The Drake equation (also sometimes called "The Green Bank equation", "The Green Bank Formula" or often erroneously labeled "The Sagan equation") is a famous result in the speculative fields of exobiology and the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI). Insert non-formatted text here Carl Edward Sagan (November 9, 1934 – December 20, 1996) was an American astronomer and astrobiologist and a highly successful popularizer of astronomy, astrophysics, and other natural sciences. ... Astrobiology (in Greek astron = star, bios = life and logos = word/science), also known as exobiology (Greek: exo = out) or xenobiology (Greek: xenos = foreign) is the term for a speculative field within biology which considers the possible variety of extraterrestrial life. ... This article is about the search for extra-terrestrial intelligence. ...

This equation was devised by Dr. Frank Drake (now Professor Emeritus of Astronomy and Astrophysics at the University of California, Santa Cruz) in 1960, in an attempt to estimate the number of extraterrestrial civilizations in our galaxy with which we might come in contact. The main purpose of the equation is to allow scientists to quantify the uncertainty of the factors which determine the number of such extraterrestrial civilizations. Professor Frank Drake Frank Drake (born May 28, 1930, Chicago, Illinois) is an American astronomer and astrophysicist. ... “UCSC” redirects here. ... Green people redirects here. ... “Uncertain” redirects here. ...

History

Frank Drake formulated his equation in 1960 in preparation for the Green Bank meeting; held at Green Bank, West Virginia that established SETI as a scientific discipline. The historic meeting, whose participants became known as the "Order of the Dolphin," brought together leading astronomers, physicists, biologists, social scientists, and industry leaders to discuss the possibility of detecting intelligent life among the stars. The Robert C. Byrd Green Bank Telescope (GBT) is the worlds largest fully steerable radio telescope. ... Official language(s) English Capital Charleston Largest city Charleston Largest metro area Charleston metro area Area  Ranked 41st  - Total 24,244 sq mi (62,809 km²)  - Width 130 miles (210 km)  - Length 240 miles (385 km)  - % water 0. ...

The Green Bank meeting was also remarkable because it featured the first use of the famous formula that came to be known as the "Drake Equation". This explains why the equation is also known by its other names with the "Green Bank" designation. When Drake came up with this formula, he had no notion that it would become a staple of SETI theorists for decades to come. In fact, he thought of it as an organizational tool - a way to order the different issues to be discussed at the Green Bank conference, and bring them to bear on the central question of intelligent life in the universe. Carl Sagan, a great proponent of SETI, utilized and quoted the formula often and as a result the formula is often mislabeled as "The Sagan Equation". The Green Bank Meeting was commemorated by a plaque. Insert non-formatted text here Carl Edward Sagan (November 9, 1934 – December 20, 1996) was an American astronomer and astrobiologist and a highly successful popularizer of astronomy, astrophysics, and other natural sciences. ... This article is about the search for extra-terrestrial intelligence. ...

The Drake equation is closely related to the Fermi paradox in that Drake suggested that a large number of extraterrestrial civilizations would form, but that the lack of evidence of such civilizations (the Fermi paradox) suggests that technological civilizations tend to destroy themselves rather quickly. This theory often stimulates an interest in identifying and publicizing ways in which humanity could destroy itself, and then countered with hopes of avoiding such destruction and eventually becoming a space-faring species. A graphical representation of the Arecibo message - Humanitys first attempt to use radio waves to communicate its existence to alien civilizations The Fermi paradox is the apparent contradiction between high estimates of the probability of the existence of extraterrestrial civilizations and the lack of evidence for or contact with...

The grand question of the number of communicating civilizations in our galaxy could, in Drake's view, be reduced to seven smaller issues with his equation.

The equation

The Drake equation states that:

where:

N is the number of civilizations in our galaxy with which we might hope to be able to communicate;

and Central New York City. ...

R^* is the average rate of star formation in our galaxy

f_p is the fraction of those stars that have planets

n_e is the average number of planets that can potentially support life per star that has planets

f_ℓ is the fraction of the above that actually go on to develop life at some point

f_i is the fraction of the above that actually go on to develop intelligent life

f_c is the fraction of civilizations that develop a technology that releases detectable signs of their existence into space

L is the length of time such civilizations release detectable signals into space.

The number of stars in the galaxy now, N^*, is related to the star formation rate R^* by This article is about the astronomical object. ... For other uses, see Milky Way (disambiguation). ... This article is about the astronomical term. ... This article is about life in general. ... For other uses, see Intelligence (disambiguation). ...

,

where T_g is the age of the galaxy. Assuming for simplicity that R^* is constant, then N^* = R^* T_g and the Drake equation can be rewritten into an alternate form phrased in terms of the more easily observable value, N^*.^[1]

Historical estimates of the parameters

Considerable disagreement on the values of most of these parameters exists, but the values used by Drake and his colleagues in 1961 were:

• R* = 10/year (10 stars formed per year, on the average over the life of the galaxy)
• f_p = 0.5 (half of all stars formed will have planets)
• n_e = 2 (stars with planets will have 2 planets capable of supporting life)
• f_l = 1 (100% of these planets will develop life)
• f_i = 0.01 (1% of which will be intelligent life)
• f_c = 0.01 (1% of which will be able to communicate)
• L = 10,000 years (which will last 10,000 years)

Drake's values give N = 10 × 0.5 × 2 × 1 × 0.01 × 0.01 × 10,000 = 10.

The value of R* is determined from considerable astronomical data, and is the least disputed term of the equation; f_p is less certain, but is still much firmer than the values following. Confidence in n_e was once higher, but the discovery of numerous gas giants in close orbit with their stars has introduced doubt that life-supporting planets commonly survive the creation of their stellar systems. In addition, most stars in our galaxy are red dwarfs, which have little of the ultraviolet radiation that has contributed^{[citation needed]} to the evolution of life on Earth. Instead they flare violently, mostly in X-rays—a property not conducive to life as we know it (simulations also suggest that these bursts erode planetary atmospheres). The possibility of life on moons of gas giants (e.g. Jupiter's satellite Europa) adds further uncertainty to this figure. This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Red dwarfs constitute the majority of all stars According to the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, a red dwarf star is a small and relatively cool star, of the main sequence, either late K or M spectral type. ... Note: Ultraviolet is also the name of a 1998 UK television miniseries about vampires. ... This article is about evolution in biology. ... This article is about the tv programme Life on Earth. ... In the NATO phonetic alphabet, X-ray represents the letter X. An X-ray picture (radiograph) taken by Röntgen An X-ray is a form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength approximately in the range of 5 pm to 10 nanometers (corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 PHz... Air redirects here. ... A natural satellite is an object that orbits a planet or other body larger than itself and which is not man-made. ... Atmospheric characteristics Atmospheric pressure 70 kPa Hydrogen ~86% Helium ~14% Methane 0. ... Apparent magnitude: 5. ...

Geological evidence from the Earth suggests that f_l may be very high; life on Earth appears to have begun around the same time as favorable conditions arose, suggesting that abiogenesis may be relatively common once conditions are right. However, this evidence only looks at the Earth (a single model planet), and contains anthropic bias, as the planet of study was not chosen randomly, but by the living organisms that already inhabit it (ourselves). Whether this is actually a case of anthropic bias has been contested, however; it might rather merely be a limitation involving a critically small sample size, since it is argued that there is no bias involved in our asking these questions about life on Earth. Also countering this argument is that there is no evidence for abiogenesis occurring more than once on the Earth—that is, all terrestrial life stems from a common origin. If abiogenesis were more common it would be speculated to have occurred more than once on the Earth. In addition, from a classical hypothesis testing standpoint, there are zero degrees of freedom, permitting no valid estimates to be made. This article focuses on the history of thought regarding abiogenesis (the spontaneous generation of life from non-living sources). ... Anthropic bias is the bias arising when your evidence is biased by observation selection effects, according to philosopher Nick Bostrom. ... One may be faced with the problem of making a definite decision with respect to an uncertain hypothesis which is known only through its observable consequences. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ...

One piece of data which would have major impact on f_l is the discovery of life on Mars or another planet or moon. If life were to be found on Mars which developed independently from life on Earth it would imply a higher value for f_l. While this would improve the degrees of freedom from zero to one, there would remain a great deal of uncertainty on any estimate due to the small sample size, and the chance they are not really independent. Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun in the solar system, named after the Roman god of war (the counterpart of the Greek Ares), on account of its blood red color as viewed in the night sky. ...

Similar arguments of bias can be made regarding f_i and f_c by considering the Earth as a model: intelligence with the capacity of extraterrestrial communication occurs only in one species in the 4 billion year history of life on Earth. If generalized, this means only relatively old planets may have intelligent life capable of extraterrestrial communication. Again this model has a large anthropic bias and there are still zero degrees of freedom. Note that the capacity and willingness to participate in extraterrestrial communication has come relatively "quickly", with the Earth having only an estimated 100,000 year history of intelligent human life, and less than a century of technological ability. Anthropic bias is the bias arising when your evidence is biased by observation selection effects, according to philosopher Nick Bostrom. ...

f_i, f_c and L, like f_l, are guesses. Estimates of f_i have been affected by discoveries that the solar system's orbit is circular in the galaxy, at such a distance that it remains out of the spiral arms for hundreds of millions of years (evading radiation from novae). Also, Earth's large moon may aid the evolution of life by stabilizing the planet's axis of rotation. In addition, while it appears that life developed soon after the formation of Earth, the Cambrian explosion, in which a large variety of multicellular life forms came into being, occurred a considerable amount of time after the formation of Earth, which suggests the possibility that special conditions were necessary. Some scenarios such as the Snowball Earth or research into the extinction events have raised the possibility that life on Earth is relatively fragile. Again, the controversy over life on Mars is relevant since a discovery that life did form on Mars but ceased to exist would affect estimates of these terms. Artists conception of a white dwarf star accreting hydrogen from a larger companion A nova (pl. ... The Cambrian explosion is the geologically kukko sudden appearance in the fossil record of the ancestors of familiar animals, starting about 542 million years ago (Mya). ... One computer simulation of conditions during the Snowball Earth period. ... An extinction event (also extinction-level event, ELE) is a period in time when a large number of species die out. ...

The astronomer Carl Sagan speculated that all of the terms, except for the lifetime of a civilization, are relatively high and the determining factor in whether there are large or small numbers of civilizations in the universe is the civilization lifetime, or in other words, the ability of technological civilizations to avoid self-destruction. In Sagan's case, the Drake equation was a strong motivating factor for his interest in environmental issues and his efforts to warn against the dangers of nuclear warfare. Insert non-formatted text here Carl Edward Sagan (November 9, 1934 – December 20, 1996) was an American astronomer and astrobiologist and a highly successful popularizer of astronomy, astrophysics, and other natural sciences. ... This article is about nuclear war as a form of actual warfare, including history. ...

By plugging in apparently "plausible" values for each of the parameters above, the resultant expectant value of N is often (much) greater than 1. This has provided considerable motivation for the SETI movement. However, we have no evidence for extraterrestrial civilizations. This conflict is often called the Fermi paradox, after Enrico Fermi who first asked about our lack of observation of extraterrestrials, and motivates advocates of SETI to continually expand the volume of space in which another civilization could be observed. This article is about the search for extra-terrestrial intelligence. ... A graphical representation of the Arecibo message - Humanitys first attempt to use radio waves to communicate its existence to alien civilizations The Fermi paradox is the apparent contradiction between high estimates of the probability of the existence of extraterrestrial civilizations and the lack of evidence for or contact with... Enrico Fermi (September 29, 1901 – November 28, 1954) was an Italian physicist most noted for his work on the development of the first nuclear reactor, and for his contributions to the development of quantum theory, particle physics and statistical mechanics. ...

Other assumptions give values of N that are (much) less than 1, but some observers believe this is still compatible with observations due to the anthropic principle: no matter how low the probability that any given galaxy will have intelligent life in it, the universe must have at least one intelligent species by definition otherwise the question would not arise. In physics and cosmology, the anthropic principle states that we should take into account the constraints that our existence as observers imposes on the sort of universe that we could observe. ...

Some computations of the Drake equation, given different assumptions:

R* = 10/year, f_p = 0.5, n_e = 2, f_l = 1, f_i = f_c = 0.01, and L = 50,000 years

N = 10 × 0.5 × 2 × 1 × 0.01 × 0.01 × 50,000 = 50

Alternatively, making some more optimistic assumptions, and assuming that 10% of civilizations become willing and able to communicate, and then spread through their local star systems for 100,000 years (a very short period in geologic time):

R* = 20/year, f_p = 0.1, n_e = 0.5, f_l = 1, f_i = 0.5, f_c = 0.1, and L = 100,000 years

N = 20 × 0.1 × 0.5 × 1 × 0.5 × 0.1 × 100,000 = 5,000

Current estimates of the parameters

This section attempts to list best current estimates for the parameters of the Drake equation.

R* = the rate of star creation in our galaxy

Estimated by Drake as 10/year. Latest calculations from NASA and the European Space Agency indicates that the current rate of star formation in our galaxy is about 7 per year.^[2]

f_p = the fraction of those stars which have planets

Estimated by Drake as 0.5. It is now known from modern planet searches that at least 10% of sunlike stars have planets, and the true proportion may be much higher, since only planets gas-giant size and larger can be detected with current technology.^[3] Infra-red surveys of dust discs around young stars imply that 20-60% of sun-like stars may form terrestrial planets.^[4]

n_e = the average number of planets (satellites may perhaps sometimes be just as good candidates) which can potentially support life per star that has planets Sol redirects here. ...

Estimated by Drake as 2. Marcy, et al.^[3] notes that most of the observed planets have very eccentric orbits, or orbit very close to the sun where the temperature is too high for earth-like life. However, several planetary systems that look more solar-system-like are known, such as HD 70642, HD 154345, or Gliese 849. These may well have smaller, as yet unseen, earth sized planets in their habitable zones. Even some of the large planets detected so far could potentially support life. In early 2008, two different research groups concluded that Gliese 581d may possibly be habitable.^[5][6] Since about 200 planetary systems are known, this implies n_e > 0.005.

Even if planets are in the habitable zone, however, the number of planets with the right proportion of elements may be difficult to estimate.^[7] Also, the Rare Earth hypothesis, which posits that conditions for intelligent life are quite rare, has advanced a set of arguments based on the Drake equation that the number of planets or satellites that could support life is small, and quite possibly limited to Earth alone; in this case, the estimate of n_e would be infinitesimal.

f_l = the fraction of the above which actually go on to develop life HD 70642 is a yellow dwarf star in the constellation of Puppis. ... HD 154345 is a G-type dwarf star located in northern Hercules. ... GJ 849 is a red dwarf star in the constellation of Aquarius. ... Gliese 581 (IPA: ) is an M2. ... The Rare Earth hypothesis is a hypothesis in planetary astronomy and astrobiology which argues that the emergence of complex multicellular life (metazoa) on Earth required an extremely unlikely combination of astrophysical and geological events and circumstances. ...

Estimated by Drake as 1.

In 2002, Charles H. Lineweaver and Tamara M. Davis (at the University of New South Wales and the Australian Centre for Astrobiology) estimated f_l as > 0.13 on planets that have existed for at least one billion years using a statistical argument based on the length of time life took to evolve on Earth.^[8] Lineweaver has also determined that about 10% of star systems in the Galaxy are hospitable to life, by having heavy elements, being far from supernovae and being stable themselves for sufficient time.^[9]

f_i = the fraction of the above which actually go on to develop intelligent life The University of New South Wales, also known as UNSW or colloquially as New South, is a university situated in Kensington, a suburb in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. ...

Estimated by Drake as 0.01.

Some estimate^{[citation needed]} that solar systems in galactic orbits with radiation exposure as low as Earth's solar system may be more than 100,000 times rarer, however, giving a value of f_i = 1×10^-7.

f_c = the fraction of the above which are willing and able to communicate

Estimated by Drake as 0.01.

L = the expected lifetime of such a civilization for the period that it can communicate across interstellar space.

Estimated by Drake as 10,000 years.

In an article in Scientific American, Michael Shermer estimated L as 420 years, based on compiling the durations of sixty historical civilizations. Using twenty-eight civilizations more recent than the Roman Empire he calculates a figure of 304 years for "modern" civilizations. It could also be argued from Michael Shermer's results that the fall of most of these civilizations was followed by later civilizations which carried on the technologies, so it's doubtful that they are separate civilizations in the context of the Drake equation. Furthermore since none could communicate over interstellar space, the value of L here could also be argued to be zero.

The value of L can be estimated from the lifetime of our current civilization from the advent of radio astronomy in 1938 (dated from Grote Reber's parabolic dish radio telescope) to the current date. In 2008, this gives an L of 70 years. However such an assumption would be erroneous. 70 for the value of L would be an artificial minimum based on Earth's broadcasting history to date and would make unlikely the possibility of other civilizations existing. 10,000 for L is still the most popular estimate

Values based on the above estimates, Scientific American is a popular-science magazine, published (first weekly and later monthly) since August 28, 1845, making it the oldest continuously published magazine in the United States. ... Michael Shermer Michael Shermer (born September 8, 1954 in Glendale, California) is a science writer, historian of science, founder of The Skeptics Society, and editor of its magazine Skeptic, which is largely devoted to investigating and debunking pseudoscientific and supernatural claims. ... Michael Shermer Michael Shermer (born September 8, 1954 in Glendale, California) is a science writer, historian of science, founder of The Skeptics Society, and editor of its magazine Skeptic, which is largely devoted to investigating and debunking pseudoscientific and supernatural claims. ... The Very Large Array, a radio interferometer in New Mexico, USA Radio astronomy is a subfield of astronomy that studies celestial objects in the radio frequency portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. ... Grote Reber (December 22, 1911 – December 20, 2002) was one of the pioneers of radio astronomy. ... The 64 meter radio telescope at Parkes Observatory A radio telescope is a form of directional radio antenna used in radio astronomy and in tracking and collecting data from satellites and space probes. ...

R* = 6/year, f_p = 0.5, n_e = 2, f_l = 0.33, f_i = 0.01, f_c = 0.01, and L = 10000 years

result in

N = 6 × 0.5 × 2 × 0.33 × 0.01 × 0.01 × 10000 = 2

Criticisms

Since there exists only one known example of a planet with advanced life forms, several terms in the Drake equation are largely based on conjecture. However, based on Earth's experience, some scientists view intelligent life on other planets as possible and the replication of this event elsewhere is at least plausible.^[10][11][12] In a 2003 lecture at Caltech, Michael Crichton, a science fiction author, stated that, "Speaking precisely, the Drake equation is literally meaningless, and has nothing to do with science. I take the hard view that science involves the creation of testable hypotheses. The Drake equation cannot be tested and therefore SETI is not science. SETI is unquestionably a religion."^[13] California Institute of Technology The California Institute of Technology (commonly known as Caltech) is a private, coeducational university located in Pasadena, California, in the United States. ... Michael Crichton, pronounced [1], (born October 23, 1942) is an American author, film producer, film director, and television producer. ...

It is also noteworthy that actual experiments by SETI scientists do not attempt to address the Drake equations for the existence of extraterrestrial civilizations anywhere in the universe, but are focused on specific, testable hypotheses (i.e., "do extraterrestrial civilizations communicating in the radio spectrum exist near sun-like stars within 50 light years of the Earth?").

Some people argue^[14] that even though the Drake equation currently involves speculation about parameters that are, as of the moment, unmeasured, it serves a useful purpose by stimulating dialogue between people about these topics, leading to focus and how to proceed experimentally – and this was Drake's intent in the first place.^{[citation needed]}

One can question why the number of civilizations should be proportional to the star formation rate, though this makes technical sense. (The product of all the terms except L tells how many new communicating civilizations are born each year. Then you multiply by the lifetime to get the expected number. For example, if an average of 0.01 new civilizations are born each year, and they each last 500 years on the average, then on the average 5 will exist at any time.) The original Drake Equation can be extended to a more realistic model, where the equation uses not the number of stars that are forming now, but those that were forming several billion years ago. The alternate formulation, in terms of the number of stars in the galaxy, is easier to explain and understand, but implicitly assumes the star formation rate is constant over the life of the galaxy.

Alexander Zaitsev mentioned to be in a communicative phase and emit dedicated messages is not the same thing. For example, we, although being in a communicative phase, are not a communicative civilization: We do not practice such activities as the purposeful and regular transmission of interstellar messages. Thus he suggested to introduce a METI factor into the classical Drake Equation. Aleksandr Leonidovich Zaitsev (Russian: ; b. ...

In fiction

The Drake equation and the Fermi paradox, have been discussed many times in science fiction, including both serious takes in stories such as Frederick Pohl's Hugo award-winning "Fermi and Frost", which cites the paradox as evidence for the short lifetime of technical civilizations —that is, the possibility that once a civilization develops the power to destroy itself (perhaps by nuclear winter), it does, and humorous commentary in stories such as Terry Bisson's classic short story "They're Made Out of Meat" [2]. A graphical representation of the Arecibo message - Humanitys first attempt to use radio waves to communicate its existence to alien civilizations The Fermi paradox is the apparent contradiction between high estimates of the probability of the existence of extraterrestrial civilizations and the lack of evidence for or contact with... Science fiction is a form of speculative fiction principally dealing with the impact of imagined science and technology, or both, upon society and persons as individuals. ... This article is about the writer and editor. ... The Hugo Awards are given annually for the best science fiction or fantasy works. ... Nuclear winter is a hypothetical global climate condition that is predicted to be a possible outcome of a large-scale nuclear war. ... Terry Bisson (born February 12, 1942) is an American science fiction and fantasy author. ...

• The equation was cited by Gene Roddenberry as supporting the multiplicity of starfaring civilizations shown in Star Trek, the television show he created. However, Roddenberry didn't have the equation with him, and he was forced to "invent" it for his original proposal.^{[citation needed]} The invented equation created by Roddenberry is:

Dr. Drake has gently pointed out, however, that a number raised to the first power is merely the number itself. A poster with both versions of the equation was seen in the Star Trek: Voyager episode "Future's End".

• The formula is also cited in Michael Crichton's "Sphere".

• George Alec Effinger's short story "One" uses an expedition confident in the Drake Equation as a backdrop to explore the psychological implications of a lonely humanity.

• The Ultimate Marvel comic book mini-series Ultimate Secret has Reed Richards examining the Drake Equation and considering the Fermi Paradox. He claims that when Drake plugged in his numbers, he came up with 10,000 alien races that would have a civilization advanced enough to contact Earth, but only one that Richards knew of had done it (actually 10 others already had, and two more were about to, but Richards did not know that at the time). In discussion with Sue Storm, it is revealed that he believes that advanced civilizations destroy themselves. In the story it turns out that they are also destroyed by Gah Lak Tus.

• Eleanor Ann Arroway paraphrases the Drake equation several times in Contact, using the magnitude of N^* and its implications on the output value to justify the SETI program.

• The equation was satirized in the web comic series xkcd's comic #384.^[15]

Eugene Wesley Roddenberry (August 19, 1921 – October 24, 1991) was an American scriptwriter and producer. ... This article is about the entire Star Trek franchise. ... The starship Voyager (NCC-74656), an Intrepid-class starship. ... Futures End is a two-part episode from the third season of Star Trek: Voyager. ... Michael Crichton, pronounced [1], (born October 23, 1942) is an American author, film producer, film director, and television producer. ... Sphere is a science fiction novel written by Michael Crichton and published in 1987. ... George Alec Effinger (January 10, 1947–April 27, 2002) was an American science fiction author, born in Cleveland, Ohio. ... The various characters of the Ultimate Marvel Universe, as seen on the cover of Ultimates (v2) #12. ... A comic book is a magazine or book containing the art form of comics. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Ultimate Galactus trilogy. ... Galactus, sometimes called the Devourer of Worlds or Eater of Planets, is a fictional comic book character, a cosmic entity within Marvel Comics universe. ... Contact is a 1997 science fiction film adapted from the novel by Carl Sagan. ... xkcd is a webcomic created by Randall Munroe,[1] a Christopher Newport University graduate who worked as a contractor for NASA.[2] It calls itself a webcomic of romance, sarcasm, math, and language. ...

See also

• Kardashev scale
• Zoo hypothesis

Kardashev scale projections ranging from 1900 to 2100. ... The zoo hypothesis is one of a number of suggestions that have been advanced in response to the Fermi paradox, regarding the apparent absence of evidence in support of the existence of advanced extraterrestrial life. ...

Footnotes

is the 350th day of the year (351st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... December 17 is the 351st day of the year (352nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 176th day of the year (177th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Randall Munroe speaking at MIT. Randall Patrick Munroe (born October 17, 1984) is a self-described pen/pencil operator and programmer best known for creating the webcomic xkcd. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 46th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... xkcd is a webcomic created by Randall Munroe,[1] a Christopher Newport University graduate who worked as a contractor for NASA.[2] It calls itself a webcomic of romance, sarcasm, math, and language. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 49th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ...

References

• Drake, Frank; Dava Sobel (1992). Is Anyone Out There? The Scientific Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence. New York: Delacorte Pr.. ISBN 0-385-30532-X. 
• Rood, Robert T.; James S. Trefil (1981). Are We Alone? The Possibility of Extraterrestrial Civilizations. New York: Scribner. ISBN 0-684-16826-X. 
• Lineweaver, Charles H.; Tamara M. Davis (2 May 2002). "Does the Rapid Appearance of Life on Earth Suggest that Life is Common in the Universe?". arXiv:astro-ph/0205014.
• Shermer, Michael (August 2002). "Why ET Hasn't Called". Scientific American: 21.
• Bates, Gary (2004). Alien Intrusion. Master books. ISBN 0-89051-435-6. 

is the 122nd day of the year (123rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Also see: 2002 (number). ... arXiv (pronounced archive, as if the X were the Greek letter χ) is an archive for electronic preprints of scientific papers in the fields of physics, mathematics, computer science and quantitative biology which can be accessed via the Internet. ... Michael Shermer Michael Shermer (born September 8, 1954 in Glendale, California) is a science writer, historian of science, founder of The Skeptics Society, and editor of its magazine Skeptic, which is largely devoted to investigating and debunking pseudoscientific and supernatural claims. ... Scientific American is a popular-science magazine, published (first weekly and later monthly) since August 28, 1845, making it the oldest continuously published magazine in the United States. ...

External links

• Frank Drake (December 2004). The E.T. Equation, Recalculated. Wired.
• http://www.skypub.com/news/special/9812seti_aliens.html
• Beyond the Drake Equation
• January 2002 space.com article about estimated prevalence of extrasolar planets
• Preprint by Lineweaver and Davis estimating f_l as > 0.13
• July 2003 discovery of a planetary system similar to our solar system
• Macromedia Flash page allowing the user to modify Drake's values from PBS Nova
• "The Drake Equation"—Transcript (html) of Astronomy Cast episode #23, Fraser Cain and Southern Illinois University Edwardsville professor, Dr. Pamela Gay. 12 February 2007. (Full pdf transcript.)