NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Fascist regime

Fascism is an authoritarian political ideology (generally tied to a mass movement) that considers individual and other societal interests inferior to the needs of the state, and seeks to forge a type of national unity, usually based on ethnic, religious, cultural, or racial attributes. Various scholars attribute different characteristics to fascism, but the following elements are usually seen as its integral parts: nationalism, authoritarianism, militarism, corporatism, collectivism, totalitarianism, anti-communism, and opposition to economic and political liberalism.^[1]^[2]^[3] Bold text:This article applies to political ideologies. ... A state is a set of institutions that possess the authority to make the rules that govern the people in one or more societies, having internal and external sovereignty over a definite territory. ... This article or section should be merged with ethnic group Ethnicity is the cultural characteristics that connect a particular group or groups of people to each other. ... Various Religious symbols, including (first row) Christian, Jewish, Hindu, Bahai, (second row) Islamic, tribal, Taoist, Shinto (third row) Buddhist, Sikh, Hindu, Jain, (fourth row) Ayyavazhi, Triple Goddess, Maltese cross, pre-Christian Slavonic Religion is the adherence to codified beliefs and rituals that generally involve a faith in a spiritual... The term race serves to distinguish between populations or groups of people based on different sets of characteristics which are commonly determined through social conventions. ... EugÃ¨ne Delacroixs Liberty Leading the People, symbolising French nationalism during the July Revolution. ... Bold text:This article applies to political ideologies. ... Militarism or militarist ideology is the doctrinal view of a society as being best served (or more efficient) when it is governed or guided by concepts embodied in the culture, doctrine, system, or people of the military. ... â€¹ The template below has been proposed for deletion. ... Collectivism is a term used to describe any moral, political, or social outlook, that stresses human interdependence and the importance of a collective, rather than the importance of separate individuals. ... Totalitarianism is a term employed by political scientists, especially those in the field of comparative politics, to describe modern regimes in which the state regulates nearly every aspect of public and private behavior. ... This does not cite its references or sources. ... The liberal theory of economics is the theory of economics described by classical liberal authors such as Adam Smith or the French Physiocrats. ... Liberalism is an ideology, philosophical view, and political tradition which holds that liberty is the primary political value. ...

There are numerous debates among scholars and other individuals regarding the nature of fascism and the kinds of political movements and governments that may accurately be called fascist. For example, the extent to which German Nazism may be considered a form of fascism is disputed. Most scholars see fascism as on the political right or allied with right-wing movements.^[4] However, some scholars see fascism as the radicalization of the center or as a populist revolt of the middle classes.^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8] Fascist movements sometimes claim^{[Who says this?]} they represent a "Third Way between left and right, between Marxian socialism and capitalism."^[9] There are numerous debates concerning fascism and ideology and where fascism fits on the political spectrum. ... National Socialism redirects here. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Left-Right politics. ... International Third Position was a group formed by Nick Griffin and Derek Holland as a continuation of the Political Soldier movement. ... Socialism refers to a broad array of doctrines or political movements that envisage a socio-economic system in which property and the distribution of wealth are subject to social control. ... Capitalism generally refers to an economic system in which the means of production are mostly privately[1] owned and operated for profit, and in which distribution, production and pricing of goods and services are determined in a largely free market. ...

Fascism has been defunct in the Western world as a major political ideology since the defeat of the Axis powers in World War II. There is considerable stigma attached to the name and to the concept, and it is not uncommon for people to label their political opponents (or authority figures in general) pejoratively as "fascists". However, a small number of openly fascist political groups continue to exist, such as the Italian Fiamma Tricolore. The term Western World or the West (also on rare occasions called the Occident) can have multiple meanings depending on its context (i. ... The word axis has several meanings: In mathematics, axis can mean: A straight line around which a geometric figure can be rotated. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki TÅjÅ Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... Social stigma is severe social disapproval of personal characteristics or beliefs that are against cultural norms. ... The Movimento Sociale Fiamma Tricolore is a hardline Italian right-wing party. ...

The term 'fascism'

The term fascismo was first coined by the Italian fascist dictator Benito Mussolini. It is derived from the Italian word fascio, which means "union" or "league", and from the Latin word fasces. The fasces, which consisted of a bundle of rods tied around an axe, were an ancient Roman symbol of the authority of the civic magistrates, and the symbolism of the fasces suggested strength through unity: a single rod is easily broken, while the bundle is very difficult to break. Mussolini holding a speech. ... Fascio (plural: fasci) is an Italian language word which was used in the late 19th century to refer to radical political groups of many different (and sometimes opposing) orientations. ... Latin was the language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. ... Roman fasces. ... Area under Roman control Roman Republic Roman Empire Western Empire Eastern Empire Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a city-state founded on the Italian Peninsula circa the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. ... A magistrate is a judicial officer. ...

Roots and branches

Originally, the term "fascism" (fascismo) was used by the political movement that ruled Italy from 1922 to 1943 under the leadership of Benito Mussolini (see Italian fascism). Later, fascism became a broader term that was used to cover a whole class of authoritarian political ideologies, parties and political systems, though no consensus was ever achieved on a precise definition of what it means to be "fascist". Various scholars have sought to define fascism, and a list of such definitions can be found in the article Definitions of fascism. Mussolini holding a speech. ... Italian fascism (in Italian, fascismo) was the authoritarian political movement which ruled Italy from 1922 to 1943 under the leadership of Benito Mussolini. ... What constitutes a definition of fascism and fascist governments is a highly disputed subject that has proved complicated and contentious. ...

Part of the difficulty arises from the fact that there are, at present, very few self-identified fascists. Since the defeat of the Axis powers in World War II, the word has become a slur throughout the rest of the political spectrum; since 1945 it has been extremely uncommon for political groups to call themselves fascist. In contemporary political discourse, adherents of some ideologies tend to associate fascism with their enemies, or define it as embodying the opposite of their own views. There are currently no major self-proclaimed fascist parties or organizations anywhere in the world. This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with fascism (epithet). ... A political spectrum is a way of visualizing different political positions. ...

The governments and parties most often considered to have been fascist include Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler, Spain's Falange, Portugal's Estado Novo, Hungary's Arrow Cross Party, Romania's Iron Guard, and other similar movements that existed across Europe in the 1920s and 1930s. Some authors reject this broader use of the term or exclude certain of these parties and regimes.^[10] Nazi Germany, or the Third Reich, commonly refers to Germany in the years 1933–1945, when it was under the firm control of the totalitarian and fascist ideology of the Nazi Party, with the Führer Adolf Hitler as dictator. ... Hitler redirects here. ... Yoke and Arrows. ... There have been two regimes known as Estado Novo (meaning New State): Estado Novo (Brazil) Estado Novo (Portugal) This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Flag of the Arrow Cross Party Senior members of the Arrow Cross Party. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Fascism attracted political support from diverse sectors of the population, including big business, farmers and landowners, nationalists, and reactionaries, disaffected World War I veterans, intellectuals such as Gabriele D'Annunzio, Curzio Malaparte, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Carl Schmitt and Martin Heidegger, conservatives and small businessmen, and the masses to whom they promised work and bread. In countries such as Romania and Hungary (and to a lesser extent in other states), Fascism had a strong base of support among the working classes and extremely poor peasants. Big business is usually used as a pejorative reference to the significant economic and political power which large and powerful corporations (especially multinational corporations), are capable of wielding. ... Farmer spreading grasshopper bait in his alfalfa field. ... Landowner or Landholder is a holder of the estate in land with considerable rights of ownership or, simply put, an owner of land. ... EugÃ¨ne Delacroixs Liberty Leading the People, symbolising French nationalism during the July Revolution. ... Reactionary (or reactionist) is a political epithet, generally used as a pejorative, originally applied in the context of the French Revolution to counter-revolutionaries who wished to restore the real or imagined conditions of the monarchical Ancien RÃ©gime. ... Combatants Allied Powers: Russian Empire France British Empire Italy United States Central Powers: Austria-Hungary German Empire Ottoman Empire Bulgaria Commanders Nikolay II Aleksey Brusilov Georges Clemenceau Joseph Joffre Ferdinand Foch Robert Nivelle Herbert H. Asquith D. Lloyd George Sir Douglas Haig Sir John Jellicoe Victor Emmanuel III Luigi Cadorna... Gabriele dAnnunzio (12 March 1863, Pescara â€“ 1 March 1938, Gardone Riviera, province of Brescia) was an Italian poet, writer, novelist, dramatist and daredevil, who went on to have a controversial role in politics as a precursor of the fascist movement. ... Curzio Malaparte Curzio Malaparte (June 9, 1898 - July 19, 1957), born as Kurt Erich Suckert, was an Italian journalist, dramatist, short-story writer, novelist and diplomat. ... The Futurists in Paris, February 1912. ... Carl Schmitt Carl Schmitt (July 11, 1888 - April 7, 1985) was a German legal theoretician and political scientist. ... Martin Heidegger (September 26, 1889 â€“ May 26, 1976) (pronounced ) was an influential German philosopher, best known as the author of Being and Time (1927). ... This article deals with conservatism as a political philosophy. ... A small business may be defined as a business with a small number of employees. ... The term working class is used to denote a social class. ... Categories: 1911 Britannica | Historical stubs | Feudalism ...

Definitions

Many diverse regimes have identified themselves as fascist, and many regimes have been labelled as fascist even though they did not self-identify as such. Historians, political scientists, and other scholars have engaged in long and furious debates concerning the exact nature of fascism and its core tenets. Since the 1990s, there has been a growing move toward some rough consensus reflected in the work of Stanley Payne, Roger Eatwell, Roger Griffin, and Robert O. Paxton. An ideology is an organized collection of ideas. ... Politics is the process by which groups make decisions. ... It has been suggested that Origins of anarchism and History of anarchism be merged into this article or section. ... Christian Democracy is a diverse political ideology and movement. ... Communism is an ideology that seeks to establish a classless, stateless social organization based on common ownership of the means of production. ... Communitarianism as a group of related but distinct philosophies began in the late 20th century, opposing aspects of liberalism and capitalism while advocating phenomena such as civil society. ... This article deals with conservatism as a political philosophy. ... Feminism is a collection of social theories, political movements, and moral philosophies largely motivated by or concerned with the liberation of women from subordination to men. ... Green politics or Green ideology is the ideology of the Green Parties, mainly informed by environmentalism, ecosophy and sustainable economics and aimed at developing a sustainable society. ... Political Ideologies Part of the Politics series Politics Portal This box: This article is about political Islamism. ... Liberalism is an ideology, philosophical view, and political tradition which holds that liberty is the primary political value. ... This article is becoming very long. ... EugÃ¨ne Delacroixs Liberty Leading the People, symbolising French nationalism during the July Revolution. ... Social democracy is a political ideology emerging in the late 19th and early 20th centuries from supporters of Marxism who believed that the transition to a socialist society could be achieved through democratic evolutionary rather than revolutionary means. ... Socialism refers to a broad array of doctrines or political movements that envisage a socio-economic system in which property and the distribution of wealth are subject to social control. ... A political party is a political organization subscribing to a certain ideology or formed around very special issues. ... This is an overview of the ideologies of parties. ... This is a list of political parties around the world by ideology. ... What constitutes a definition of fascism and fascist governments is a highly disputed subject that has proved complicated and contentious. ... Robert Paxton (b 1932) is a historian who worked on Vichy France. ...

Mussolini defined fascism as being a right-wing collectivistic ideology in opposition to socialism, liberalism, democracy and individualism. He wrote in The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism: It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Left-Right politics. ... Collectivism is a term used to describe any moral, political, or social outlook, that stresses human interdependence and the importance of a collective, rather than the importance of separate individuals. ... Socialism refers to a broad array of doctrines or political movements that envisage a socio-economic system in which property and the distribution of wealth are subject to social control. ... Liberalism is an ideology, philosophical view, and political tradition which holds that liberty is the primary political value. ... Individualism is a term used to describe a moral, political, or social outlook that stresses human independence and the importance of individual self-reliance and liberty. ... The Doctrine of Fascism is a seminal essay signed by Mussolini and officially attributed to him, although it was most likely written by Giovanni Gentile. ...

Since Mussolini, however, there have been many conflicting definitions of the term "fascism." Former Columbia University Professor Robert O. Paxton has written that:

Fascism is associated by many scholars with one or more of the following characteristics: a very high degree of nationalism, economic corporatism, a powerful, dictatorial leader who portrays the nation, state or collective as superior to the individuals or groups composing it. EugÃ¨ne Delacroixs Liberty Leading the People, symbolising French nationalism during the July Revolution. ... â€¹ The template below has been proposed for deletion. ... Forms of government Part of the Politics series Politics Portal This box: A dictatorship is an autocratic form of government in which the government is ruled by a dictator. ... One of the most influential doctrines in history is that all humans are divided into groups called nations. ... A state is a set of institutions that possess the authority to make the rules that govern the people in one or more societies, having internal and external sovereignty over a definite territory. ... Collective can also refer to the collective pitch flight control in helicopters A collective is a group of people who share or are motivated by at least one common issue or interest, or work together on a specific project(s) to achieve a common objective. ...

Stanley Payne's Fascism: Comparison and Definition (1980) uses a lengthy itemized list of characteristics to identify fascism, including the creation of an authoritarian state; a regulated, state-integrated economic sector; fascist symbolism; anti-liberalism; anti-communism; anti-conservatism.^[13] Semiotician Umberto Eco also attempts to identify characteristics of fascism in his popular essay Eternal Fascism: Fourteen Ways of Looking at a Blackshirt.^[14] More recently, an emphasis has been placed upon the aspect of populist fascist rhetoric that argues for a "re-birth" of a conflated nation and ethnic people.^[15] As there were many different manifestations of fascism, especially during the interwar years, there were also many different symbols of Fascist movements. ... Liberalism is an ideology, philosophical view, and political tradition which holds that liberty is the primary political value. ... This does not cite its references or sources. ... This article deals with conservatism as a political philosophy. ... Semiotics, semiotic studies, or semiology is the study of signs and symbols, both individually and grouped into sign systems. ... Umberto Eco (born January 5, 1932) is an Italian medievalist, semiotician, philosopher and novelist, best known for his novel The Name of the Rose (Il nome della rosa) and his many essays. ... One of the most influential doctrines in history is that all humans are divided into groups called nations. ...

Most scholars hold that fascism as a social movement employs elements from the political left, but many conclude that fascism eventually allies with the political right, especially after attaining state power. For example, Nazism began as a socio-political movement that promoted a radical form of National Socialism, but altered its character once Adolf Hitler was handed state power in Germany. Some scholars and political commentators argue that fascism is a form of socialist dictatorship similar to that in Soviet Union.^[16] National Socialism redirects here. ... Hitler redirects here. ... Socialism is a social and economic system (or the political philosophy advocating such a system) in which the economic means of production are owned and controlled collectively by the people. ...

Scope of the word Fascism

Authoritarian and totalitarian state

The term fascism is sometimes applied to other authoritarian regimes of the same period, such as those of Imperial Japan under Hideki Tojo, Austria under Engelbert Dollfuss, and Greece under Ioannis Metaxas. Its use for similar, but longer-lived, regimes such as Spain under Francisco Franco and the Estado Novo of António de Oliveira Salazar in Portugal, is widespread among opponents of those regimes, but often disputed by supporters and by some historians. Some scholars (such as Wolfgang Schivelbusch) have compared the economic policies of the United States under Franklin Roosevelt — such as his New Deal programs — to fascist economic policies.^[17]. This trend toward the term being used only by opponents is even more pronounced in the case of more recent anti-communist authoritarian regimes, such as Chile under Augusto Pinochet^{[citation needed]} or Indonesia under Suharto. The word "fascism" is often used as a generic term of abuse against one's political opponents. There are several instances of it being used in this way by those on the political left, even against other leftists. During 1928-1935 period policy of the communist movement was to describe social democracy as a form of social fascism, and during the Sino-Soviet dispute Chinese officials labeled the Soviet Union under Leonid Brezhnev as fascist.^[18] Post-Mao Chinese communists also argue that Mao Zedong's regime in China was a form of fascism.^[19] The ensign of Imperial Japanese Navy was a prominent symbol of Imperial Japan. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ... Engelbert Dollfuss. ... Ioannis Metaxas (Greek Î™Ï‰Î¬Î½Î½Î·Ï‚ ÎœÎµÏ„Î±Î¾Î¬Ï‚, April 12, 1871 â€“ January 29, 1941) was a Greek General and the Prime Minister of Greece from 1936 until his death in 1941. ... Francisco Paulino Hermenegildo TeÃ³dulo Franco Bahamonde (4 December 1892â€“20 November or possibly 19 November[1] 1975), abbreviated Francisco Franco Bahamonde and commonly known as Caudillo or GeneralÃsimo Francisco Franco (pron. ... History of Portugal series Prehistoric Portugal Pre-Roman Portugal Roman Lusitania and Gallaecia Visigoths and Suevi Moorish rule and Reconquista First County of Portugal Kingdom of Galicia and Portugal Second County of Portugal Establishment of the Monarchy Consolidation of the Monarchy 1383â€“1385 Crisis Discoveries Portuguese Empire 1580 Crisis Iberian... AntÃ³nio de Oliveira Salazar, pron. ... Franklin Delano Roosevelt (January 30, 1882–April 12, 1945), often referred to as FDR, was the 32nd (1933–1945) President of the United States. ... The New Deal was the name President Franklin D. Roosevelt gave to the series of programs between 1933â€“1938 with the goal of relief, recovery and reform of the United States economy during the Great Depression. ... Augusto JosÃ© RamÃ³n Pinochet Ugarte[1] (November 25, 1915â€“December 10, 2006) was a general and President of Chile. ... Haji Mohammad Soeharto (born June 8, 1921), more commonly referred to as simply Soeharto (Suharto in the English-speaking world), is a former Indonesian military and political leader. ... The first edition of Communist International, journal of the Comintern published in Moscow and Petrograd (now Saint Petersburg) in May 1919. ... Social democracy is a political ideology emerging in the late 19th and early 20th centuries from supporters of Marxism who believed that the transition to a socialist society could be achieved through democratic evolutionary rather than revolutionary means. ... During the late 1920s and early 30s, Communist Party leaders linked to the Communist International (such as Rajani Palme Dutt and Joseph Stalin) argued that capitalist society had entered a third period in which social fascism posed a threat. ... The Sino-Soviet split was a major diplomatic conflict between the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), beginning in the late 1950s, reaching a peak in 1969 and continuing in various ways until the late 1980s. ... Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev Russian: ; January 1, 1907 [O.S. December 19, 1906] â€“ November 10, 1982) was the effective ruler of the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982, at first in partnership with others. ... â€œMaoâ€ redirects here. ...

Although the broadest descriptions of fascism may include every authoritarian state that has ever existed most theorists see important distinctions to be made. Fascism in Italy arose in the 1920s as a mixture of syndicalist notions with an anti-materialist theory of the state; the latter had already been linked to an extreme nationalism. Fascists accused parliamentary democracy of producing division and decline, and wished to renew the nation from decadence. They viewed the state as an organic entity in a positive light rather than as an institution designed to protect individual rights, or as one that should be held in check. Fascism universally dismissed the Marxist concept of "class struggle", replacing it instead with the concept of "class collaboration". Fascists embraced nationalism and mysticism, advancing ideals of strength and power as means of legitimacy. These ideas are in direct opposition to the liberal ideals of humanism and rationalism characteristic of the Age of Enlightenment. Syndicalism is a political and economic ideology which advocates giving control of both industry and government to labor union federations. ... In philosophy, materialism is that form of physicalism which holds that the only thing that can truly be said to exist is matter; that fundamentally, all things are composed of material and all phenomena are the result of material interactions. ... EugÃ¨ne Delacroixs Liberty Leading the People, symbolising French nationalism during the July Revolution. ... A parliamentary system, or parliamentarism, is distinguished by the executive branch of government being dependent on the direct or indirect support of the parliament, often expressed through a vote of confidence. ... Class struggle is class conflict looked at from a Marxist, libertarian socialist, or anarchist perspective. ... Volksgemeinschaft was an attempt by the German Nazi Party to establish a national community of unified mind, will and spirit. ... Mysticism from the Greek Î¼Ï…ÏƒÏ„Î¹ÎºÏŒÏ‚ (mystikos) an initiate (of the Eleusinian Mysteries, Î¼Ï…ÏƒÏ„Î®ÏÎ¹Î± (mysteria) meaning initiation[1]) is the pursuit of achieving communion or identity with, or conscious awareness of, ultimate reality, the divine, spiritual truth, or God through direct experience, intuition, or insight; and the belief that such experience is an... The Age of Enlightenment (French: SiÃ¨cle des LumiÃ¨res, German: AufklÃ¤rung) refers to the eighteenth century in European and American philosophy, or the longer period including the Age of Reason. ...

Fascism is also typified by totalitarian attempts to impose state control over all aspects of life: political, social, cultural, and economic; in the examples given, by way of a strong, single-party government for enacting laws and a strong, sometimes brutal militia or police force for enforcing them. Fascism exalts the nation, state, or group of people as superior to the individuals composing it. Fascism uses explicit populist rhetoric; calls for a heroic mass effort to restore past greatness; and demands loyalty to a single leader, leading to a cult of personality and unquestioned obedience to orders (Führerprinzip). Hannah Arendt classed Italian fascism as an ordinary authoritarian ideology, and included only Stalinism and Nazism as totalitarians.^[20] Fascism is also considered to be a form of collectivism.^[21] Totalitarianism is a term employed by political scientists, especially those in the field of comparative politics, to describe modern regimes in which the state regulates nearly every aspect of public and private behavior. ... One of the most influential doctrines in history is that all humans are divided into groups called nations. ... A state is a set of institutions that possess the authority to make the rules that govern the people in one or more societies, having internal and external sovereignty over a definite territory. ... Look up Populism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Billboard of Joseph Stalin. ... Adolf Hitler made believe he was the incarnation of the FÃ¼hrerprinzip The FÃ¼hrerprinzip, the German name for the leader principle, refers to a system with a hierarchy of leaders that resembles a military structure. ... Hannah Arendt (October 14, 1906 â€“ December 4, 1975) was a Jewish-German (later American) political theorist. ... Joseph Stalin Stalinism is the political and economic system named after Joseph Stalin, who implemented it in the Soviet Union. ... National Socialism redirects here. ... Collectivism is a term used to describe any moral, political, or social outlook, that stresses human interdependence and the importance of a collective, rather than the importance of separate individuals. ...

Fascist as epithet

The word fascist has become a slur throughout the political spectrum following World War II, and it has been uncommon for political groups to call themselves fascist. In contemporary political discourse, adherents of some political ideologies tend to associate fascism with their enemies, or define it as the opposite of their own views. In the strict sense of the word, Fascism covers movements before WWII, and later movements are described as Neo-fascist. It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with fascism (epithet). ... A political spectrum is a way of visualizing different political positions. ... This page pertains to fascism after World War II. For post-World War II Nazi movements, see Neo-Nazism. ...

Some have argued that the term fascist has become hopelessly vague over the years and that it has become little more than a pejorative epithet. George Orwell wrote in 1944: An epithet (Greek - ÎµÏ€Î¹Î¸ÎµÏ„Î¿Î½ and Latin - epitheton; literally meaning imposed) is a descriptive word or phrase. ... Eric Arthur Blair (25 June 1903[1][2] â€“ 21 January 1950), better known by the pen name George Orwell, was a British author and journalist. ...

The association of fascism with strict discipline has led to the word fascist being used as computer hacker jargon for a feature which is seen as too restrictive. For example: "Our old mainframe computer's operating language was very fascist; it insisted on one space and no more, between instruction parameters."^[23] Discipline is any training intended to produce a specific character or pattern of behaviour, especially training that produces moral, physical, or mental development in a particular direction. ... The Jargon File is a glossary of hacker slang. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

Italian Fascism

Fascio (plural: fasci) is an Italian language word which was used in the late nineteenth century to refer to radical political groups of many different (and sometimes opposing) orientations. A number of nationalist fasci later evolved into the twentieth century movement known as fascism. Fascio (plural: fasci) is an Italian language word which was used in the late 19th century to refer to radical political groups of many different (and sometimes opposing) orientations. ... Italian fascism (in Italian, fascismo) was the authoritarian political movement which ruled Italy from 1922 to 1943 under the leadership of Benito Mussolini. ... Italian ( , or lingua italiana) is a Romance language spoken by about 63 million people,[1] primarily in Italy and Switzerland. ... A political party is a political organization that subscribes to a certain ideology and seeks to attain political power within a government. ... EugÃ¨ne Delacroixs Liberty Leading the People, symbolising French nationalism during the July Revolution. ...

Benito Mussolini claimed to have been the founder of fascism. Italian fascism (in Italian, fascismo) was the authoritarian political movement which ruled Italy from 1922 to 1943 under Mussolini's leadership. Fascism in Italy combined elements of corporatism, totalitarianism, nationalism, militarism, and anti-Communism. Fascism won support as an alternative to the unpopular Liberalism of the time. It also won support of Italians who were anti socialist. Mussolini holding a speech. ...

Differences and similarities with Nazism

Although the modern consensus sees Nazism as a type or offshoot of fascism, some scholars, such as Gilbert Allardyce and A.F.K. Organski, argue that Nazism is not fascism — either because the differences are too great, or because they believe fascism cannot be generic.^[24]^[25] National Socialism redirects here. ... Image File history File links Hitlermusso. ... Image File history File links Hitlermusso. ... Mussolini holding a speech. ... The Oath of the Horatii, by Jacques-Louis David The Roman salute is a gesture in which the arm is held out forward straight, with palm down. ... Hitler redirects here. ... A.F.K. Organski was Professor of Political Science at the University of Michigan and a cofounder of Decision Insights, Inc. ...

Nazism differed from Italian fascism in that it had a stronger emphasis on race, in terms of social and economic policies. Though both ideologies denied the significance of the individual, Italian fascism saw the individual as subservient to the state, whereas Nazism saw the individual, as well as the state, as ultimately subservient to the race.^[26] Mussolini's Fascism held that cultural factors existed to serve the state, and that it wasn't necessarily in the state's interest to interfere in cultural aspects of society. The only purpose of government in Mussolini's fascism was to uphold the state as supreme above all else, a concept which can be described as statolatry. Where fascism talked of state, Nazism spoke of the Volk and of the Volksgemeinschaft. One of the central questions of political philosophy is the purpose of government. ... Coined by Ludwig von Mises in his work Omnipotent Government, Statolatry is literally worship of the State analogous to idolatry as worship of idols. ... Volk is a German (and Dutch) word meaning people or folk. It is commonly used as prefix in words such as Volksentscheid (plebiscite) or VÃ¶lkerbund (League of Nations), or the car manufacturer Volkswagen (literally, peoples car). A number of vÃ¶lkisch movements were set up in Germany after... Volksgemeinschaft was an attempt by the German Nazi Party to establish a national community of unified mind, will and spirit. ...

The Nazi movement, at least in its overt ideology, spoke of class-based society as the enemy, and wanted to unify the racial element above established classes. However, the Italian fascist movement sought to preserve the class system and uphold it as the foundation of established and desirable culture^{[citation needed]} However, the Italian fascists did not reject the concept of social mobility, and a central tenet of the fascist state was meritocracy. However, fascism also heavily based itself on corporatism, which was supposed to supersede class conflicts. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1071x1526, 797 KB) Summary La Difesa della razza (The Defence of the Race), cover of the propaganda magazine La Difesa della raza, September 1938. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1071x1526, 797 KB) Summary La Difesa della razza (The Defence of the Race), cover of the propaganda magazine La Difesa della raza, September 1938. ... Social mobility or intergenerational mobility is the degree to which, in a given society, an individuals social status can change throughout the course of his or her life, or the degree to which that individuals offspring and subsequent generations move up and down the class system. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... â€¹ The template below has been proposed for deletion. ... Class conflict is both the friction that accompanies social relationships between members or groups of different social classes and the underlying tensions or antagonisms which exist in society. ...

Mussolini and Hitler weren't always allies, and France under Pierre Laval tried to ally itself with Italy against Germany, leading to the 1935 Stresa Front. The United Kingdom also moved closer to Italy and France when they negotiated on the fate of Ethiopia in spite of the League of Nations. Nazi Germany and fascist Italy came close to blows when in 1934, Engelbert Dollfuss, the Austrofascist leader of Austria and ally of Italy, was assassinated by Nazi Brown shirts on Hitler's orders in preparation for a planned Anschluss, which prompted Mussolini to move troops to the Austrian-Italian border in readiness for war against Hitler. However, Dollfuss' successor, Kurt Schuschnigg, was not as favourable to the Italians as Dollfuss was. When Hitler and Mussolini first met, Mussolini referred to Hitler as "a silly little monkey" before he was forced by the Western Allies into an agreement with Hitler.^{[citation needed]} Mussolini also reportedly asked the Pope to excommunicate Hitler. [1] Pierre Laval, prime minister of Vichy France Pierre Laval (28 June 1883 â€“ 15 October 1945) was a French politician and four times Prime Minister of France, the final time being under the Vichy government. ... The Stresa Front was an agreement made between French foreign minister Pierre Laval, British prime minister Ramsay MacDonald, and Italian leader Benito Mussolini in April 1935. ... The League of Nations was an international organization founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. ... Engelbert Dollfuss. ... Supporters of the Austrian Christian Social Party in 1934 Austrofascism is a term which is frequently used to describe the authoritarian rule installed in Austria between 1934 and 1938. ... Hitler addressing SA members in the late 1920s The Sturmabteilung (SA, German for Storm Division and is usually translated as stormtroops or stormtroopers) functioned as a paramilitary organisation of the NSDAP – the German Nazi party. ... German troops march into Austria on 12 March 1938. ... Kurt Schuschnigg in a propagando manifesto. ... The current Pope is Benedict XVI (born Joseph Alois Ratzinger), who was elected at the age of 78 on 19 April 2005. ...

Hitler and Mussolini recognized commonalities in their politics, and the second part of Hitler's Mein Kampf — "The National Socialist Movement" — (1926) contains this passage:

In Soviet usage (which has translated into modern Russian usage), the epithet fascist is synonymous with Nazi Germans. This came to be only after Hitler's invasion of the USSR. Several historians, such as Valery Senderov, have claimed that the "fascist" epithet for Nazi Germans was created by Stalin who did not want to use the term Nazi, fearing it would cast a negative spin on the word socialism (National Socialism).

Economic planning

Fascists opposed what they believe to be laissez-faire or quasi-laissez-faire economic policies dominant in the era prior to the Great Depression. People of many different political stripes blamed laissez-faire capitalism for the Great Depression, and fascists promoted their ideology as a "third way" between capitalism and Marxian socialism.^[28] Their policies manifested as a radical extension of government control over the economy without wholesale expropriation of the means of production. Fascist governments nationalized some key industries, managed their currencies and made some massive state investments. They also introduced price controls, wage controls and other types of economic planning measures.^[29] Fascist governments instituted state-regulated allocation of resources, especially in the financial and raw materials sectors. Laissez-faire is short for laissez faire, laissez passer, a French phrase meaning to let things alone, let them pass. First used by the eighteenth century Physiocrats as an injunction against government interference with trade, it is now used as a synonym for strict free market economics. ... The Great Depression was a time of economic down turn, which started after the Stock Market Crash on October 29, 1929, also known as Black Tuesday. ... Capitalism generally refers to an economic system in which the means of production are mostly privately[1] owned and operated for profit, and in which distribution, production and pricing of goods and services are determined in a largely free market. ... Third way can refer to: The Third Way, an economic and political idea that positions itself between democratic socialism and laissez-faire capitalism, combining the ordoliberal social market with neo-liberalism. ... Note: Marxian is not restricted to Marxian economics, as it includes those inspired by Marxs works who do not identify with Marxism as a political ideology. ... Expropriation is the act of removing from control the owner of an item of property. ... Means of production (abbreviated MoP; German: Produktionsmittel), also called means of labour are the materials, tools and other instruments used by workers to make products. ... Nationalization or nationalisation is the act of transferring assets into public ownership. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Economic interventionism is a term used to describe activity undertaken by a central government to affect a countrys economy in an attempt to increase economic growth and/or standards of living. ... Finance studies and addresses the ways in which individuals, businesses, and organizations raise, allocate, and use monetary resources over time, taking into account the risks entailed in their projects. ... material is the substance or matter from which something is or can be made, or also items needed for doing or creating something. ...

Other than nationalization of certain industries, private property was allowed, but property rights and private initiative were contingent upon service to the state.^[30] For example, "an owner of agricultural land may be compelled to raise wheat instead of sheep and employ more labor than he would find profitable."^[31]^[32] According to historian Tibor Ivan Berend, dirigisme was an inherent aspect of fascist economies.^[33] Fascists were most vocal in their opposition to finance capitalism, interest charging, and profiteering.^[34] Some fascists, particularly Nazis, considered finance capitalism a "parasitic" Jewish conspiracy (see anti-Semitism).^[35] However, fascists also opposed socialism and independent trade unions. Property designates those things that are commonly recognized as being the possessions of a person or group. ... Dirigisme (from the French) (in English also dirigism although per the OED both spellings are used) is an economic term designating an economy where the government exerts strong directive influence. ... Financial capital, or economic capital, is any liquid medium or mechanism that represents wealth, or other styles of capital. ... Interest is the rent paid to borrow money. ... National Socialism redirects here. ... Mites parasitising a harvestman Parasitism is one version of symbiosis (living together), a phenomenon in which two organisms which are phylogenetically unrelated co-exist over a prolonged period of time, usually the lifetime of one of the individuals. ... The word Jew ( Hebrew: יהודי) is used in a wide number of ways, but generally refers to a follower of the Jewish faith, a child of a Jewish mother, or someone of Jewish descent with a connection to Jewish culture or ethnicity and often a combination... The Eternal Jew: 1937 German poster. ... Socialism refers to a broad array of doctrines or political movements that envisage a socio-economic system in which property and the distribution of wealth are subject to social control. ... A Trade Union (Labour union) ... is a continuous association of wage-earners for the purpose of maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment. ...

According to sociologist Stanislav Andreski, fascist economicss "foreshadowed most of the fundamental features of the economic system of Western European countries today: the radical extension of government control over the economy without a wholesale expropriation of the capitalists but with a good dose of nationalisation, price control, incomes policy, managed currency, massive state investment, attempts at overall planning (less effectual than the Fascist because of the weakness of authority)."^[36] Politics professor Stephen Haseler credits fascism with providing a model of economic planning for social democracy.^[37] This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... StanisÅ‚aw Andrzejewski (Stanislaw Andreski) born 1919, is a Polish-British sociologist known best for his scathing indictment of the pretentious nebulous verbosity endemic in the modern social sciences in his classic work Social Sciences as Sorcery (1972). ... A common understanding of Western Europe in modern times. ... Social democracy is a political ideology emerging in the late 19th and early 20th centuries from supporters of Marxism who believed that the transition to a socialist society could be achieved through democratic evolutionary rather than revolutionary means. ...

Anti-Communism

Fascism and Communism are political systems that rose to prominence after World War I. Historians of the period between World War I and World War II such as E.H. Carr and Eric Hobsbawm point out that liberalism was under serious stress in this period and seemed to be a doomed philosophy. The success of the Russian Revolution of 1917 resulted in a revolutionary wave across Europe. The socialist movement worldwide split into separate social democratic and Leninist wings. The subsequent formation of the Third International prompted serious debates within social democratic parties, resulting in supporters of the Russian Revolution splitting to form Communist Parties in most industrialized (and many non-industrialized) countries. Image File history File links Circle-question-red. ... This does not cite its references or sources. ... Communism is an ideology that seeks to establish a classless, stateless social organization based on common ownership of the means of production. ... Edward Hallett Carr (1892–1982) was a British historian and international relations theorist. ... Eric John Earnest Hobsbawm CH (born June 8, 1917 in Alexandria, Egypt) is a British Marxist historian and author. ... The Russian Revolution of 1917 was a series of political and social upheavals in Russia, involving first the overthrow of the tsarist autocracy, and then the overthrow of the liberal and moderate-socialist Provisional Government, resulting in the establishment of Soviet power under the control of the Bolshevik party. ... Social democracy is a political ideology emerging in the late 19th and early 20th centuries from supporters of Marxism who believed that the transition to a socialist society could be achieved through democratic evolutionary rather than revolutionary means. ... Vladimir Lenin in 1920 Leninism is a political and economic theory which builds upon Marxism; it is a branch of Marxism (and it has been the dominant branch of Marxism in the world since the 1920s). ... The term Third International has two well-established meanings: For the unabridged dictionary, see Websters Third New International Dictionary. ... A Communist party is a party which promotes Communism. ...

At the end of World War I, there were attempted socialist uprisings or threats of socialist uprisings throughout Europe, most notably in Germany, where the Spartacist uprising, led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht in January 1919, was eventually crushed. In Bavaria, Communists successfully overthrew the government and established the Bavarian Soviet Republic that lasted from 1918 to 1919. A short lived Hungarian Soviet Republic was also established under Béla Kun in 1919. The Spartacist uprising, also known as the January uprising, was a general strike (and the armed battles accompanying it) in Germany from January 5 to January 12, 1919. ... Rosa Luxemburg Rosa Luxemburg (March 5, 1870 or 1871 â€“ January 15, 1919, in Polish RÃ³Å¼a Luksemburg) was a Jewish Polish-born Marxist political theorist, socialist philosopher, and revolutionary. ... â–¶ (helpÂ· info) (August 13, 1871 - January 15, 1919) was a German socialist and a co-founder of the Spartacist League and the Communist Party of Germany. ... The Bavarian Soviet Republic (Bayrische RÃ¤terepublik) â€” also known as the Munich Soviet Republic (MÃ¼nchner RÃ¤terepublik) â€” was a short-lived revolutionary government in the German state of Bavaria in 1919 that sought to replace the fledgling Weimar Republic in its early days. ... The Hungarian Soviet Republic was the political regime in Hungary from March 21, 1919 until the beginning of August of the same year, and it is the second Communist (or soviet) government in world history, after the one in Russia (1917). ... BÃ©la Kun BÃ©la Kun (born BÃ©la Kohn) (February 20, 1886, in SzilÃ¡gycseh, today Cehu Silvaniei, Transylvania, Romania, died August 29, 1938 in the Soviet Union) was a Hungarian Communist politician, who ruled Hungary for a brief period in 1919. ...

The Russian Revolution also inspired attempted revolutionary movements in Italy with a wave of factory occupations. Most historians view fascism as a response to these developments, as a movement that both tried to appeal to the working class and divert them from Marxism. It also appealed to capitalists as a bulwark against Bolshevism. Italian Fascism took power with the blessing of Italy's king after years of leftist-led unrest led many conservatives to fear that a communist revolution was inevitable (Marxist philosopher Antonio Gramsci popularized the conception that fascism was the Capital's response to the organized workers' movement). Mussolini took power during the 1922 March on Rome. The Biennio rosso (English: Two red years) were two years, 1919 and 1920, in which there was a massive struggle for political power by the workers of Italy. ... Bolshevik Party Meeting. ... See also Marxian economics Marxist philosophy or Marxist theory designs work in philosophy which is strongly influenced by Karl Marxs materialist approach to theory or which is written by Marxists. ... Antonio Gramsci (IPA: ) (January 22, 1891 â€“ April 27, 1937) was an Italian writer, politician and political theorist. ... The labour movement (or labor movement) is a broad term for the development of a collective organization of working people, to campaign in their own interest for better treatment from their employers and political governments. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Throughout Europe, numerous aristocrats, conservative intellectuals, capitalists and industrialists lent their support to fascist movements in their countries that emulated Italian Fascism. In Germany, numerous right-wing nationalist groups arose, particularly out of the post-war Freikorps, which were used to crush both the Spartacist uprising and the Bavarian Soviet Republic. The Ancient Greek term aristocracy originally meant a system of government with rule by the best. The word is derived from two words, aristos meaning the best and kratein to rule. Aristocracies have most often been hereditary plutocracies (see below), where a sense of historical gravitas and noblesse oblige demands... The designation of Freikorps (German for Free Corps, i. ...

With the worldwide Great Depression of the 1930s, it seemed that liberalism and the liberal form of capitalism were doomed, and Communist and fascist movements swelled. These movements were bitterly opposed to each other and fought frequently, the most notable example of this conflict being the Spanish Civil War. This war became a proxy war between the fascist countries and their international supporters — who backed Francisco Franco — and the worldwide Communist movement allied uneasily with anarchists and Trotskyists — who backed the Popular Front — and were aided chiefly by the Soviet Union. The Great Depression was a time of economic down turn, which started after the Stock Market Crash on October 29, 1929, also known as Black Tuesday. ... This article is about the Spanish Civil War of 1936-1939. ... A proxy war is a war where two powers use third parties as a supplement or a substitute for fighting each other directly. ... Francisco Paulino Hermenegildo TeÃ³dulo Franco Bahamonde (4 December 1892â€“20 November or possibly 19 November[1] 1975), abbreviated Francisco Franco Bahamonde and commonly known as Caudillo or GeneralÃsimo Francisco Franco (pron. ... It has been suggested that Origins of anarchism and History of anarchism be merged into this article or section. ... Trotskyism is the theory of Marxism as advocated by Leon Trotsky. ... The Popular Front (Spanish Popular Front) was an electoral coalition and pact signed in January 1936 by various left-wing political organisations, instigated by Manuel AzaÃ±a for the purpose of contesting that years election. ...

Initially, the Soviet Union supported a coalition with the western powers against Nazi Germany and popular fronts in various countries against domestic fascism. This policy was largely unsuccessful due to the distrust shown by the western powers (especially Britain) towards the Soviet Union. The Munich Agreement between Germany, France and Britain heightened Soviet fears that the western powers were endeavoring to force them to bear the brunt of a war against Nazism. The lack of eagerness on the part of the British during diplomatic negotiations with the Soviets served to make the situation even worse. The Soviets changed their policy and negotiated a non-aggression pact known as the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact in 1939. Vyacheslav Molotov claims in his memoirs that the Soviets believed this was necessary to buy them time to prepare for an expected war with Germany. Stalin expected the Germans not to attack until 1942, but the pact ended in 1941 when Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa. Fascism and communism reverted to being deadly enemies. The war, in the eyes of both sides, was a war between ideologies. For the annual global security meeting held in Munich, see Munich Conference on Security Policy Chamberlain holds the paper containing the resolution to commit to peaceful methods signed by both Hitler and himself on his return from Germany in September 1938. ... A non-aggression pact is an international treaty between two or more states, agreeing to avoid war or armed conflict between them even if they find themselves fighting third countries, or even if one is fighting allies of the other. ... Molotov signs the German-Soviet non-aggression pact. ... For other uses, see Molotov (disambiguation). ... National Socialism redirects here. ... Combatants Germany, Romania, Finland, Italy, Hungary, Slovakia Soviet Union Commanders Adolf Hitler, Ion Antonescu, C.G.E. Mannerheim, Benito Mussolini, MiklÃ³s Horthy, Jozef Tiso Joseph Stalin Strength ~3. ...

Even within socialist and communist circles, there were debates about the nature of fascism. Communist theoretician Rajani Palme Dutt crafted one view that stressed the crisis of capitalism.^[38] Leon Trotsky, an early leader in the Russian Revolution, believed that fascism occurs when "the workers' organizations are annihilated; that the proletariat is reduced to an amorphous state; and that a system of administration is created which penetrates deeply into the masses and which serves to frustrate the independent crystallization of the proletariat."^[39] Rajani Palme Dutt (1896 - 1974) was a leading figure in the Communist Party of Great Britain. ... (Russian: Ð›ÐµÐ² Ð”Ð°Ð²Ð¸Ð´Ð¾Ð²Ð¸Ñ‡ Ð¢Ñ€Ð¾Ñ†ÐºÐ¸Ð¹, Lev Davidovich Trotsky, also transliterated Leo, Lev, Trotskii, Trotski, Trotskij, Trockij and Trotzky) (November 7 [O.S. October 26] 1879 â€“ August 21, 1940), born Lev Davidovich Bronstein (Ð›ÐµÐ² Ð”Ð°Ð²Ð¸Ð´Ð¾Ð²Ð¸Ñ‡ Ð‘Ñ€Ð¾Ð½ÑˆÑ‚ÐµÐ¹Ð½), was a Ukrainian-born Jew, Bolshevik revolutionary and Marxist theorist. ...

Fascism and religion

Some expressions of fascism have been closely linked with religious political movements. This combination is referred to as clerical fascism, a prime example of which is the Ustaše in Croatia. Religion and neo-fascism refers to the relationship between neo-fascism and religion. ... The factual accuracy of this article is disputed. ... Clerical fascism is an ideological construct that combines the political and economic doctrines of fascism with theology or religious tradition. ... Clerical fascism is an ideological construct that combines the political and economic doctrines of fascism with theology or religious tradition. ... The UstaÅ¡e (often spelled Ustashe in English; singular UstaÅ¡a or Ustasha) was a Croatian organization placed in control of the Independent State of Croatia by the Axis Powers in 1941, which pursued Nazi policies. ...

Fascism and the Roman Catholic Church

A controversial topic is the relationship between fascist movements and the Roman Catholic Church. As mentioned above, Pope Leo XIII's 1891 encyclical, Rerum Novarum included doctrines that fascists used or admired. Forty years later, the corporatist tendencies of Rerum Novarum were underscored by Pope Pius XI's May 25, 1931 encyclical Quadragesimo Anno^[40] restated the hostility of Rerum Novarum to both unbridled competition and class struggle. Apologists claim the criticism of both socialism and capitalism in these encyclicals was not fascist but rather closer to Christian Democracy. Pope Leo XIII (March 2, 1810 â€“ July 20, 1903), born Vincenzo Gioacchino Raffaele Luigi Pecci, was Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, having succeeded Pope Pius IX (1846â€“78) on February 20, 1878 and reigning until his death in 1903. ... Year 1891 (MDCCCXCI) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Saturday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... An encyclical was a circular letter sent to all the churches of a particular area in the ancient Christian church. ... Rerum Novarum (Translation: Of New Things) is an encyclical issued by Pope Leo XIII on May 15, 1891. ... May 25 is the 145th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (146th in leap years). ... 1931 (MCMXXXI) was a common year starting on Thursday (link is to a full 1931 calendar). ... Quadragesimo Anno is an encyclical by Pope Pius XI, issued 15 May 1931, 40 years after Rerum Novarum (thus the name, Latin for the fortieth year). Written as a response to the Great Depression, it calls for the establishment of a social order based on the principle of subsidiarity. ... Class struggle is class conflict looked at from a Marxist, libertarian socialist, or anarchist perspective. ... Christian Democracy is a diverse political ideology and movement. ...

In the early 1920s, the Catholic party in Italy (Partito Popolare) was in the process of forming a coalition with the Reform Party that could have stabilized Italian politics and thwarted Mussolini's projected coup. On October 2, 1922, Pope Pius XI circulated a letter ordering clergy not to identify themselves with the Partito Popolare, but to remain neutral, an act that undercut the party and its alliance against Mussolini. Following Mussolini's rise to power, the Vatican's Secretary of State met Il Duce in early 1923 and agreed to dissolve the Partito Popolare, which Mussolini saw as an obstacle to fascist rule. In exchange, the fascists made guarantees regarding Catholic education and institutions. October 2 is the 275th day (276th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar, with 90 days remaining. ... Year 1922 (MCMXXII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar). ... Pope Pius XI (Latin: ) (May 31, 1857 â€“ February 10, 1939), born Ambrogio Damiano Achille Ratti, reigned as Pope from February 6, 1922 and sovereign of Vatican City from 1929 until his death on February 10, 1939. ... In several countries, Secretary of State is a senior government position. ...

In 1924, following the murder of the leader of the Socialist Party by fascists, the Partito Popolare joined with the Socialist Party in demanding that the King dismiss Mussolini as Prime Minister, and stated their willingness to form a coalition government. Pius XI responded by warning against any coalition between Catholics and socialists. The Vatican ordered all priests to resign from the Partito Popolare and from any positions they held in it. This led to the party's disintegration in rural areas where it relied on clerical assistance.

The Vatican subsequently established Azione Cattolica (Catholic Action) as a non-political lay organization under the direct control of bishops. The organization was forbidden by the Vatican to participate in politics, and thus was not permitted to oppose the fascist regime. Pius XI ordered all Catholics to join Catholic Action. This resulted in hundreds of thousands of Catholics withdrawing from the Partito Popolare, and joining the apolitical Catholic Action. This caused the Catholic Party's final collapse.^[41] The Azione Cattolica Italiana, or Azione Cattolica for short, is a widespread lay catholic association in Italy. ...

When Mussolini ordered the closure of Catholic Action in May 1931, Pius XI issued an encyclical, Non Abbiamo Bisogno. This document stated the Catholic Church's opposition to the dissolution, and argued that the order "unmasked the pagan intentions of the Fascist state". Under international pressure, Mussolini decided to compromise, and Catholic Action was saved. For Catholics, the encyclical's disapproval of any system that puts the nation above God or humanity remains doctrine.

Aside from certain ideological similarities, the relationship between the Church and fascist movements in various countries has often been close. An early example is Austria which developed a quasi-fascist authoritarian Catholic regime some call the "Austro-fascist" Ständestaat between 1934 and 1938. There is little debate over Slovakia, where the fascist dictator was a Catholic monsignor; and the Independent State of Croatia, where the fascist Ustashe identified itself as a Catholic movement. The Iron Guard in Romania identified itself as an Eastern Orthodox movement (with no connection to Roman Catholicism), and had particularly strong leanings toward clerical fascism. (See also Involvement of Croatian Catholic clergy with the Ustaša regime.) Supporters of the Austrian Christian Social Party in 1934 Austrofascism is a term which is frequently used to describe the authoritarian rule installed in Austria between 1934 and 1938. ... Supporters of the Austrian Christian Social Party in 1934 Austrofascism is a term which is frequently used to describe the authoritarian rule installed in Austria between 1934 and 1938. ... Monsignor is an ecclesiastical honorific title for clergy of the Roman Catholic Church. ... It has been suggested that Hanging in NDH be merged into this article or section. ... The Ustaše (often spelled Ustashe in English; singular Ustaša or Ustasha) was a Croatian right-wing organisation put in charge of the Independent State of Croatia by the Axis Powers in 1941. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Clerical fascism is an ideological construct that combines the political and economic doctrines of fascism with theology or religious tradition. ... During World War II a number of Croatian Catholic priests, and some of the then bishops in the territory, cooperated with the UstaÅ¡a regime, who ran a Nazi puppet state that pursued a genocidal policy against the Serbs (who were Eastern Orthodox Christians), Jews and Roma. ...

The Vichy regime in France was also deeply influenced by the reactionary Catholic-influenced ideology of the Action Française. This group had actually been led by an agnostic and condemned by the Catholic Church in 1926. Many of its members were reactionary Catholics so this condemnation damaged the group, but then in 1938 the condemnation was lifted. Conversely, many Catholic priests were persecuted under the Nazi regime, and many Catholic laypeople and clergy played notable roles in sheltering Jews during the Holocaust. Motto: Travail, famille, patrie (Work, family, country) unoccupied zone of Vichy France (until November 1942) Capital Vichy Language(s) French Religion Roman Catholicism Government Republic President of the Council - 1940 - 1944 Philippe PÃ©tain Legislature National Assembly Historical era World War II - Battle of France June 16, 1940 - Battle of... The Action FranÃ§aise is a French Monarchist movement and periodical founded by Maurice Pujo and Henri Vaugeois and whose principal ideologist was Charles Maurras. ... Selection of Hungarian Jews at the Auschwitz-Birkenau camp in May/June 1944. ...

While some historians wrote that the Catholic organization Opus Dei and its founder Josemaría Escrivá supported the fascist regime of Spanish dictator Francisco Franco, some recent historians state that Escrivá was staunchly non-political, and the connection between Opus Dei and Franco's fascist regime was a black legend propagated by the Falange and by some clerical sectors.^[42] JosemarÃa EscrivÃ¡, the founder of Opus Dei Opus Dei, formally known as The Prelature of the Holy Cross and Opus Dei, is an organization of the Catholic Church that emphasizes the Catholic belief that everyone is called to become a saint and that ordinary life is a path to... Saint JosemarÃa EscrivÃ¡ de Balaguer (Thursday, January 9, 1902 â€“ Thursday, June 26, 1975) (also known as Jose MarÃa or JosemarÃa EscrivÃ¡ de Balaguer y Albas, born JosÃ© MarÃa Mariano Escriba Albas) was a Spanish Catholic priest and founder of the Prelature of the Holy Cross and... Dictator is the of a magistrate in ancient Rome appointed by the Senate to rule the state in times of emergency. ... Francisco Paulino Hermenegildo TeÃ³dulo Franco Bahamonde (4 December 1892â€“20 November or possibly 19 November[1] 1975), abbreviated Francisco Franco Bahamonde and commonly known as Caudillo or GeneralÃsimo Francisco Franco (pron. ... The Black Legend (Spanish: La Leyenda Negra) is the depiction of Spain and Spaniards as bloodthirsty and cruel, intolerant, greedy and fanatical. ... Yoke and Arrows. ...

Fascist movements like Rexism in Belgium and the Christian Social Party also combined fascist and conservative populist Roman Catholic elements LÃ©on Degrelle Rexism was a fascist political movement in the first half of the twentieth century in Belgium. ... The Christian Social Party (CS) was an Austrian political party from 1893 to 1933 and a predecessor of the contemporary Austrian Peoples Party. ... Populism is a political ideology or rhetorical style that holds that the common person is oppressed by the elite in society, which exists only to serve its own interests, and therefore, the instruments of the State need to be grasped from this self-serving elite and instead used for the... The Roman Catholic Church, most often spoken of simply as the Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with over one billion members. ...

Fascism and the Protestant churches

Protestantism in Italy and Spain was not as significant as Catholicism and the Protestant minority was persecuted. Mussolini's sub-secretary of Interior, Bufferini-Guidi issued a memo closing all houses of worship of the Italian Pentecostals and Jehovah Witnesses, and imprisoned their leader. There were some instances of people being killed because of their faith.^[43]

The connection between the German form of Fascism, Nazism, and Protestantism has long been debated, with some saying that the Protestant denominations, especially the German Lutheran Church, was close. According to some scholars, especially Richard Steigman-Gall (The Holy Reich: Protestantism and the Nazi Movement, 1920-1945) the relationship was collaborationist. Hitler, in his manifesto, Mein Kampf, listed Martin Luther as one of Germany's great historic reformers. In Luther's 1543 book On the Jews and Their Lies, Luther advocated the burning of synagogues and schools, the deportation of Jews, and many other measures that resemble the actions later taken by the Nazis. Collaboration, literally, consists of working together with one or more other people. ... Martin Luther (November 10, 1483 â€“ February 18, 1546) was a German monk,[1] priest, professor, theologian, and church reformer. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... A synagogue (from Ancient Greek: , transliterated synagogÄ“, assembly; Hebrew: â€Ž beit knesset, house of assembly; Yiddish: , shul; Ladino: , esnoga) is a Jewish place of religious worship. ... Deportation is the expelling of someone from a country. ...

The overwhelming majority of Protestant church leaders in Germany made no comment on the Nazis' growing anti-Jewish activities. Many Protestants opposed the governments of the Weimar Republic in the 1920s which they saw as coalitions between the Socialists and the Catholic Centre party. In 1932, many German Protestants joined together to form the German Christian Movement which enthusiastically supported Nazism, and sought to join Church and State. 3,000 of the 17,000 Protestant pastors in Germany were to join the movement. Hitler wished to unite a Protestant church of 28 different federations into one nationalist body. Pastor Ludwig Müller, the leader of the German Christian Movement, was soon appointed Hitler's advisor on religious affairs. He was elected Reich's Bishop in charge of the German Protestant churches in 1933. Many churches and ministers attempted to purge Christianity of "Jewish influences" and tried to institute the Nazis' Positive Christianity viewpoint on religion. Anthem: Das Lied der Deutschen The LÃ¤nder of Germany during the Weimar Republic, with the Free State of Prussia (Freistaat PreuÃŸen) as the largest Capital Berlin Language(s) German Government Republic President - 1919-1925 Friedrich Ebert - 1925-1933 Paul von Hindenburg Chancellor - 1919 Philipp Scheidemann - 1933 Adolf Hitler... German Christians was formed in 1932 and led by Ludwig Mueller. ... Ludwig MÃ¼ller(1883-1945) was a German who headed the Protestant Reich Church. ... Christianity is a monotheistic[1] religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament. ... A Sun cross, adopted as the sign of the German Faith Movement because it resembles both a cross and a swastika Positive Christianity is a term used in Nazi ideology to refer to a form of Christianity consistent with Nazism. ...

An "Aryan Paragraph" was introduced to the constitution which stated that no one of non-Aryan background, or married to anyone of non-Aryan background, could serve as either a pastor or church official. Pastors and officials who had married a non-Aryan were to be dismissed. Much of the Lutheran establishment and most of the Reformed churches in Germany had welcomed Hitler's promise to oppose Bolshevism and social instability. The Lutheran movement is a group of denominations of Protestant Christianity by the original definition. ... -1... Bolshevik Party Meeting. ...

The new measures began to raise some opposition to the German Christians from a minority of Lutherans and Evangelicals who had become increasingly disillusioned with unethical practices of the Nazis and disliked state interference in church affairs. Dietrich Bonhoeffer, a Lutheran pastor and theological liberal, was strongly opposed to the Nazis. Though there is some debate as to his actual involvement in planning the assassination attempt of Hitler, he was found guilty and executed for his alleged part in the conspiracy. A small group of Protestant clergy under Martin Niemoeller and Dietrich Bonhoeffer separated from the main churches to form the Confessing Church. The group had limited effect, however, as it was forced to meet secretly and was largely dispersed by the Nazis by 1939 at the latest, and the effect of Protestantism on inhibiting Nazism in Germany was limited at best. Dietrich Bonhoeffer Dietrich Bonhoeffer [] (February 4, 1906 â€“ April 9, 1945) was a German Lutheran pastor, theologian and participant in the German resistance movement against Nazism and founding member of the Confessing Church. ... Rev. ... The Confessing Church (Bekennende Kirche) was a Christian resistance movement in Nazi Germany. ...

Fascism, sexuality, and gender roles

There has been a revival of interest in recent times, among many academic historians, with regard to the so-called "cult of masculinity" that permeated fascism, the attempts to systematically control female sexuality and reproductive behavior for the ends of the State.^{[citation needed]} Italian fascists viewed increasing the birthrate of Italy as a major goal of their regime, with Mussolini launching a program, called the 'Battle For Births', to almost double the country's population. The exclusive role assigned to women within the State was to be mothers and not workers or soldiers.^[44] However, Mussolini did not practice what some of his supporters preached. From an early stage, he gave women high positions within Fascism, and in Germany, the leader of one of the major feminist organizations pleaded with Hitler to be incorporated into the Nazi Party as early as 1928.^{[citation needed]} Fascists have generally been opposed to the concept of women's rights per se, preferring the traditions of chivalry to guide male-female relations. Once again, Hitler, Himmler and Mussolini dismissed male chauvinist attitudes towards women, especially in private.^{[citation needed]} Image File history File links Broom_icon. ... A bagpiper in Scottish military clan-uniform. ... A bagpiper in Scottish military clan-uniform. ... The term womenâ€™s rights typically refers to freedoms inherently possessed by women and girls of all ages, which may be institutionalized or ignored and/or illegitimately suppressed by law or custom in a particular society. ... Bors Dilemma - he chooses to save a maiden rather than his brother Lionel Chivalry[1] is a term related to the medieval institution of apple juice. ...

But Sylvia Plath's angry metaphor may simply be a repetition of the old 'woman as masochist' claim. As this came in a poem about her German father, Plath may have been associating all Germans with fascism [something that was common in Britain until fairly recently].^{[citation needed]}

According to Anson Rabinbach and Jessica Benjamin, "The crucial element of fascism is its explicit sexual language, what Theweleit calls 'the conscious coding' or the 'over-explicitness of the fascist language of symbol.' This fascist symbolization creates a particular kind of psychic economy which places sexuality in the service of destruction. According to this intellectual theory, despite its sexually-charged politics, fascism is an anti-eros, 'the core of all fascist propaganda is a battle against everything that constitutes enjoyment and pleasure'… He shows that in this world of war the repudiation of one's own body, of femininity, becomes a psychic compulsion which associates masculinity with hardness, destruction, and self-denial."^[46] Klaus Theweleit (* 1942 in Ebenrode, East Prussia - today Nesterow, Russia) is a german sociologist and writer. ...

General

Hitler, Adolf. Mein Kampf (1992). London: Pimlico. ISBN 0-7126-5254-X
"Labor Charter" (1927-1934)
Mussolini, Benito. Doctrine of Fascism which was published as part of the entry for fascismo in the Enciclopedia Italiana 1932.
Paxton, Robert O. 2004. The Anatomy of Fascism. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, ISBN 1-4000-4094-9
Sorel, Georges. Reflections on Violence.
De Felice, Renzo Interpretations of Fascism, translated by Brenda Huff Everett, Cambridge; London : Harvard University Press, 1977 ISBN 0-674-45962-8.
Eatwell, Roger. 1996. Fascism: A History. New York: Allen Lane.
Hughes, H. Stuart. 1953. The United States and Italy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Payne, Stanley G. 1995. A History of Fascism, 1914-45. Madison, Wisc.: University of Wisconsin Press ISBN 0-299-14874-2
Reich, Wilhelm. 1970. The Mass Psychology of Fascism. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux.
Seldes, George. 1935. Sawdust Caesar: The Untold History of Mussolini and Fascism. New York and London: Harper and Brothers.
Alfred Sohn-Rethel Economy and Class Structure of German Fascism,London, CSE Bks, 1978 ISBN 0906336007

Fascist ideology

De Felice, Renzo Fascism : an informal introduction to its theory and practice, an interview with Michael Ledeen, New Brunswick, N.J. : Transaction Books, 1976 ISBN 0-87855-190-5.
Fritzsche, Peter. 1990. Rehearsals for Fascism: Populism and Political Mobilization in Weimar Germany. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505780-5
Griffin, Roger. 2000. "Revolution from the Right: Fascism," chapter in David Parker (ed.) Revolutions and the Revolutionary Tradition in the West 1560-1991, Routledge, London.
Laqueur, Walter. 1966. Fascism: Past, Present, Future, New York: Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-19-511793-X
Schapiro, J. Salwyn. 1949. Liberalism and The Challenge of Fascism, Social Forces in England and France (1815-1870). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Laclau, Ernesto. 1977. Politics and Ideology in Marxist Theory: Capitalism, Fascism, Populism. London: NLB/Atlantic Highlands Humanities Press.
Sternhell, Zeev with Mario Sznajder and Maia Asheri. [1989] 1994. The Birth of Fascist Ideology, From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution., Trans. David Maisei. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

International fascism

Coogan, Kevin. 1999. Dreamer of the Day: Francis Parker Yockey and the Postwar Fascist International. Brooklyn, N.Y.: Autonomedia.
Griffin, Roger. 1991. The Nature of Fascism. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Paxton, Robert O. 2004. The Anatomy of Fascism. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Weber, Eugen. [1964] 1985. Varieties of Fascism: Doctrines of Revolution in the Twentieth Century, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, (Contains chapters on fascist movements in different countries.)
Wallace, Henry. "The Dangers of American Fascism". The New York Times, Sunday, 9 April 1944.

Hitler redirects here. ... Mein Kampf (English translation: My Struggle or My Fight) is the signature work of Adolf Hitler, combining elements of autobiography with an exposition of Hitlers political ideology of Nazism. ... Mussolini holding a speech. ... The Doctrine of Fascism is a seminal essay signed by Mussolini and officially attributed to him, although it was most likely written by Giovanni Gentile. ... Robert Paxton (b 1932) is a historian who worked on Vichy France. ... Georges EugÃ¨ne Sorel (2 November 1847-29 August 1922) was a French philosopher and theorist of revolutionary syndicalism. ... Renzo De Felice (1929-May 1996) was a Italian historian of Fascism. ... Stuart Hughes (born in Toronto, Ontario, August 9, 1959) is a Canadian actor well known for his leading roles on the stages of Shaw Festival, Stratford Festival, Soulpepper (of which he is a founding member), and many other Canadian theatre companies. ... Dr. Wilhelm Reich Wilhelm Reich (March 24, 1897â€“November 3, 1957) was an Austrian-American psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, and a member of Sigmund Freuds inner circle. ... George Seldes (November 16, 1890 â€“ July 2, 1995) was an influential American investigative journalist and media critic. ... Alfred Sohn-Rethel (born January 4, 1899 in Neuilly-sur-Seine near, today in Paris; died April 6, 1990 in Bremen, Germany) was an economist, a philosopher especially interested in epistemology. ... Renzo De Felice (1929-May 1996) was a Italian historian of Fascism. ... Michael Ledeen (born August 1, 1941) is a resident scholar at the American Enterprise Institute. ... Roger Griffin is a British academic at Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, England whose theory on fascism determines that it is palingenetic ultra-nationalism with concepts and acts of national rebirth being the its defining feature. ... Walter Laqueur (born 1921) is an American historian and political commentator. ... Jacob Salwyn Schapiro (December 19, 1879 - December 30, 1973) was a Professor Emeritus of History at the City College of New York. ... Ernesto Laclau is a political theorist often described as post-marxist. ... Zeev Sternhell is the LÃ©on Blum Professor of Political Science at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. ... Kevin Coogan is an American investigative journalist. ... Roger Griffin is a British academic at Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, England whose theory on fascism determines that it is palingenetic ultra-nationalism with concepts and acts of national rebirth being the its defining feature. ... Eugen Weber (April 24, 1925 â€“ ) is the coolest guy on earth and a prominent historian on the side. ... Henry Agard Wallace (October 7, 1888 â€“ November 18, 1965) was the 33rd Vice President of the United States (1941â€“45), the 11th Secretary of Agriculture (1933â€“40), and the 10th Secretary of Commerce (1945â€“46). ... The New York Times is a newspaper published in New York City by Arthur Ochs Sulzberger Jr. ... April 9 is the 99th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (100th in leap years). ... 1944 (MCMXLIV) was a leap year starting on Saturday. ...

External links

Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... It has been suggested that French Wiktionary be merged into this article or section. ... Image File history File links Wikiquote-logo-en. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

Critics

Michael Parenti (born 1933) is an American political scientist, historian, and media critic. ... Rajani Palme Dutt (1896 - 1974) was a leading figure in the Communist Party of Great Britain. ...

Contents

The term 'fascism'

Roots and branches

Definitions

Scope of the word Fascism

Authoritarian and totalitarian state

Fascist as epithet

Italian Fascism

Differences and similarities with Nazism

Economic planning

Anti-Communism

Fascism and religion

Fascism and the Roman Catholic Church

Fascism and the Protestant churches

Fascism, sexuality, and gender roles

See also

Neo-fascism

Footnotes

Further reading

General

Fascist ideology

International fascism

External links

Critics

Proponents

Contents

The term 'fascism' GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");

Roots and branches

Definitions

Scope of the word Fascism

Authoritarian and totalitarian state

Fascist as epithet

Italian Fascism

Differences and similarities with Nazism

Economic planning

Anti-Communism

Fascism and religion

Fascism and the Roman Catholic Church

Fascism and the Protestant churches

Fascism, sexuality, and gender roles

See also

Neo-fascism

Footnotes

Further reading

General

Fascist ideology

International fascism

External links

Critics

Proponents

The term 'fascism'