The following pages link to this file: Colonization of the Moon Categories: NASA images ...

Some suggest building the lunar colony underground, which would give protection from radiation and micrometeoroids. This is not the only advantage to this option. The average temperature on the moon is about -5 Degrees. The day period (2 weeks) has an average temperature of about 107 degrees Celsius (225 degrees fahrenheit), although it can rise as high as 123 degrees Celsius (253 degrees fahrenheit). The night period (2 weeks as well) has an average temperature of about -153 degrees Celsius (-243 degrees fahrenheit).^[16] Underground, both periods of the day would be around 24 degrees Celsius (75 degrees fahrenheit), and humans could install basic air conditioners ^{[citation needed]}. The construction of such a base would probably be more complex; one of the first machines from Earth might be a remote controlled boring machine to excavate living quarters. Once created, some sort of hardening would be necessary to avoid collapse, possibly a spray-on concrete-like substance made from available materials.^[17] A more porous insulating material also made in situ could then be applied. Inflatable self-sealing fabric habitats might then be put in place to retain air. As an alternative to excavating, it is possible that large underground extinct lava tubes might exist on the Moon.^[18] This article is about the construction material. ... Thurston Lava Tube in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. ...

A possibly easier solution is to build the lunar base on the surface, and cover the modules with lunar soil. Others have put forward the idea that the lunar base could be built on the surface and protected by other means, such as improved radiation and micrometeoroid shielding. Artificial magnetic fields have been proposed as a means to provide radiation shielding for long range deep space manned missions, and it might be possible to use similar technology on a lunar colony. Some regions on the Moon possess strong local magnetic fields strengths that might partially mitigate against exposure to charged solar and galactic particles.^[19]

Energy

A lunar base would need power for its operations, from fuel production and communications to life support systems and scientific research.

Nuclear power

A nuclear fission reactor could possibly be able to fulfill most of the need for power. The advantage it has against a fusion reactor is that it is an already existing technology. One advantage of using a fusion reactor is that Helium-3, which is required for a certain type of fusion reaction, is abundant on the Moon. However, fusion reactors are far from being a practical power source at present and may not be available at the time of lunar colonization. Radioisotope thermoelectric generators could be used as backup and emergency power sources for solar powered colonies. Nuclear power station at Leibstadt, Switzerland. ... Also try: fusion power This article is about a fictional warship in the game Halo. ... Helium-3 is a non-radioactive and light isotope of helium. ... // A radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) is a simple electrical generator which obtains its power from radioactive decay. ...

Solar energy

Solar energy is a strong candidate. It could prove to be a relatively cheap source of power for a lunar base, especially since many of the raw materials needed for solar panel production can be extracted on site. However, the long lunar night (14 Earth days) is a drawback for solar power on the Moon. This might be solved by building several power plants, so that at least one of them is always in daylight. Another possibility would be to build such a power plant where there is constant or near-constant sunlight, such as at the Malapert mountain near the lunar south pole, or on the rim of Peary crater near the north pole. See Peak of Eternal Light. Peary is the closest large crater to the lunar north pole. ... Peak of Eternal Light (PEL) describes a point on a body within the solar system which is eternally bathed in sunlight. ...

The solar energy converters need not be silicon solar panels. It may be more advantageous to use the larger temperature difference between sun and shade to run heat engine generators. Concentrated sunlight could also be relayed via mirrors and used in Stirling engines or solar trough generators or it could be used directly for lighting, agriculture and process heat. The focused heat can also be employed in materials processing to extract various elements from lunar surface materials. Not to be confused with Silicone. ... A photovoltaic module is composed of individual PV cells. ... A heat engine is a physical or theoretical device that converts thermal energy to mechanical output. ... A Stirling engine and generator set with 55 kW electrical output, for combined heat and power applications. ... Sketch of a Parabolic Trough Power Plant A parabolic trough is a type of solar thermal collector. ...

Energy storage

For colonies away from the lunar poles, some way to store energy for the long lunar night will be needed. One possibility is to use solar energy to convert water into hydrogen and oxygen and then use the stored gases to run fuel cells or internal combustion engines during the night.

Fuel cells on the Space Shuttle have operated reliably for up to 17 days at a time. On the Moon, they would only be needed for 13.7 days - the length of the lunar night. Fuel cells produce water directly as a waste product. Current fuel cell technology is more advanced than the Shuttle's cells - PEM (Proton Exchange Membrane) cells produce considerably less heat (though their waste heat would likely be useful during the lunar night) and are physically lighter, and thus more economical to launch from Earth. Diagram of a PEM fuel cell Proton exchange membrane fuel cells, also known as polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), are a type of fuel cell being developed for transport applications as well as for stationary and portable applications. ...

Transport

Earth to Moon

Conventional rockets have been used for most lunar exploration to date. The ESA's SMART-1 mission from 2003 to 2006 used Hall effect thrusters. NASA will use chemical rockets on its Ares V booster and Lunar Surface Access Module, being developed for a planned return to the Moon around 2021. The construction workers, location finders, and other astronauts vital to building, will be taken in NASA's Orion. This article is about vehicles powered by rocket engines. ... SMART-1. ... 2 kW Laboratory Hall Thruster in operation at the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory A Hall effect thruster is a type of ion thruster in which the propellant is accelerated by an electric field in a plasma discharge with a radial magnetic field. ... The Ares V (formerly known as the Cargo Launch Vehicle or CaLV) is the cargo launch component of Project Constellation. ... The LSAM launches its ascent stage to return the astronauts to Lunar Orbit. ... Orion is a spacecraft currently under development by the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). ...

On the surface

A lunar rover being unloaded from a cargo spacecraft. Conceptual drawing.

Lunar colonists will want the ability to move over long distances, to transport cargo and people to and from modules and spacecraft, and to be able to carry out scientific study of a larger area of the lunar surface for long periods of time. Proposed concepts include a variety of vehicle designs, from small open rovers to large pressurised modules with lab equipment, and also a few flying or hopping vehicles. Lunar rover concept drawing File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Lunar rover concept drawing File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ...

Rovers could be useful if the terrain is not too steep or hilly. The only rovers that operated on the surface of the Moon as of 2004 were the Apollo Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV), developed by Boeing and the unmanned Soviet Lunokhod. The LRV was an open rover for a crew of two, and a range of 92 km during one lunar day. One NASA study resulted in the Mobile Lunar Laboratory concept, a manned pressurised rover for a crew of two, range would be 396 km. The Soviet Union developed different rover concepts in the Lunokhod series and the L5 for possible use on future manned missions to the Moon or Mars. These rover designs were all pressurised for longer missions.^[20] Lunar Rover-Manned land vehicle (NASA) The Lunar Rover was a manned land vehicle for transport on the Moon. ... The Boeing Company (NYSE: BA, TYO: 7661) is a major aerospace and defense corporation, originally founded by William Edward Boeing. ... Lunokhod (Russian for Moon walker) 1 and 2 were a pair of unmanned lunar rovers landed on the Moon by the Soviet Union. ... The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) (IPA [ˈnæsÉ™]) is an agency of the United States government, responsible for the nations public space program. ...

Once multiple bases have been established on the lunar surface, they can be linked together by permanent railway systems. Both conventional and magnetic levitation (Mag-Lev) systems have been proposed for the transport lines. Mag-Lev systems are particularly attractive as there is no atmosphere on the surface to slow down the train, so the vehicles could achieve velocities comparable to aircraft on the Earth. One significant difference with lunar trains, however, is that the cars will need to be individually sealed and possess their own life support systems. The trains will also need to be highly resistant to derailment, as a punctured car could lead to rapid loss of life. This article is about magnetic levitation. ... For other uses, see Train (disambiguation). ... Flying machine redirects here. ...

For difficult areas, it might be a good idea to use a flying vehicle. Bell Aerosystems proposed their design for the Lunar Flying Vehicle as part of a study for NASA. Bell also developed the Manned Flying System, a similar concept. ...

Surface to space

A lunar base with a mass driver (the long structure that goes toward the horizon.) NASA conceptual illustration.

A lunar base will need efficient ways to transport people and goods of various kinds between the Earth and the Moon and, later, to and from various locations in interplanetary space. One advantage of the Moon is its relatively weak gravity field, making it easier to launch goods from the Moon than from the Earth. The lack of a lunar atmosphere is both an advantage and a disadvantage; while it is easier to launch from the Moon because there is no drag, aerobraking is not possible, which makes it necessary to bring extra fuel in order to land. An alternative, which may work for supplies, is to surround the payload with impact-absorbing materials, something that was tried in the Ranger program. This can be efficient if the impact protection is made of needed lighter elements that are absent from the Moon (Ranger used balsa wood). Download high resolution version (1023x675, 507 KB)Lunar base concept drawing from NASA File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Download high resolution version (1023x675, 507 KB)Lunar base concept drawing from NASA File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... An artists conception of a spacecraft aerobraking Aerobraking is a technique used by spacecraft in which it uses drag within a planetary atmosphere to reduce its velocity relative to the planet. ... The Ranger program was a series of unmanned space missions by the United States in the 1960s whose objective was to obtain the first close-up images of the surface of the Moon. ... Binomial name Ochroma lagopus Balsa (Ochroma lagopus, synonym ) is a large, fast-growing tree to 30 m tall, native from tropical South America north to southern Mexico. ...

One way to get materials and products from the Moon to an interplanetary waystation might be with a mass driver, a magnetically accelerated projectile launcher. Cargo would be picked up from orbit or an Earth-Moon Lagrangian point by a shuttle craft using ion propulsion, solar sails or other means and delivered to Earth orbit or other destinations such as near-Earth asteroids, Mars or other planets, perhaps using the Interplanetary Transport Network. If a lunar space elevator is ever built, it could transport people, raw materials and products to and from an orbital station at Lagrangian points L1 or L2. A "Pop Gun" concept has also been proposed, using heated gas to launch packets of material to orbit.^{[citation needed]} A mass driver for lunar launch (artists conception) A mass driver or electromagnetic catapult is a method of spacecraft propulsion that would use a linear motor to accelerate payloads up to high speeds. ... A contour plot of the effective potential (the Hills Surfaces) of a two-body system (the Sun and Earth here), showing the five Lagrange points. ... An ion engine test An ion thruster is a type of spacecraft propulsion that uses beams of ions for propulsion. ... Solar sails (also called light sails or photon sails, especially when they use light sources other than the Sun) are a proposed form of spacecraft propulsion using large membrane mirrors. ... Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun in the solar system, named after the Roman god of war (the counterpart of the Greek Ares), on account of its blood red color as viewed in the night sky. ... Artists concept of the Interplanetary Transport Network. ... A lunar space elevator (also called a moonstalk) is a proposed cable running from the surface of the Moon into space. ... The space station Mir A space station is an artificial structure designed for humans to live in outer space. ...

Surface to and from cislunar space

A cislunar transport system has been proposed using tethers to achieve momentum exchange.^[21] This system requires zero net energy input, and could not only retrieve payloads from the lunar surface and transport them to Earth, but could also soft land payloads on to the lunar surface. Cislunar space (alternatively, cis-lunar space) is the volume wi