Dementia praecox ("premature dementia") is a term first used in 1891 in this Latin form by Arnold Pick (1851-1924), a professor of psychiatry at the German branch of Charles University in Prague. His brief clinical report described the case of a person with a psychotic disorder resembling hebephrenia (see below). It was popularized by German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926) in 1896 in his first detailed description of a condition that would eventually be reframed and relabeled as schizophrenia. It refers to a chronic, deteriorating psychotic disorder characterized by rapid cognitive disintegration, usually beginning in the late teens or early adulthood. For other uses, see Dementia (disambiguation). ... Schizophrenia is a psychiatric diagnosis denoting a persistent, often chronic, mental illness variously affecting behaviour, thinking, and emotion. ... Emil Kraepelin (February 15, 1856–October 7, 1926) was a German psychiatrist who attempted to create a synthesis of the hundreds of mental disorders classified by the 19th century, grouping diseases together based on classification of common patterns of symptoms, rather than by simple similarity of major symptoms in the... Year 1896 (MDCCCXCVI) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display calendar). ... Psychosis is a psychiatric classification for a mental state in which the perception of reality is distorted. ...

The primary disturbance in dementia praecox is not one of mood (as is the case in manic-depressive illness), but of thinking or cognition. Cognitive disintegration refers to a disruption in cognitive or mental functioning such as in attention, memory, and goal-directed behavior. Look up mood in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Manic depression, with its two principal sub-types, bipolar disorder and major depression, was first clinically described near the end of the 19th century by psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin, who published his account of the disease in his Textbook of Psychiatry. ... Look up Cognition in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

From the outset, dementia praecox was viewed as a progressively degenerating disease from which no one recovered.

History

First use of the term

The term demence precoce was used to describe a psychotic disorder by the French physician Benedict-Augustin Morel in 1853, and later used in his 1860 textbook, Traité des maladies mentales. Morel used the term to define a disorder that first struck men in their teenage or young adult years, after which their intellectual functioning rapidly deteriorated. Morel saw this mental disorder as being within the larger context of his theory of degeneration. These young men were beginning a rapid intellectual deterioration that would result in total disability and possible death. Psychosis is a psychiatric classification for a mental state in which the perception of reality is distorted. ... Bénédict Augustin Morel (November 22, 1809–March 30, 1873), was an Austrian-French physician who was a seminal figure in the field of psychiatry in 19th century Europe. ... 1853 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... 1860 is the leap year starting on Sunday. ...

Morel described an entire category of psychotic disorders that ended in dementia, and as a result he may be regarded as the first alienist or psychiatrist to develop a diagnostic system based on presumed outcome rather than on the current presentation of signs and symptoms. Morel, however, did not conduct any long-term or quantitative research on the course and outcome of dementia praecox (Kraepelin would be the first in history to do that) so this prognosis was based on speculation. It is impossible to discern whether the brief description of the disorder described by Morel was equivalent to the disorder later called dementia praecox by Pick and Kraepelin. Nor is there any reason to conclude that either of these men used Morel as a source of inspiration for their concepts. In economics, the period of time required for economic agents to reallocate resources, and generally reestablish equilibrium. ... A scale for measuring mass A quantitative property is one that exists in a range of magnitudes, and can therefore be measured. ... In Medicine, a course of medication is a period of continuous treatment with a drug, sometimes with variable dosage. ... Outcomes in Fp code are FAIL or PASS. FAIL is referred to as the null state. ...

The time component

In 1863, Karl Kahlbaum (1828-1899) of Danzig, Prussia published Die Gruppierung der psychischen Krankheiten (The Classification of Psychiatric Diseases). In this book, Kahlbaum described a class of progressively degenerating psychotic disorders that he grouped under the term "Vesania typical" (typical insanity). In 1866 Kahlbaum became the director of a private psychiatric clinic in Gorlitz, Prussia, a small town near Dresden. He was accompanied by his younger assistant, Ewald Hecker (1843-1909), and together they conducted a series of research studies on young psychotic patients that would become a major influence on the development of modern psychiatry. Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum (December 28, 1828, Driesen - April 15, 1899) was a German psychiatrist who practiced medicine at Wehlau and Königsberg before becoming director of the mental hospital at Görlitz, Prussia in 1867. ... For alternative meanings of Gdańsk and Danzig, see Gdansk (disambiguation) and Danzig (disambiguation) The title given to this article is incorrect due to technical limitations. ... Motto Suum cuique Latin: To each his own Prussia at its peak, as leading state of the German Empire Capital Königsberg, later Berlin Government Duke1  - 1525–68 Albert I (first)  - 1688–1701 Frederick III (last) King1  - 1701–13 Frederick I (first)  - 1888–1918 William II (last) Prime Minister1,2... 1866 (MDCCCLXVI) is a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar. ... Motto Suum cuique Latin: To each his own Prussia at its peak, as leading state of the German Empire Capital Königsberg, later Berlin Government Duke1  - 1525–68 Albert I (first)  - 1688–1701 Frederick III (last) King1  - 1701–13 Frederick I (first)  - 1888–1918 William II (last) Prime Minister1,2... Dresden (Sorbian: Drježdźany; etymologically from Old Sorbian Drežďany, meaning people of the riverside forest, Czech: ) is the capital city of the German Federal Free State of Saxony. ... Ewald Hecker (1843-1909) was a German physician who was an important figure in the early days of psychiatry. ... Research is a human activity based on intellectual investigation and aimed at discovering, interpreting, and revising human knowledge on different aspects of the world. ...

Together Kahlbaum and Hecker were the first to describe and name such syndromes as dysthymia, cyclothymia, paranoia, catatonia, and hebephrenia. Perhaps their most lasting contribution to psychiatry was the introduction of the "clinical method" from medicine to the study of mental diseases, a method which is now known as psychopathology. In medicine, the term syndrome is the association of several clinically recognizable features, signs, symptoms, phenomena or characteristics which often occur together, so that the presence of one feature alerts the physician to the presence of the others. ... Dysthymia (or dysthymic disorder) is a form of the mood disorder of depression characterized by a lack of enjoyment/pleasure in life that continues for at least two years. ... Cyclothymia is a mood disorder. ... For other senses of this word, see paranoia (disambiguation). ... This is a page about catatonic state. ... Schizophrenia is a psychiatric diagnosis denoting a persistent, often chronic, mental illness variously affecting behaviour, thinking, and emotion. ... medicines, see Medication. ... A disease is any abnormal condition of the body or mind that causes discomfort, dysfunction, or distress to the person affected or those in contact with the person. ... Psychopathology is a term which refers to either the study of mental illness or mental distress, or the manifestation of behaviors and experiences which may be indicative of mental illness or psychological impairment. ...

Other than Morel’s description of his degeneration theory, the element of time had largely been missing from definitions of mental disorders. Psychiatrists made assumptions about prognosis that were not based on careful observation of the changing symptoms of patients over time. Psychiatrists and other physicians who wrote about the insane arbitrarily invented names for insanities and described their characteristic signs and symptoms based on a short-term, cross-sectional observation period of their lunatic patients. The term symptom (from the Greek syn = con/plus and pipto = fall, together meaning co-exist) has two similar meanings in the context of physical and mental health: A symptom can be a physical condition which shows that one has a particular illness or disorder (see e. ... In medicine, a sign is a feature of disease as detected by the doctor during physical examination of a patient. ... In Economics, short-run refers to the decision-making time frame of a firm in which at least one factor of production may be varied. ... In statistics a cross-sectional data set has observations across individuals, firms or countries/regions. ... Observation is an activity of a sapient or sentient living being (e. ...

When the element of time was added to the concept of diagnosis, a diagnosis became more than just a description of a collection of symptoms: diagnosis now also defined prognosis (course and outcome). An additional feature of the clinical method was that the characteristic symptoms that define syndromes should be described without any prior assumption of brain pathology (although such links would be made later as scientific knowledge progressed). Karl Kahlbaum first made his appeal for the adoption of the clinical method in psychiatry in his 1874 book on catatonia. Without Kahlbaum and Hecker there would be no dementia praecox. In general, a diagnosis (plural diagnoses) has two distinct dictionary definitions. ... Prognosis (older Greek πρόγνωσις, modern Greek πρόγνωση - literally fore-knowing, foreseeing) is a medical term denoting the doctors prediction of how a patients disease will progress, and whether there is chance of recovery. ... In medicine, the term syndrome is the association of several clinically recognizable features, signs, symptoms, phenomena or characteristics which often occur together, so that the presence of one feature alerts the physician to the presence of the others. ... Year 1874 (MDCCCLXXIV) was a common year starting on Thursday (link with display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Saturday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ...

The quantitative component

In 1891 Emil Kraepelin left his position at the university in Dorpat (now Tartu, Estonia) to become a professor and director of the psychiatric clinic at the University in Heidelberg, Germany. Convinced of the value of Kahlbaum’s suggestions for a more exact qualitative clinical method in psychiatry, Kraeplin realized that by adding a quantitative component to such a research program he could place psychiatry on a more scientific foundation. Year 1891 (MDCCCXCI) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Saturday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... County Tartu County Mayor Laine Jänes Area 38. ... Psychiatry is a branch of medicine dealing with the prevention, assessment, diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation of the mind and mental illness. ... For the scientific journal named Science, see Science (journal). ...

Quantification helped to eliminate any subjective biases on the part of the researcher. He began the first such research program of this nature in the history of psychiatry at Heidelberg in 1891, collecting data about every new patient that was admitted to the clinic (not just interesting cases, as had been the case in the past) and summarizing them on specially prepared index cards, his famous Zahlkarten. He had been keeping data on such cards since 1887. In his posthumously published Memoirs (first published in German 61 years after his death) Kraepelin described his method: This article is in need of attention. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... For the suburb of Melbourne, Australia, see Research, Victoria. ... Year 1891 (MDCCCXCI) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Saturday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... For other uses, see Data (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Data (disambiguation). ... 1887 (MDCCCLXXXVII) is a common year starting on Saturday (click on link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar. ...

. . . after the first thorough examination of a new patient, each of us had to throw in a note [in a "diagnosis box"] with his diagnosis written on it. After a while, the notes were taken out of the box, the diagnoses were listed, and the case was closed, the final interpretation of the disease was added to the original diagnosis. In this way, we were able to see what kind of mistakes had been made and were able to follow-up the reasons for the wrong original diagnosis (p. 61).

Kraepelin was obsessed with finding patterns in the data on these cards, at times taking them home with him or on vacation. In 1893, two years after starting his more rigorous research program in Heidelberg, the 4th edition of Kraepelin’s textbook, Psychiatrie, reflected some preliminary impressions derived from the analysis of his cards. Clinical syndromes involved not only a diagnosis according to signs and symptoms, but also included course and outcome. In that edition he introduced a class of psychotic disorders he called "psychic degenerative processes." Three of these came directly from the work of Kahlbaum and Hecker: dementia paranoides (a sudden-onset, degenerative form of Kahlbaum’s paranoia; catatonia (directly from Kahlbaum’s 1874 monograph on the subject); and dementia praecox, which was essentially Hecker’s hebephrenia (as described in 1871). Dementia precox was hebephrenia and would remain so in Kraepelin’s thinking for 6 more years. A pattern is a form, template, or model (or, more abstractly, a set of rules) which can be used to make or to generate things or parts of a thing, especially if the things that are generated have enough in common for the underlying pattern to be inferred or discerned... Year 1893 (MDCCCXCIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Heidelberg is a city in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. ... In medicine, the term syndrome is the association of several clinically recognizable features, signs, symptoms, phenomena or characteristics which often occur together, so that the presence of one feature alerts the physician to the presence of the others. ... In general, a diagnosis (plural diagnoses) has two distinct dictionary definitions. ... In Medicine, a course of medication is a period of continuous treatment with a drug, sometimes with variable dosage. ... Outcomes in Fp code are FAIL or PASS. FAIL is referred to as the null state. ... For other senses of this word, see paranoia (disambiguation). ... This is a page about catatonic state. ... Schizophrenia is a psychiatric diagnosis denoting a persistent, often chronic, mental illness variously affecting behaviour, thinking, and emotion. ...

In March 1896 the 5th edition of Kraepelin’s textbook appeared. In it, Kraepelin stated that he was confident of the value of his clinical method of using qualitative and quantitative data collected over a long period of observation of patients as a way of developing a diagnosis that included prognosis (course and outcome): Year 1896 (MDCCCXCVI) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display calendar). ... See drugs, medication, and pharmacology for substances that treat patients. ... Scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena and acquiring new knowledge, as well as for correcting and integrating previous knowledge. ... Qualitative is an important qualifier in the following subject titles: Qualitative identity Qualitative marketing research Qualitative method Qualitative research THE BIG J This is a disambiguation page — a list of pages that otherwise might share the same title. ... A scale for measuring mass A quantitative property is one that exists in a range of magnitudes, and can therefore be measured. ... Prognosis (older Greek πρόγνωσις, modern Greek πρόγνωση - literally fore-knowing, foreseeing) is a medical term denoting the doctors prediction of how a patients disease will progress, and whether there is chance of recovery. ...

What convinced me of the superiority of the clinical method of diagnosis (followed here) over the traditional one, was the certainty with which we could predict (in conjunction with out new concept of disease) the future course of events. Thanks to it the student can now find his way more easily in the difficult subject of psychiatry.

In the 1896 5th edition, dementia praecox (still essentially hebephrenia), dementia paranoides, and catatonia are separate psychotic disorders included among "metabolic disorders leading to dementia." Year 1896 (MDCCCXCVI) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display calendar). ...

Kraepelin's influence on the next century

In the 6th edition of Psychiatrie of 1899, Kraepelin reordered the psychiatric universe for the next century by grouping most of the insanities into two large categories, dementia precox and manic-depresive illness. They were distinguished by the following characteristics: (1) dementia praecox was primarily a disorder of intellectual functioning, manic-depressive illness was primarily a disorder of affects or mood; (2) dementia praecox had a uniformly deteriorating course and a poor prognosis, manic-depressive insanity had a course of acute exacerbations followed by complete remissions with no lasting deterioration of intellectual functioning; and (3) there were no recoveries from dememtia praecox, whereas in manic-depressive illness there were many complete recoveries. In 1899 dementia praecox took its now-familiar form as a heterogeneous class of psychotic disorders comprised of hebephrenic, catatonic, and paranoid forms. These forms have persisted until today through Eugen Bleuler’s schizophrenia of 1908 (to which he added a fourth form, dementia simplex, or simple schizophrenia], and the main types of schizophrenia in DSM-IV-TR (the paranoid, catatonic and disorganized types, with the latter retaining its historical designation as the hebephrenic type in ICD-10 [1992]). Year 1899 (MDCCCXCIX) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Friday [1] of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ... 1908 (MCMVIII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar). ... The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, published by the American Psychiatric Association, is the handbook used most often in diagnosing mental disorders in the United States and other countries. ... The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) is a detailed description of known diseases and injuries. ...

Change in prognosis

In the 7th edition of 1904 there was little change in the description of dementia praecox, but Kraepelin does admit for the first time that in a small number of cases that recovery from dementia praecox might occur. 1904 (MCMIV) was a leap year starting on a Friday (see link for calendar). ...

The 8th edition of Kraepelin’s Psychiatrie was a four-volume opus, each of which appeared in different years between 1909 and 1915. In this edition dememtia praecox became one of the "endogenous dementias." It is in the 1913 third volume (second part) of this edition that Kraepelin adjusts his concept of prognosis to admit that a partial remission of symptoms occurred in approximately 26 percent of his patients. Year 1909 (MCMIX) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Thursday of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Year 1915 (MCMXV) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Thursday[1] of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Year 1913 (MCMXIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ...

This brought dementia praecox in line with Eugen Bleuler’s claims about schizophrenia, which he had insisted from the start (in 1908) that (a) in many cases there was no fateful progressive deterioration, that (b) in some cases the symptoms did indeed remit for periods of time, and (c) that there were cases of complete recovery.

The 8th edition of 1913 is also notable for the fact that Kraepelin increased the number of forms of dementia to 11. However, the three classical original subtypes would remain as the most influential description of this disorder for the century that followed. The 8th edition of Psychiatrie was that last Kraepelin would produce in his lifetime. He was working on a 9th edition with Johannes Lange (1891-1938) but died in 1926 before it could be completed. Lange finished the bulk of it and published it in 1927. Year 1913 (MCMXIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Year 1926 (MCMXXVI) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1927 (MCMXXVII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Addition of etiology

Kraepelin realized that the state of scientific knowledge was such that definitive claims about the cause of dementia praecox could not be made. Heredity clearly played a role, as Kraepelin and his research associates had demonstrated this in their quantitative research. As a result of following the clinical method suggested by Kahlbaum, Kraepelin set aside claims about underlying brain disease or specific neuropathology in diagnostic descriptions of mental disorders. However, from the 5th edition of 1896 to the third volume of the 8th edition of 1913 it was clear that Kraepelin believed that dementia praecox was caused by a poisoning of the brain, and “autointoxication,” probably arising from the sex glands after puberty. Heredity (the adjective is hereditary) is the transfer of characteristics from parent to offspring through their genes, or the transfer of a title, style or social status through the social convention known as inheritance (for example, a Hereditary Title may be passed down according to relevant customs and/or laws). ...

Universality of the disease

Kraepelin believed that dementia praecox was not a culture-bound syndrome and that it represented a disease process that could be found all over the world. Kraepelin himself loved to travel, and in Asia he observed that dementia praecox was similar to the European form of the illness in Chinese, Japanese, Tamil and Malay patients, leading him to suggest in the 8th edition of Psychiatrie that, "we must therefore seek the real cause of dementia praecox in conditions which are spread all over the world, which thus do not lie in race or in climate, in food or in any other general circumstance of life . . . ."

Treatment

Without knowing the cause of dementia praecox or manic-depressive illness, Kraepelin repeatedly stated that there could be no treatments specific to these conditions. Treatment for these insanities was the same for any institutionalized patient with any diagnosis: the occasional use of drugs (opiates, barbiturates, and so on) to alleviate acute episodes of distress, prolonged baths (greatly admired by Kraepelin as a humane method of calming patients), and occupational activities (if possible). Kraepelin himself had experimented with hypnosis early in his career and found it lacking. Psychotherapy as such was not part of the medical cognition of Kraepelin. In fact, Kraepelin detested both Freud and Jung for introducing diagnostic terms and forms of treatment that had no empirical basis. Kraepelin did, however experiment for a while with organotherapy -- the injection of glandular extract from the thyroid, gonads and other organs -- but without success. This experimental therapy was a rational treatment based on his presumed cause of dementia praecox -- an autointoxication arising from the sex glands.

Use of term spreads

By 1899 Kraepelin himself had counted almost 20 German-language publications which made reference to his new diagnostic term, dementia praecox. In the decade after 1899 the number of German-language publications using Kraepelin’s categories of dementia praecox and manic-depressive illness as a basis for clinical speculation and experimental research exploded. German-language psychiatric concepts were always introduced much faster in America (than, say, Britain) where émigré German, Swiss and Austrian physicians essentially created American psychiatry. Swiss-emigree Adolf Meyer (1866-1950), arguably the most influential psychiatrist in America for the first half of the 20th century, published the first critique of dementia praecox in an 1896 book review of the 5th edition of Kraepelin’s textbook. But it was not until 1900 that the first three American publications regarding dementia praecox appeared, one of which was a translation of a few sections of Kraepelin’s 6th edition of 1899 on dementia praecox. Year 1899 (MDCCCXCIX) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Friday [1] of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ...

Adolf Meyer was the first to apply the new diagnostic term in America. He used it at the Worcester Lunatic Hospital in Massachusetts in the fall of 1896.

Both dementia praecox (in its three classic forms) and ‘manic-depressive psychosis’ gained wider popularity in the larger institutions in the eastern United States after being included in the official nomenclature of diseases and conditions for record-keeping at Bellevue Hospital in New York City in 1903. The term lived on due to its promotion in the publications of the National Committee on Mental Hygiene (founded in 1909) and the Eugenics Records Office (1910). But perhaps the most important reason for the longevity of Kraepelin’s term was its inclusion in 1918 as an official diagnostic category in the uniform system adopted for comparative statistical record-keeping in all American mental institutions, The Statistical Manual for the Use of Institutions for the Insane. Its many revisions served as the official diagnostic classification scheme in America until 1952 when the first edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, or DSM-I, appeared. Dementia praecox disappeared from official psychiatry with the publication of DSM-I, replaced by the Bleuler/Meyer hybridization ‘schizophrenic reaction.’

The reception of dementia praecox as an accepted diagnosis in British psychiatry came much slower, perhaps only taking hold around the time of the First World War. In France an older psychiatric tradition regarding the psychotic disorders predated Kraepelin, and the French never fully adopted Kraepelin’s classification system. Instead the French maintained an independent classification system throughout the 20th century. After 1980, when DSM-III totally reshaped psychiatric diagnosis, French psychiatry began to finally alter its views of diagnosis to converge with the North American system. Kraepelin thus finally conquered France via America.

From dementia praecox to schizophrenia

Because so many influential American physicians began to take psychoanalysis seriously after Freud and Jung attended a conference at Clark University in 1909, psychogenic theories of dementia praecox and, by 1920, Bleuler’s schizophrenia were openly accepted. Until 1910 Bleuler had been peripherally connected through Jung to Freud’s psychoanalytic movement, and this eased the adoption of his broader version of dementia praecox (schizophrenia) in America over Kraepelin’s more narrow and prognostically more negative one.

The term "schizophrenia" was first applied by American alienists and neurologists in clinical settings around the year 1918. It is first mentioned in The New York Times in 1925. Until 1952 the terms dementia praecox and schizophrenia were used interchangeably in American psychiatry, with occasional use of the hybrid terms "dementia praecox (schizophrenia)or "schizophrenia (dementia praecox)."

Diagnostic manuals

Editions of the Diagnostic and Statistic Manual of Mental Disorders since the first in 1952 had reflected views of schizophrenia as "reactions" or "psychogenic" (DSM-I), or as manifesting Freudian notions of "defense mechanisms" (as in DSM-II of 1968 in which the symptoms of schizophrenia were interpreted as "psychologically self-protected"). The diagnostic criteria were wide, including either concepts that no longer exist or that are now labeled as personality disorders (for example, schizotypal personality disorder) There was also no mention of the dire prognosis Kraepelin had made. Schizophrenia seemed to be more prevalent and more treatable than either Kraepelin or Bleuler would have allowed.

Conclusions

As a direct result of the effort to construct Research Diagnostic Criteria (RDC) in the 1970s that were independent of any clinical diagnostic manual, Kraepelin’s ideas began to return to prominence. For research purposes, the definition of schizophrenia returned to the narrow range allowed by Kraepelin’s dementia praecox. Furthermore, the disorder was a progressively deteriorating one once again, with the notion that recovery, if it happened at all, was rare. This revision of schizophrenia became the basis of the diagnostic criteria in DSM-III. Some of the psychiatrists who worked to bring about this revision referred to themselves as the "neo-Krapelinians."

Bibliography

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• Burgmair, Wolfgang & Eric J. Engstrom & Matthias Weber, et al., eds. Emil Kraepelin. 7 vols. Munich: belleville, 2000-2008.

 Vol. VII: Kraepelin in Munich, Teil II: 1914-1926 (2008, forthcoming) Vol. VI: Kraepelin in Munich, Teil I: 1903-1914 (2006), ISBN 3-933510-95-3 Vol. V: Kraepelin in Heidelberg, 1891-1903 (2005), ISBN 3-933510-94-5 Vol. IV: Kraepelin in Dorpat, 1886-1891 (2003), ISBN 3-933510-93-7 Vol. III: Briefe I, 1868-1886 (2002), ISBN 3-933510-92-9 Vol. II: Kriminologische und forensische Schriften: Werke und Briefe (2001), ISBN 3-933510-91-0 Vol. I: Persönliches, Selbstzeugnisse (2000), ISBN 3-933510-90-2 

• Ion, R.M. and Beer, M.D. (2002a) The British reaction to dementia praecox 1893-1913. Part 1. History of Psychiatry, 13, 285-304.

• Ion, R.M., and Beer, M.D. (2002b) The British reaction to dementia praecox 1893-1913. Part 2. History of Psychiatry, 13, 419-431.

• Emil Kraepelin. Psychiatrie: Ein Lehrbuch fur Studirende und Aerzte. Sechste, vollstandig umgearbeitete Auflage. Leipzig: Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth, 1899.

• Kraepelin, E. Psychiatry: A Textbook for Students and Physicians. 2 volumes. Edited by Jacques Quen. Translated by Helga Metoui and Sabine Ayed. Canton, Massachusetts: Science History Publications, 1990 [translation of the 1899 sixth edition].

• Kraepelin, Emil. Memoirs. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1987.

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• Noll, Richard. Introduction: From dementia praecox to schizophrenia. Classic Text 72: “Non-Dementia Non-Praecox: Note on the Advantages to Mental Hygiene of Extripating a Term,” by E.E. Southard (1919). History of Psychiatry, 2007, 18(4): in press.

• Noll, Richard. Infectious insanities, surgical solutions: Bayard Taylor Holmes, dementia praecox and laboratory science in early twentieth-century America. Part 1 and Part 2. History of Psychiatry, 2006, 17 (2): 183-204; 17 (3): 299-311.

• Noll, Richard. The blood of the insane. History of Psychiatry, 2006, 17 (4): 395-418.

• Noll, Richard. Chicago’s Dr. Bayard Taylor Holmes: A forgotten pioneer in the history of biological psychiatry. Chicago Medicine, 2006 (Spring), 109: 28-32.

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• Noll, Richard. Styles of psychiatric practice: Clinical evaluations of the same patient by James Jackson Putnam, Adolf Meyer, August Hoch, Emil Kraepelin and Smith Ely Jelliffe. History of Psychiatry, 1999, 10: 145-189.

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German E. Berrios is a Professor of Psychiatry at Cambridge University in the UK. He was born in Tacna (Perú) and studied medicine and philosophy at the University of San Marcos (Lima, Perú). Subsequently, he read psychology and philosophy at Corpus Christi College, Oxford University, where he was a scholar... Emil Kraepelin (February 15, 1856–October 7, 1926) was a German psychiatrist who attempted to create a synthesis of the hundreds of mental disorders classified by the 19th century, grouping diseases together based on classification of common patterns of symptoms, rather than by simple similarity of major symptoms in the... Richard Noll (born 1959) is a well-known author and clinical psychologist. ...

Additional Resources

• Bibliography of scholarly histories on schizophrenia and dementia praecox, part 1 (2000-mid 2007).