NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Finnish Civil War

The Finnish Civil War was a part of the national and social turmoil caused by World War I (1914–1918) in Europe. The war was fought in Finland from January 27 to May 15, 1918, between the forces of the Social Democrats led by the People's Deputation of Finland, commonly called the "Reds" (punaiset), and the forces of the non-socialist, conservative-led Senate, commonly called the "Whites" (valkoiset). The Reds were supported by Bolshevist Russia, while the Whites received military assistance from the German Empire. Image File history File links JaegersInVaasa1918. ... Finnish JÃ¤gers parading at the town square of Vaasa The JÃ¤ger troops were volunteers from Finland in Germany trained as JÃ¤gers (elite light infantry) during World War I. It was one of many means by which Germany intended to weaken Russia and to cause Russias loss... Founded 1606 Province Western Finland Region Ostrobothnia Sub-region Vaasa Area - Of which land - Rank 397 kmÂ² 183 kmÂ² ranked 345th Population - Density - Rank 57,266 (2005) 311. ... is the 27th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 135th day of the year (136th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1918 (MCMXVIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. ... Hegemony (pronounced or ) (Greek: ) is the dominance of one group over other groups, with or without the threat of force, to the extent that, for instance, the dominant party can dictate the terms of trade to its advantage; more broadly, cultural perspectives become skewed to favor the dominant group. ... The White Guards is one translation of the Finnish term Suojeluskunta (plural: Suojeluskunnat, Finland-Swedish: Skyddskår) that unfortunately has received many different translations to English, for instance: Security Guard, Civil Guard, National Guard, White Militia, Defence Corps, Protection Guard, Protection Corps and Protection Militia. ... For German colonial territories, see German Colonial Empire. ... For other uses, see Sweden (disambiguation). ... During the Civil War in Finland, 1918, the Red Guards were the rebellious supporters of totalitarian who were defeated by the anti-Socialist White Guards and (Imperial) German forces, who feared the Russian Revolution was spread to Finland by the Reds rebellion. ... State motto: Russian: ÐŸÑ€Ð¾Ð»ÐµÑ‚Ð°Ñ€Ð¸Ð¸ Ð²ÑÐµÑ… ÑÑ‚Ñ€Ð°Ð½, ÑÐ¾ÐµÐ´Ð¸Ð½ÑÐ¹Ñ‚ÐµÑÑŒ! Translation: Workers of the world, unite! Capital Moscow Official language Russian Established In the USSR: - Since - Until November 7, 1917 November 7, 1917 December 12, 1991 (dissolution) Area - Total - Water (%) Ranked 1st in the USSR 17,075,200 kmÂ² 13% Population - Total - Density Ranked 1st in the... This article is about the Finnish statesman and Commander-in-Chief. ... Ali Aaltonen (?-1918) was a Lieutenant in the Imperial Russian army, journalist, and Finnish communist leader. ... Eero Haapalainen (Approx. ... Eino Rahja Eino Rahja (1885 - 1936) was a Finnish-Russian Communist politician and member of the Bolshevik Party. ... Kullervo Manner Kullervo Manner (1880 â€“ 1939) was a Finnish Communist leader. ... â€œThe Great War â€ redirects here. ... Year 1914 (MCMXIV) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... 1918 (MCMXVIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. ... is the 27th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 135th day of the year (136th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1918 (MCMXVIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. ... The Social Democratic Party of Finland (SDP) is one of the most influential political parties in Finland, along with the Centre Party and the Coalition Party. ... The Finnish Socialist Workers Republic was a short-lived Socialist state created after a Socialist revolution on January 28, 1918 that occurred in Finland in the aftermath of the Bolshevik Revolution. ... Ths article deals with conservatism as a political philosophy. ... The Senate of Finland combined the functions of cabinet and supreme court in the Grand Duchy of Finland between 1816 to 1917. ... Bolshevist Russia is a common term that refers to the Bolshevik side in the Russian Civil War, or more specifically the Russian government between the October Revolution (November 7, 1917) and the constitution of the Soviet Union (December 30, 1922). ... For German colonial territories, see German Colonial Empire. ...

Defeat in World War I and the February and October Revolutions in 1917 caused a total collapse of the Russian Empire, and the destruction in Russia resulted in a corresponding breakdown of Finnish society during 1917. The Social Democrats on the left and conservatives on the right competed for the leadership of the Finnish state, which shifted from the left to the right in 1917. Both groups collaborated with the corresponding political forces in Russia, deepening the split in the nation.^[3] This article does not cite any references or sources. ... For other uses, see October Revolution (disambiguation). ... The subject of this article was previously also known as Russia. ...

As there were no generally accepted police and army forces to keep order in Finland after March 1917, the left and right began building security groups of their own, leading to the emergence of two independent armed military troops, the White and Red Guards. An atmosphere of political violence and fear grew among the Finns. Fighting broke out in late January 1918 after the Senate named the White Guards as the official army of Finland and the Red Guards rose against them. The Whites were victorious in the ensuing war. In the aftermath of the 1917–18 crisis and the Civil War, Finland passed from Russian rule to the German sphere of influence. The conservative senate attempted to establish a Finnish monarchy ruled by a German king, but after the defeat of Germany in World War I, Finland emerged as an independent, democratic republic.^[4] The White Guards is one translation of the Finnish term Suojeluskunta (plural: Suojeluskunnat, Finland-Swedish: Skyddskår) that unfortunately has received many different translations to English, for instance: Security Guard, Civil Guard, National Guard, White Militia, Defence Corps, Protection Guard, Protection Corps and Protection Militia. ... During the Civil War in Finland, 1918, the Red Guards were the rebellious supporters of totalitarian who were defeated by the anti-Socialist White Guards and (Imperial) German forces, who feared the Russian Revolution was spread to Finland by the Reds rebellion. ... For other uses, see Democracy (disambiguation). ... Look up republic in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

The Civil War remains the most controversial and emotionally loaded event in the history of modern Finland, and there have even been disputes about what the conflict should be called.^[5] Approximately 37,000 people died during the conflict, including casualties at the war fronts and deaths from political terror campaigns and high prison camp mortality. The turmoil destroyed the economy, split the political apparatus, and divided the Finnish nation for many years. The country was slowly reunited through the compromises of moderate political groups on the left and right.^[6] Terrorist redirects here. ... A labor camp is a simplified detention facility where inmates are engaged in penal labor. ... Finland has a primarily parliamentary system, although the president also has some notable powers. ...

Background

The main factors behind the Finnish Civil War were World War I and its detrimental effects on the Russian Empire, which led to revolution and a total collapse of that system. Finland, as a part of the Russian Empire, was powerfully affected by the turmoil and by the war between Germany and Russia. Both empires had political, economic, and military interests in Finland. An earlier crisis in the relations between Imperial Russia and the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland had occurred in 1899 as the central administration had strengthened in Petrograd, and the tension and competition rose between the major European powers at that time. The Russian leaders, as part of an attempt to unite the large, heterogeneous empire, had adopted the program of the Russification of Finland, with the aim of reducing Finnish autonomy. The Finns called this policy "the first period of oppression 1899–1905". As a reaction, serious plans for achieving sovereignty for Finland were drawn up for the first time.^[7] The subject of this article was previously also known as Russia. ... The Russian Revolution of 1917 was a series of political and social upheavals in Russia, involving first the overthrow of the tsarist autocracy, and then the overthrow of the liberal and moderate-socialist Provisional Government, resulting in the establishment of Soviet power under the control of the Bolshevik party. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... The Grand Duchy of Finland was a state that existed 1809â€“1917 as part of the Russian Empire. ... The policy of Russification of Finland, 1899–1917, aimed at the termination of Finland’s autonomy but resulted in fierce Finnish resistance that ultimately led to Finlands declaration of independence in 1917. ...

Before the first period of oppression, Finland had enjoyed broad autonomy. Compared to other parts of the Russian Empire, Finno-Russian relations were exceptionally peaceful and stable. As this policy altered, the Finns began to strongly oppose the imperial system. Several political groups with different opposition policies arose; the most radical one, the activist movement, led to covert collaboration with Imperial Germany during World War I.^[8] Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions between individuals or groups in societies or cultures. ... Finnish JÃ¤gers parading at the town square of Vaasa The JÃ¤ger troops were volunteers from Finland in Germany trained as JÃ¤gers (elite light infantry) during World War I. It was one of many means by which Germany intended to weaken Russia and to cause Russias loss...

A major reason for the Civil War was the undemocratic class system run by the estates, originating in the Swedish regime of the 17th century (see also Österland), which effectively divided the Finnish people into two groups, separated economically, socially and politically. Left-wing activity after 1899 not only opposed Russification but also sought to develop a domestic policy that tackled social problems and responded to the demand for democracy. Finland's population grew rapidly in the 19th century, and a class of industrial and agrarian workers and propertyless peasants emerged. The Industrial Revolution and economic freedom had arrived in Finland later than in Western Europe (1800–1850), owing to the autocratic rule of the Russian Tsar. This meant that some of the social problems associated with industrialisation were diminished by learning from the experiences of countries such as England. The social conditions, the standard of living, and the self-confidence of the workers gradually improved between 1880–1914, and at the same time the political concepts of socialism, nationalism and liberalism took root. But as the standard of living rose among the common people, the rift between rich and poor deepened markedly.^[9] Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions between individuals or groups in societies or cultures. ... In several different regions of medieval Europe, and continuing in some countries[] down to the present day, the estates of the realm were broad divisions of society, usually distinguishing nobility, clergy, and commoners; this last group was, in some regions, further divided into burghers (also known as bourgeoisie) and peasants. ... Sweden between the years 1611 and 1718 is known as the Swedish Empire. ... Ã–sterland, or Ã–sterlanden, is a historical land of Sweden. ... â€œLeftismâ€ redirects here. ... In a detail of Brueghels Land of Cockaigne (1567) a soft-boiled egg has little feet to rush to the luxuriating peasant who catches drops of honey on his tongue, while roast pigs roam wild: in fact, hunger and harsh winters were realities for the average European in the... A Watt steam engine, the steam engine that propelled the Industrial Revolution in Britain and the world. ... Tsar (Bulgarian, Serbian and Macedonian Ñ†Ð°Ñ€, Russian , in scientific transliteration respectively car and car ), occasionally spelled Czar or Tzar and sometimes Csar or Zar in English, is a Slavonic term designating certain monarchs. ... For other uses, see England (disambiguation). ... Socialism refers to a broad array of doctrines or political movements that envisage a socio-economic system in which property and the distribution of wealth are subjfuck grapesect to control by the community[1] for the purposes of increasing social and economic equality and cooperation. ... EugÃ¨ne Delacroixs Liberty Leading the People, symbolising French nationalism during the July Revolution 1830. ... Liberalism is an ideology, philosophical view, and political tradition which holds that liberty is the primary political value. ...

The Finnish labour movement, which emerged at the end of the 19th century out of folk and religious movements, had a "Finnish national, working class" character and was represented by the Social Democratic Party, established in 1899. The movement came to the fore without major confrontations when tensions during Russia's failed war against Japan led in 1905 to a general strike in Finland and revolutionary upheaval in the empire. In an attempt to quell the general unrest, broad universal suffrage, including that of female citizens, and parliamentarianism were introduced in Finland. This soon produced nearly 50% turnouts for the Social Democrats, although there were no evident improvements for their supporters. The Russian Tsar, Nicholas II, regained his authority after this crisis, reclaimed his role as the Grand Duke of Finland, and between 1908 and 1917 neutralized the functions and powers of the new parliament.^[10] The labour movement or labor movement is a broad term for the development of a collective organization of working people, to campaign in their own interest for better treatment from their employers and political governments, in particular through the implementation of specific laws governing labor relations. ... The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland is the Lutheran national church of Finland (The Finnish Orthodox Church is also recognized as a state church). ... The Social Democratic Party of Finland (SDP) is one of the most influential political parties in Finland, along with the Centre Party and the Coalition Party. ... Combatants Russian Empire Montenegro[1] Empire of Japan Commanders Emperor Nicholas II Aleksey Kuropatkin Stepan Makarov â€ Emperor Meiji Oyama Iwao Heihachiro Togo The Russoâ€“Japanese War (Japanese: Nichi-Ro SensÅ, Russian: , Chinese: , February 10, 1904 â€“ September 5, 1905) was a conflict that grew out of the rival imperialist ambitions of... â€¹ The template below (Expand) is being considered for deletion. ... â€¹ The template below (Expand) is being considered for deletion. ... Elections Part of the Politics series Politics Portal This box: Universal suffrage (also general suffrage or common suffrage) consists of the extension of the right to vote to all adults, without distinction as to race, sex, belief, intelligence, or economic or social status. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... â€œNicholas IIâ€ redirects here. ... Grand Duke of Finland, more correctly Grand Prince of Finland, (Finnish: Suomen suuriruhtinas, Swedish: Storfurste av Finland) was a title in use, sometimes sporadically, between 1584 and 1808. ...

February Revolution (1917)

A further, more severe program of Russification, called "the second period of oppression 1908–1917", was halted on 15 March 1917, when the removal of the Russian Tsar brought the personal union between Finland and Russia to a sudden end. The immediate reason for the collapse of the Russian Empire was a domestic crisis precipitated by defeats against Germany and by war-weariness among the Russian people. The deeper causes of the revolution lay in the collision between the policies of the most conservative regime in Europe and the necessity for political and economic modernisation brought about by industrialisation. The Tsar's power was transferred to the Russian Duma and Provisional Government, which at this time had a right-wing majority.^[11] This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Image File history File links General_Strike_Helsinki_1917. ... Image File history File links General_Strike_Helsinki_1917. ... Location of Helsinki in Northern Europe Coordinates: , Country Province Region Uusimaa Sub-region Helsinki Charter 1550 Capital city 1812 Government - City manager Jussi Pajunen Area - City 187. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... The Eduskunta (in Finnish), or the Riksdag (in Swedish), is the Parliament of Finland. ... is the 74th day of the year (75th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1917 (MCMXVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 13-day slower Julian calendar (see: 1917 Julian calendar). ... It has been suggested that Dynastic union be merged into this article or section. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with State Duma. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ...

The revolt in Russia handed the Finnish Parliament true political power for the first time. Autonomous status was returned to the Finns in March 1917, and a more modern parliamentary structure was formed, with a left and a right wing. The left comprised mainly Social Democrats, covering a wide spectrum from moderate to revolutionary socialists; the right was even more diverse, ranging from liberals and moderate conservatives to radical rightist elements. The four main parties were the two old Fennoman parties, the conservative Finnish Party and the Young Finnish Party including both liberals and conservatives; the social reformist, centrist Agrarian League, which drew its support mainly from peasants with small or middle-sized farms; and the conservative Swedish People's Party, which sought to retain the rights of the Swedish-speaking minority. The ensuing power struggle between the two sides contributed to a breakdown in Finnish society during 1917. The Fennomans were the most important political movement in the 19th century Grand Duchy of Finland. ... The Finnish Party is a Predecessor of National Coalition Party of Finland. ... Constitutional-Fennoman Party or Party of Young Finns (in Finnish, Nuorsuomalainen Puolue) was in the last decades of autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland the liberal-minded bourgeoisie party, which opposed Russification efforts. ... The Centre Party (in Finnish: Suomen Keskusta, ) is a centrist political party in Finland. ... The Swedish Peoples Party (Swedish: ; Finnish: ) is a Swedish speaking minority and mainly liberal party in Finland. ...

At the beginning of the 20th century, the Finnish people stood at the crossroads between the old regime of the estates and the evolution of a modern, democratic society. The direction and goal of this period of change now became a matter of intense political dispute which eventually spilled over into armed conflict,^[12] the Social Democrats seeking to retain the political rights already achieved and establish influence over the people, and the conservatives fearful of losing their long-held social and economic power. For the citizens or residents of Finland (also called Finns), see Demographics of Finland. ...

The Social Democratic Party had gained an absolute majority in the Parliament of Finland as a result of the general elections of 1916.^[13] The new Senate was formed by Social Democrat and trade union leader Oskari Tokoi. His Senate cabinet comprised six representatives from the Social Democrats and six from non-socialist parties. In theory, the new cabinet consisted of a broad coalition; in practice, with the main political groups unwilling to compromise and the most experienced politicians remaining outside it, the cabinet proved unable to solve any major local Finnish problems. Real political power shifted instead to street level in the form of mass meetings, protests, strike organizations, and the street councils formed by workers and soldiers after the revolution, all of which served to undermine the authority of the state.^[14] Absolute majority is a supermajoritarian voting requirement which is stricter than a simple majority. ... The Eduskunta (in Finnish), or the Riksdag (in Swedish), is the Parliament of Finland. ... Categories: | ... The Senate of Finland combined the functions of cabinet and supreme court in the Grand Duchy of Finland between 1816 to 1917. ... A union (labor union in American English; trade union, sometimes trades union, in British English; either labour union or trade union in Canadian English) is a legal entity consisting of employees or workers having a common interest, such as all the assembly workers for one employer, or all the workers... Oskari Tokoi Antti Oskari Tokoi (April 15, 1873, Perho, Finland- April 4, 1963, Fitchburg, Massachusetts, United States) was a Finnish politician. ...

The rapid economic growth stimulated by World War I, which had raised the incomes of industrial workers during 1915 and 1916, collapsed with the February Revolution, and the consequent decrease in production and economy led to unemployment and heavy inflation. Large-scale strikes in both industry and agriculture spread throughout Finland, the workers calling for higher wages and eight-hour-per-day working limits. The cessation of cereal imports from Russia had produced food shortages in the country, as a response to which the government introduced rationing and price fixing. However, a black market formed in which food prices continued to rise sharply, which was a major problem for the unemployed worker families. Food supply, prices, and the fear of starvation became emotional political issues between farmers in the countryside and industrial workers in the urban areas. The common people, their fears exploited by the politicians and the political media, took to the streets. Despite the food shortages, no large-scale starvation hit the Finns in southern Finland before the war. Economic factors remained a supporting factor in the crisis of 1917, but only a secondary part of the power struggle of the state.^[15] The 8-hour day movement or 40-hour week movement (a. ... Gas ration stamps being printed as a result of the 1973 oil crisis Rationing is the controlled distribution of resources and scarce goods or services: it restricts how much people are allowed to buy or consume. ... The examples and perspective in this article do not represent a worldwide view. ...

Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...

Battle for leadership

The power struggle between the Social Democrats and the conservatives culminated in July 1917 in the passing of the Senate bill that eventually became the "Power Act", which incorporated a plan by the Social Democrats to substantially increase the power of Parliament, in which they had a majority; it also furthered Finnish independence by restricting Russia's influence on domestic Finnish affairs. The Social Democrats' plan had the backing of Vladimir Lenin and the Russian Bolsheviks, who in July 1917 were plotting a revolt against the Russian Provisional Government. The Agrarian Union, some rightist activists, and other non-socialists eager for Finnish sovereignty supported the act, but both the Finnish conservatives and the Russian Provisional Government opposed the measure because it would reduce their power. In the event, Lenin was thwarted during the "July Days" and forced to flee to Finland. The Provisional Russian Government refused to accept the Power Act and sent troops to Finland, where, with the support of the conservatives, Parliament was dissolved and new elections announced. In those elections, in October 1917, the Social Democrats lost their absolute majority, after which the labour movement's role changed. Until then, it had mainly struggled for new rights and benefits for its members; now the movement was forced to defend the gains it had already made.^[16] â€œLeninâ€ redirects here. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... The July Days took place between July 4 and 7 July in 1917 in Russia when sailors and industrial workers of Petrograd rioted against the Russian Provisional Government. ... Categories: | ...

The collapse of Russia in the February Revolution resulted in a loss of institutional authority in Finland and the dissolution of the police force, creating fear and uncertainty. In response, groups on both the right and left began assembling independent security groups for their own protection. At first, these groups were local and largely unarmed, but by autumn 1917, in the power vacuum following the dissolution of parliament and in the absence of a stable government or a Finnish army, such forces began assuming a more military and national character.^[17] The Civil Guards (later called the White Guards) were organized by local men of influence, usually conservative academics, industrialists and major landowners and activists, while the Worker's Security Guards (later called the Red Guards) were often recruited through their local party sections and the labour unions. The presence of these two opposing armed forces in the country imposed a state of “dual power" and "multiple sovereignty" on Finnish society, typically the prelude to civil war.^[18] The White Guards is one translation of the Finnish term Suojeluskunta (plural: Suojeluskunnat, Finland-Swedish: Skyddskår) that unfortunately has received many different translations to English, for instance: Security Guard, Civil Guard, National Guard, White Militia, Defence Corps, Protection Guard, Protection Corps and Protection Militia. ... During the Civil War in Finland, 1918, the Red Guards were the rebellious supporters of totalitarian who were defeated by the anti-Socialist White Guards and (Imperial) German forces, who feared the Russian Revolution was spread to Finland by the Reds rebellion. ...

October Revolution (1917)

Lenin's Bolshevik Revolution on November 7 transferred political power to the radical, left-wing socialists in Russia, a turn of events which suited a German Empire exhausted by fighting a war on two major fronts. The policy of the German leaders had been to foment unrest or revolution in Russia in order to force the Russians to sue for peace. To that end, they had arranged for the safe conduct of Lenin and his comrades from exile in Switzerland to Petrograd in April 1917. Furthermore, the Germans financed the Bolshevik party, believing Lenin to be the most powerful weapon they could launch at Russia.^[19] For other uses, see October Revolution (disambiguation). ... Bolshevik Party Meeting. ... For other uses, see October Revolution (disambiguation). ... is the 311th day of the year (312th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Saint Petersburg (Russian: Санкт-Петербу́рг, English transliteration: Sankt-Peterburg), colloquially known as Питер (transliterated Piter), formerly known as Leningrad (Ленингра́д, 1924–1991) and...

After the dissolution of the Finnish parliament, the polarization and mutual fear between the Social Democrats and the conservatives increased dramatically, a situation made worse when the latter, after their victory in the elections of October 1917, appointed a purely conservative cabinet. On 1 November, the Social Democrats put forward a political program called “We demand” in order to push for political concessions in domestic policy. They planned also to ask for acceptance of Finland's sovereignty from the Bolsheviks in the form of a manifesto on 10 November, but the uncertain situation in Petrograd stalled the plan. After the uncompromising "We demand" program had failed, the socialists initiated a general strike on 14–19 November 1917. At this moment, Lenin and the Bolsheviks, under threat in Petrograd, urged the Social Democrats to seize power in Finland, but the majority of the latter were moderate and preferred parliamentary methods, prompting Lenin to label them “reluctant revolutionaries”. When the general strike appeared to be successful, the “Workers' Revolutionary Council” voted by a narrow majority to seize power on 16 November at 5 a.m. The supreme revolutionary “Executive Committee”, however, was unable to recruit enough members to carry out the plan and had to call the proposed revolution off at 7 p.m. the same day. The incident, "the shortest revolution", effectively split the Social Democrats in two, a majority supporting parliamentary means and a minority demanding revolution. The repercussions of the event had a lasting effect on the future of the movement, with several powerful leaders staking positions within the party.^[20] is the 305th day of the year (306th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 314th day of the year (315th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... A general strike is a strike action by an entire labour force in a city, region or country. ... is the 320th day of the year (321st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

The Finnish Parliament, influenced by the general strike, supported the Social Democratic proposals for an eight-hour working day and universal suffrage in local elections on 16 November 1917. During the strike, however, radical elements of the Workers' Security Guards executed several political opponents in the main cities of southern Finland, and the first armed clashes between Civil Guards and Workers' Guards broke out, with 34 reported casualties. The Finnish Civil War would probably have started at that point had there been enough weapons in the country to arm the two sides; instead, there began a race for weapons and a final escalation towards war.^[21] is the 320th day of the year (321st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1917 (MCMXVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 13-day slower Julian calendar (see: 1917 Julian calendar). ... The Province of Southern Finland is a province of Finland. ...

Finnish sovereignty

The disintegration of Russia offered the Finns a historic opportunity to gain independence, but after the October Revolution, the positions of the conservatives and the Social Democrats on the sovereignty issue had become reversed. The right was now eager for independence because sovereignty would assist them in controlling the left and in minimizing the influence of revolutionary Russia. The Social Democrats had supported independence since spring 1917, but now they could not use it for the direct political benefit of their party and had to adjust to the right's dominance in the country.

The Senate, led by Pehr Evind Svinhufvud, proposed Finland's declaration of independence, which the Parliament adopted on 6 December 1917.^[22] Though the Social Democrats voted against the Svinhufvud proposal, they decided to present an alternative declaration of independence containing no substantial differences. The socialists feared a further loss of support (as in the October elections) among the nationalistic common people and hoped to win a political majority in the future. They sent two delegations during December 1917 to Petrograd in order to appeal from Lenin an approval of Finnish independence. Both political groups, therefore, agreed on the need for Finnish sovereignty, despite strong disagreement on the selection of its leadership.^[23] Image File history File links Size of this preview: 477 Ã— 599 pixel Image in higher resolution (500 Ã— 628 pixel, file size: 99 KB, MIME type: image/png) The Bolshevik governments recognition of Finnish independence was the first concrete expression of Lenins demand for the right of nations to... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 477 Ã— 599 pixel Image in higher resolution (500 Ã— 628 pixel, file size: 99 KB, MIME type: image/png) The Bolshevik governments recognition of Finnish independence was the first concrete expression of Lenins demand for the right of nations to... Self-determination is a principle in international law that a people ought to be able to determine their own governmental forms and structure free from outside influence. ... Pehr Evind Svinhufvud af Qvalstad (December 15, 1861 â€“ February 29, 1944) was the President of Finland from 1931 to 1937. ... The Finnish declaration of independence was adopted by the Parliament of Finland on December 6, 1917. ... December 6 is the 340th day of the year (341st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1917 (MCMXVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 13-day slower Julian calendar (see: 1917 Julian calendar). ...

The establishment of sovereignty was not a foregone conclusion; for a small nation like Finland, recognition by Russia and the major European powers was essential. Three weeks after the declaration of independence, Svinhufvud's cabinet concluded that it would have to negotiate with Lenin for Russian recognition. During December 1917, the Bolsheviks were under pressure in peace negotiations with Germany at Brest-Litovsk. Russia Bolshevism was in a deep crisis with a demoralized army and the fate of the October Revolution in doubt. Lenin calculated that the Bolsheviks could perhaps hold central parts of Russia but would have to give up some territories on its periphery, including Finland in the less important north-western corner. As a result, Svinhufvud and his senate delegation won Lenin's concession of sovereignty on 31 December 1917.^[24] One of the hallmarks of contemporary great power status is permanent membership on the United Nations Security Council. ... The first two pages of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, in (left to right) German, Hungarian, Bulgarian, Ottoman Turkish and Russian The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was a peace treaty signed on March 3, 1918, at Brest-Litovsk (now Brest, Belarus) between the Russian SFSR and the Central Powers, marking... is the 365th day of the year (366th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1917 (MCMXVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 13-day slower Julian calendar (see: 1917 Julian calendar). ...

Warfare

Image File history File links Suojeluskunta. ... Image File history File links Suojeluskunta. ... The White Guards is one translation of the Finnish term Suojeluskunta (plural: Suojeluskunnat, Finland-Swedish: Skyddskår) that unfortunately has received many different translations to English, for instance: Security Guard, Civil Guard, National Guard, White Militia, Defence Corps, Protection Guard, Protection Corps and Protection Militia. ... During the Civil War in Finland, 1918, the Red Guards were the rebellious supporters of totalitarian who were defeated by the anti-Socialist White Guards and (Imperial) German forces, who feared the Russian Revolution was spread to Finland by the Reds rebellion. ...

Escalation

In hindsight the events of 1917 have been often seen simply as precursors of the Civil War, an escalation of the conflict starting with the February Revolution. But the opposing political factions made many failed attempts of their own to create a new order and prevent social breakdown in 1917.^[25] The events of the general strike in November deepened the suspicion and mistrust in Finland and finally put the possibility of compromise out of reach. The conservatives and rightist activists saw the groups of radical workers active during the strike as a threat to the security of the former estates, so they resolved to use all means necessary to defend themselves, including armed force. At the same time, revolutionary workers and left-wing socialists were now considering removing the old regime by force rather than allowing the achievements of the workers' movement to be reversed. The result of this hardening of positions was that in late 1917, moderate, peaceful men and women, as so often throughout history, were forced to stand aside while the men with rifles stepped forward to take charge.^[26]

The final escalation towards war began in early January 1918. The most radical Workers' Security Guards from Helsinki, Kotka and Turku changed their names to Red Guards and convinced those leaders of the Social Democrats who wavered between peace and war to support revolution. The Workers' Guards were officially renamed the Red Guards at the end of the same month, under the command of Ali Aaltonen, a former Russian army officer, who had been appointed in December. At the same time, the Svinhufvud Senate and the Parliament decided on 12 January 1918 to create a strong police authority, an initiative which the Workers' Security Guards saw as a step towards legalizing the White Guards. When the Senate renamed the White Guards the Finnish White Army, the Red Guards refused to recognise the title. On 15 January, Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, like Aaltonen a former officer in the Russian army, was appointed supreme commander of the White Guards. He located his headquarters in Vaasa, while Aaltonen located his in Helsinki.^[27] Location of Helsinki in Northern Europe Coordinates: , Country Province Region Uusimaa Sub-region Helsinki Charter 1550 Capital city 1812 Government - City manager Jussi Pajunen Area - City 187. ... The centre of Kotka Kotka (Finnish word for Eagle) is a town and municipality of Finland. ... Location of Turku in Northern Europe Coordinates: , Country Finland Province Western Finland Region Finland Proper Sub-region Turku sub-region Government - Mayor Mikko Pukkinen Area - City 306. ... Ali Aaltonen (?-1918) was a Lieutenant in the Imperial Russian army, journalist, and Finnish communist leader. ... The Senate of Finland combined the functions of cabinet and supreme court in the Grand Duchy of Finland between 1816 to 1917. ... is the 12th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1918 (MCMXVIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. ... is the 15th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... This article is about the Finnish statesman and Commander-in-Chief. ... Founded 1606 Province Western Finland Region Ostrobothnia Sub-region Vaasa Area - Of which land - Rank 397 kmÂ² 183 kmÂ² ranked 345th Population - Density - Rank 57,266 (2005) 311. ...

The official starting date of the Finnish Civil War is a matter for debate. The first serious battles were fought during 17–20 January in Karelia, in the south-eastern corner of Finland, mainly for control of the town of Viipuri and to win the race for weapons. The White Order to engage was issued on 25 January; the Red Order of Revolution was issued on 26 January. The next day, the White Guards attacked trains carrying a large shipment of weapons from Russia, as promised to the Reds by Lenin. Official hostilities began in the late evening of 27 January, followed by disarmament of Russian garrisons in Ostrobothnia during the early hours of 28 January. A symbolic date for the start of the war could be 26 January, when a group of Reds climbed the tower of Helsinki Workers' Hall and lit a red lantern to mark the start of the second major rebellion in the history of Finland.^[28] Map showing the parts Karelia is traditionally divided into. ... Not to be confused with the Danish town and county of Viborg in Jutland Viapori, a Finnish transcription of Sveaborg, better known as Suomenlinna castle Vyborg from the tower of the castle Vyborg (transcription of Russian Выборг) is a town with 70,000 inhabitants at... is the 25th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 26th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 27th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Ostrobothnia, Österbotten (literally East (of) Bottom / the Gulf of Bothnia) or Pohjanmaa (literally Bottom land / soil / ground), is a historical province to the north in Finland. ... is the 28th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 26th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Brothers in arms

At the beginning of the war, the front line ran through southern Finland from west to east, dividing the country into White Finland and Red Finland. The Red Guards controlled the area to the south, including nearly all the major industrial centres and the largest estates and farms with high numbers of crofters and tenant farmers; the White Army controlled the area to the north, which was predominantly agragrian with small or medium-sized farms and tenant farmers, and where crofters were few or held a better social position than in the south. Enclaves of the opposing forces existed on both sides of the front line: within the White area lay the industrial towns of Varkaus, Kuopio, Oulu, Raahe, Kemi and Tornio; within the Red area lay Porvoo, Kirkkonummi and Uusikaupunki. The elimination of these strongholds was a priority for both armies during February 1918. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... A front line is a line of confrontation in an armed conflict, most often a war. ... The Shetland Crofthouse Museum, with peat stacked out front. ... A tenant farmer is one who resides on and farms land owned by a landlord. ... Varkaus is a Middle-Savonian industrial town and municipality of Finland. ... Kuopio is a Finnish city located in the province of Eastern Finland and the region of Northern Savonia. ... Location of Oulu in Northern Europe Coordinates: , Country Finland Province Oulu Province Region Northern Ostrobothnia Sub-region Oulu sub-region Charter 1605 Government - City manager Matti Pennanen Area - City 449. ... Raahe (Brahestad in Swedish) is a town and municipality of Finland. ... Kemi is a town and municipality of Finland. ... Location on Finnish map Tornio (Swedish: TorneÃ¥) is a municipality in Lapland, Finland. ... Founded 1346 Province Southern Finland Region Eastern Uusimaa Sub-region Porvoo Area - Of which land - Rank 663. ... Coat of Arms of Kirkkonummi Kirkkonummi (IPA: /ËˆkirkËoËŒnumËi/), or KyrkslÃ¤tt in Swedish, is a municipality of 32,772 inhabitants (2004-12-31) in Southern Finland. ... Province Western Finland Region Finland Proper Sub-region Vakka-Suomi City manager Kari Koski Official languages Finnish Area - total - land ranked 179th 540. ...

Red Finland, later named the Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic, was led by the People's Deputation of Finland under Kullervo Manner in Helsinki. Bolshevist Russia declared its support for Red Finland, but the Reds' vision of democratic socialism for the country did not resemble Lenin's dictatorship of the proletariat,^[29] and in fact, Lenin and his comrades wanted to annex Finland. The majority of Social Democrats intended to remain independent;^[30] during the war, however, the Red Guards dominated the politics of Red Finland with their weapons, and the most radical Guards and the Finnish Bolsheviks, though few in number, obviously favoured annexation of Finland back to Russia.^[31] The Finnish senate (the Vaasa Senate) relocated to the west-coast city of Vaasa, which acted as the capital of White Finland from 29 January to 3 May, and looked to Germany for military and political aid. Mannerheim agreed on the need for German weapons but opposed any intervention by German troops in Finland. The conservatives planned a monarchist political system, with a lesser role for Parliament. A section of the conservatives had always been against democracy; others had approved parliamentarianism at first but after the crisis of 1917 and the outbreak of war had concluded that empowering the common people would not work. Moderate non-socialists opposed any restriction of parliamentarianism and initially resisted German military help, but prolonged warfare changed their stance.^[32] The Finnish Civil War was fought along the railways, the vital means of transporting troops and supplies.^[33] The Red Guards' first objective was to cut the Whites' east-west rail connection, which they attempted north-east of Tampere, at the Battle of Vilppula. They also unsuccessfully tried to eliminate the Whites' bridgehead south of the River Vuoksi at Antrea on the Karelian Isthmus, a threat to their rail connection with Russia. This article is being considered for deletion in accordance with Wikipedias deletion policy. ... Kullervo Manner Kullervo Manner (1880 â€“ 1939) was a Finnish Communist leader. ... Bolshevist Russia is a common term that refers to the Bolshevik side in the Russian Civil War, or more specifically the Russian government between the October Revolution (November 7, 1917) and the constitution of the Soviet Union (December 30, 1922). ... Democratic socialism is a political, economic and social ideal, which advocates socialism as a basis for the economy and democracy as a governing principle. ... The dictatorship of the proletariat is a term employed by Karl Marx in his 1875 Critique of the Gotha Program that refers to a transition period between capitalist and communist society in which the state can be nothing but the revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat. The term refers to a... Founded 1606 Province Western Finland Region Ostrobothnia Sub-region Vaasa Area - Of which land - Rank 397 kmÂ² 183 kmÂ² ranked 345th Population - Density - Rank 57,266 (2005) 311. ... White Finland is an often-used term referring to one of the two parties in the Finnish Civil War (January to May 1918), the other one being the Reds, or the Finnish Socialist Workers Republic. ... is the 29th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 123rd day of the year (124th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... The River Vuoksi (Finnish) or River Vuoksa (Russian standard transcription) runs in the northernmost part of the Karelian Isthmus, from Lake Saimaa in southeastern Finland flowing into Lake Ladoga in northwestern Russia. ... The Karelian Isthmus is the narrow stretch of land between the Gulf of Finland and Lake Ladoga in northwestern Russia. ...

The number of troops on each side varied from 50,000 to 90,000. While the Red Guards consisted mostly of volunteers, the White Army contained only 11,000–15,000 volunteers, the remainder being conscripts. The main motives for volunteering were economic factors (salary, food), idealism, and peer pressure. The Red Guards also included 2,000 female troops, mostly young girls, recruited from the industrial centres of southern Finland. Both armies used juvenile soldiers, mainly between 15 and 17 years of age, the most famous example being Urho Kekkonen, who later became the longest-serving President of Finland. Urban and agricultural workers constituted the majority of the Red Guards, whereas land-owning farmers and well-educated people formed the backbone of the White Army.^[34] Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Urho Kaleva Kekkonen (IPA: ) (September 3, 1900 Pielavesi â€“ August 31, 1986 Helsinki) was a Finnish politician who served as Prime Minister of Finland (1950â€“1953, 1954â€“1956) and later as President of Finland (1956â€“1981). ... The President of Finland is the Head of State of Finland. ...

Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...

Red Guards and the Russian Army

The Red Guards seized the early initiative in the war, taking control of Helsinki, the Finnish capital, in the early hours of 28 January, and gaining first advantage with an "attack phase" that lasted till mid-March. However, a chronic shortage of skilled leaders, both at command level and in the field, left them unable to capitalize on their initial momentum, and most of the offensives finally came to nothing. The troops of the Red Guards were not professional soldiers but armed civilians, whose military training and discipline were mostly inadequate to resist the counter-attack of the White Army when it came, still less the onslaught of the German forces who arrived later. Consequently, Ali Aaltonen found himself rapidly replaced in command by Eero Haapalainen, who in turn was replaced by the triumvirate of Eino Rahja, Adolf Taimi and Evert Eloranta. The last commander of the Red Guards was Kullervo Manner, who led the final retreat into Russia. The only victories of the Finnish Red Guards were the heavy battles against German troops at Hauho and Tuulos, Syrjäntaka, on 28–29 April 1918, during their retreat from southern Finland towards Russia, but these conflicts had only local importance by then.^[35] Location of Helsinki in Northern Europe Coordinates: , Country Province Region Uusimaa Sub-region Helsinki Charter 1550 Capital city 1812 Government - City manager Jussi Pajunen Area - City 187. ... is the 28th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Eero Haapalainen (Approx. ... Eino Rahja Eino Rahja (1885 - 1936) was a Finnish-Russian Communist politician and member of the Bolshevik Party. ... There are very few or no other articles that link to this one. ... Evert Eloranta was a Finnish journalist and a communist leader during the Finnish Civil War. ... Kullervo Manner Kullervo Manner (1880 â€“ 1939) was a Finnish Communist leader. ... Hauho is a municipality of Finland. ... The medieval church of Tuulos. ...

Although some 60,000 to 80,000 Russian soldiers of the former Tsar's army remained stationed in Finland at the start of the Civil War, the Russian contribution to the Red Guards' cause was to prove negligible. When the conflict began, Lenin tried to commit the Russian army on behalf of Red Finland, but the Russian troops were demoralized and war-weary after years of constant, traumatic defeat against Germany. As a result, only 7,000 to 10,000 Russian soldiers participated in the Finnish Civil War, of which no more than 4,000, in separate small units, could be persuaded to fight in the front line. Despite the involvement of a few skilled Russian army officers such as Mikhail Svechnikov, who led the battles in western Finland throughout February 1918, it seems reasonable to assume that the Russian army had no significant influence on the course of the war.^[36] The number of Russian soldiers active in the Civil War declined markedly once Germany attacked Russia on 18 February 1918, and delivered its terminal blow to the Russian army. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, signed between Russia and Germany on 3 March, effectively restricted the Bolsheviks' ability to support the Finnish Red Guards with anything more than weapons and supplies.^[37] The Russians did remain active on the south-eastern front, however, defending the approaches to Petrograd. Image File history File links Red_officers. ... Image File history File links Red_officers. ... is the 49th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1918 (MCMXVIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. ... The first two pages of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, in (left to right) German, Hungarian, Bulgarian, Ottoman Turkish and Russian The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was a peace treaty signed on March 3, 1918, at Brest-Litovsk (now Brest, Belarus) between the Russian SFSR and the Central Powers, marking... is the 62nd day of the year (63rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

White Guards and the German Army

The military quality of the common soldier in the White Army differed little from that of his counterpart in the Red Guards, with brief and inadequate training provided for most of the troops.^[38] But the White Army had two major advantages over the Red Guards: the professional military leadership of General Mannerheim and his staff—which included 84 Swedish volunteer officers as well as former Finnish officers of the Tsar's army—and approximately 1,300 "Jäger" (Jääkärit) elite Finnish troops, trained in Germany and battle-hardened on the Eastern Front. Finnish JÃ¤gers parading at the town square of Vaasa The JÃ¤ger troops were volunteers from Finland in Germany trained as JÃ¤gers (elite light infantry) during World War I. It was one of many means by which Germany intended to weaken Russia and to cause Russias loss...

Battle of Tampere

Mannerheim's strategy was to strike first at Tampere, Finland's most important industrial town in the south-west. He launched the attack on 16 March at Längelmäki, 65 km north-east of Tampere; at the same time the White Army began advancing along a line through Vilppula–Kuru–Kyröskoski–Suodenniemi, north and north-west of Tampere. The Red Guards collapsed under the weight of the assault, and some of its detachments retreated in panic. The White Army cut off the Red Guards' retreat south of Tampere in Lempäälä and lay siege to Tampere on 24 March, entering the town four days later. Then began the Battle of Tampere, Finland's first urban battle, fought from house-to-house as the Red Guards retreated; it was the bloodiest action of the war and lasted until 6 April.^[39] The fighting in Tampere was pure civil war, Finn against Finn, "brother rising against brother", since most of the Russian army had retreated to Russia in March and the German troops had yet to arrive in Finland. The White Army lost 500–1,000 men, and the Red Guards lost 1,000–2,000, with a further 11,000 imprisoned.^[40] The battle was the decisive action of the war and the largest military engagement in Scandinavian history to that point.^[41] Image File history File links Tampere_war_victims_1918. ... Image File history File links Tampere_war_victims_1918. ... Combatants White Guard Red Guard Commanders Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim Hugo Salmelaâ€ Casualties 700 killed 10,000 captured and 2000 killed. ... Tampere ( , Tammerfors in Swedish) is a city in southern Finland located between two lakes, NÃ¤sijÃ¤rvi and PyhÃ¤jÃ¤rvi. ... March 16 is the 75th day of the year (76th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... LÃ¤ngelmÃ¤ki is a municipality of Finland. ... â€¹ The template below (Unit of length) is being considered for deletion. ... LempÃ¤Ã¤lÃ¤ is a municipality in southwestern Finland with 17,397 inhabitants (2003). ... is the 83rd day of the year (84th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Combatants White Guard Red Guard Commanders Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim Hugo Salmelaâ€ Casualties 700 killed 10,000 captured and 2000 killed. ... Urban warfare is a modern warfare conducted in urban areas such as towns and cities. ... is the 96th day of the year (97th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

After their defeat in Tampere, the Red Guards retreated eastwards. The White Army shifted its military focus to Viipuri, Karelia's main city, taking it on 29 April. The Red Guards' last strongholds in south-west Finland fell by 5 May.^[42] A view of Vyborg from the castle tower Vyborg (Russian: ; Finnish: ; Swedish: ; German: ) is a town in Leningrad Oblast, Russia, situated on the Karelian Isthmus near the head of the Bay of Vyborg, 130 km to the northwest of St. ... is the 119th day of the year (120th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 125th day of the year (126th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

German Baltic sea division

The German Empire finally intervened in the Finnish Civil War on the side of the White Army in March 1918. The activists had been seeking German aid in freeing Finland from Russian hegemony since Autumn 1917, but the Germans did not want to prejudice their armistice and peace negotiations with Russia, the latter beginning on 22 December at Brest-Litovsk. The German stance altered radically after 10 February when Trotsky, despite the weakness of the Bolsheviks' position, broke off negotiations, hoping revolutions would break out in the German Empire and change everything. The German government promptly decided to teach Russia a lesson and, as a pretext for aggression, invited “requests for help” from the smaller countries west of Russia. Representatives of the Vaasa Senate in Berlin duly requested help on 14 February.^[43]The Germans attacked Russia on 18 February. Image File history File links SaksalaisiaHelsingissa. ... Image File history File links SaksalaisiaHelsingissa. ... MG08 with optical sight. ... The first two pages of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, in (left to right) German, Hungarian, Bulgarian, Ottoman Turkish and Russian The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was a peace treaty signed on March 3, 1918, at Brest-Litovsk (now Brest, Belarus) between the Russian SFSR and the Central Powers, marking... December 22 is the 356th day of the year (357th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Brest (Belarusian: , Russian: , Polish: ; Alternative names), formerly Brest-on-the-Bug and Brest-Litovsk, is a city (population 290,000 in 2004) in Belarus close to the Polish border where the Western Bug and Mukhavets Rivers meet. ... is the 41st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Leon Trotsky (Russian: , Lev Davidovich Trotsky, also transliterated Leo, Lyev, Trotskii, Trotski, Trotskij, Trockij and Trotzky) (November 7 [O.S. October 26] 1879 â€“ August 21, 1940), born Lev Davidovich Bronstein (), was an Ukrainian-born Bolshevik revolutionary and Marxist theorist. ... This article is about the capital of Germany. ... is the 45th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 49th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ...

On March 5 a German Naval squadron landed on the Åland Islands in the southwestern archipelago of Finland, where a Swedish military expedition had been protecting Swedish interests and the Swedish-speaking population since mid-February.^[44] On 3 April 1918, the 10,000-strong Baltic Sea Division led by Rüdiger von der Goltz struck west of Helsinki at Hanko, and on 7 April, the 3,000-strong Detachment Brandenstein overran the town of Loviisa on the south-eastern coast. The main German formations then advanced rapidly eastwards from Hanko and took Helsinki on 13 April. At the same time, two German battleships and smaller vessels entered the city harbour and bombarded the Red positions, which included the present-day Presidential Palace. The Brandenstein Brigade attacked the town of Lahti on 19 April, cutting the connection between the western and eastern Red Guards. The main German detachment advanced northwards from Helsinki and took Hyvinkää and Riihimäki on April 21–22, followed by Hämeenlinna on 26 April. The efficient performance of the German top detachments in the civil war contrasted strikingly with that of the demoralized Russian troops.^[45] â€œAlandâ€ redirects here. ... is the 93rd day of the year (94th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1918 (MCMXVIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. ... The Baltic Sea Division (German: Der Ost-See Division) was a 10,000 man unit commanded by RÃ¼diger von der Goltz. ... RÃ¼diger von der Goltz Gustav Adolf Joachim RÃ¼diger Graf von der Goltz (born December 8, 1865, in ZÃ¼llichau, Prussia [now Poland]; died November 4, 1946, in Kinsegg, AllgÃ¤u, Germany) was the commander of German units which played an instrumental role in the defeat of Russian Bolsheviks... The word Hanko may refer to Hanko, Finland, town and municipality Hanko Peninsula Hanko, a Japanese signature stamp Hanko is sometimes a misspelling of Hankou (汉口), China This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... April 7 is the 97th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (98th in leap years). ... Detachment Brandenstein was an unit commanded by German Baron Otto von Brandenstein. ... Coordinates: , Country Finland Province Southern Finland Region Eastern Uusimaa Incorporated (city) 1745 Government - City Manager Olavi Kaleva Area - City 44. ... is the 103rd day of the year (104th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Presidential Palace in Helsinki (in Finnish Presidentinlinna; in Swedish Presidentens slott), is the official residence in Helsinki of the President of the Republic of Finland. ... Location within Finland Lahti (Lahtis in Swedish) is a Finnish city of 100,049 inhabitants (2006), bordering the VesijÃ¤rvi lake. ... April 19 is the 109th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (110th in leap years). ... Founded 1917 Province Southern Finland Region Uusimaa Sub-region Helsinki Coordinates N 60 37. ... Statue of a glass blower. ... View of Lake Vanajavesi, next to HÃ¤meenlinna. ... is the 116th day of the year (117th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

The People's Deputation of Finland fled from Helsinki on 8 April and from Viipuri to Petrograd on 25 April. The Finnish Civil War ended on 14–15 May, when a small number of Russian troops retreated from a coastal artillery base on the Karelian Isthmus. White Finland celebrated its victory in Helsinki on 16 May 1918.^[46] April 8 is the 98th day of the year (99th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... A view of Vyborg from the castle tower Vyborg (Russian: ; Finnish: ; Swedish: ; German: ) is a town in Leningrad Oblast, Russia, situated on the Karelian Isthmus near the head of the Bay of Vyborg, 130 km to the northwest of St. ... is the 115th day of the year (116th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 19th century coastal artillery guns preserved in Suomenlinna fortress in Helsinki Coastal artillery is the branch of armed forces concerned with operating mobile anti-ship artillery or fixed gun batteries in coastal fortifications. ... The Karelian Isthmus is the narrow stretch of land between the Gulf of Finland and Lake Ladoga in northwestern Russia. ... May 16 is the 136th day of the year (137th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1918 (MCMXVIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. ...

Red and White terror

During the civil war, the White Army and the Red Guards both perpetrated acts of terror. According to earlier views, both sides had agreed to certain rules of engagement, but violations occurred from the start, most notably when Red Guards executed 17 troops at Suinula village on 31 January, and when White Army soldiers executed 200 troops at Varkaus on 21 February. After these incidents, both sides began carrying out revenge executions at local level, a trend which escalated to massacres and terrorism.^[47] Image File history File links FiringsquadLankipohja. ... Image File history File links FiringsquadLankipohja. ... This article describes the military term of the rules of engagement. ... is the 31st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Varkaus is a Middle-Savonian industrial town and municipality of Finland. ... is the 52nd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Terrorist redirects here. ...

Recent studies indicate, however, that the terror was a calculated part of the general warfare. The highest staffs of both sides planned these actions and gave orders to the lower level. At least a third of the Red terror and perhaps most of the White terror was centrally led. The governments of White Finland and Red Finland officially opposed acts of terror, but such operational decisions were made at the military level.^[48]

Both armies deployed “flying detachments” of cavalry, usually consisting of 10 to 80 troops aged 15 to 20, under the absolute authority of an experienced adult leader. These units, which specialized in search-and-destroy operations behind the front lines and during and after battles, have been described as death squads.^[49] Not to be confused with Golgotha, which was called Calvary. ... Search and Destroy, or Seek and Destroy, or simply S&D, refers to a military strategy that became a notorious element of the Vietnam War. ... // A death squad is an armed squad of men that kills civilians. ...

The Red Guards executed those they considered the main leaders of White Finland or as class enemies, including industrialists, politicians, and major landowners. The White Guard executed Red Guard and party leaders and those who participated in the war and Red terror, as well as Russian soldiers who fought with the Red Guards (they executed all the Russians captured at the Battle of Tampere, for example). The Red Terror was a campaign of mass arrests and deportations targeted against counterrevolutionaries in Russia during the Russian Civil War. ...

In total, 1,400–1,650 Whites were executed in the Red terror, and 7,000–10,000 Reds were executed in the White terror. The breakdown of the rules of engagement in the Finnish Civil War conformed to a pattern observed in many other civil wars.^[50] It has been suggested that The White Terror (France) be merged into this article or section. ...

Aftermath

Image File history File links Civil_War_Prison_Camp_in_Helsinki. ... Image File history File links Civil_War_Prison_Camp_in_Helsinki. ... Suomenlinna or Viapori (Finnish), or Sveaborg (Swedish), is an inhabited sea fortress built on six islands, today within Helsinki, the capital of Finland. ...

Bitter legacy

The Civil War was a catastrophe for the Finnish nation. Almost 37,000 people perished, 5,900 of whom (16% of the total) were between 14 and 20 years old. A notable feature of the war was that only about 10,000 of these casualties occurred on the battlefields; most of the deaths resulted from the terror campaigns and from the appalling conditions in the prison camps. In addition, the war left about 20,000 children orphaned. A large number of Red Finland supporters fled to Russia at the end of the war and during the period that followed.^[51]

The war created a legacy of bitterness, fear, hatred, and desire for revenge, and deepened the divisions within Finnish society. The conservatives and liberals disagreed strongly on the best system of government for Finland to adopt: the former demanded monarchy and restricted parliamentarianism; the latter demanded a Finnish republic with full-scale democracy and social reforms. A new conservative Senate, with a monarchist majority, was formed by J.K. Paasikivi. All but one of the representatives of the Social Democrats were excluded from the parliament due to being imprisoned. A major consequence of the 1918 conflict was the breakup of the Finnish worker movement into three parts: moderate Social Democrats, left-wing socialists in Finland, and communists acting in Soviet Russia with the support of the Bolsheviks.^[52] GOVERNEMENT IS NOT A VIRGIN! Its F***ed Up We Pray To god that he give virginity back Forms of government Part of the Politics series Politics Portal This box: A form of government is a term that refers to the set of political institutions by which a state... Juho Kusti Paasikivi (November 27, 1870 â€“ December 14, 1956) was President of Finland from 1946 to 1956. ...

In foreign policy, White Finland looked to Germany and its military might for support, and at the end of May the Senate asked the Germans to remain in the country. The agreements signed with Germany on 7 March 1918 in return for military support had bound Finland politically, economically, and militarily to the German Empire. The Germans proposed a further military pact in summer 1918 as a part of their plan to secure raw materials for German industry from eastern Europe and tighten their control over Russia. General Mannerheim resigned his post on 25 May after disagreements with the Senate about German hegemony over the country and about his planned attack on Petrograd to repulse the Bolsheviks, which the Germans opposed under the peace treaty signed with Lenin at Brest-Litovsk. On 9 October, under pressure from Germany, the monarchist Senate and the rump parliament chose a German prince, Friedrich Karl, brother-in-law of German Emperor William II, to be the King of Finland—and Finland approached the status of a monarchistic state. All these measures diminished Finnish sovereignty. The Finns, both right and left, had achieved independence on 6 December 1917 without a gunshot but then compromised that independence by allowing the Germans to enter the country without difficulty during the civil war.^[53] is the 66th day of the year (67th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1918 (MCMXVIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. ... is the 145th day of the year (146th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 282nd day of the year (283rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Prince Frederick of Hesse (May 1, 1868 â€“ May 28, 1940), officially Friedrich Karl Ludwig Konstantin, Prinz und Landgraf von Hessen und Brabant (in German), (Frederick Charles Louis Constantin, Prince and Landgrave of Hesse and Brabant), (Fredrik Kaarle or Fredrik Kaarlo in Finnish), (Fredrik Carl in Swedish), (Frederik Carl in Danish... William II or Wilhelm II (born Prinz Friedrich Wilhelm Albert Viktor von PreuÃŸen; English: Prince Frederick William Albert Victor of Prussia) (27 January 1859â€“4 June 1941) was the last German Emperor and King of Prussia (German: Deutscher Kaiser und KÃ¶nig von PreuÃŸen), ruling both the German... Coat of arms Capital Helsinki Language(s) Finnish, Swedish Government Constitutional monarchy King - 1918 Prince FrederickÂ¹ (elect) Regent - 1917-1918 Pehr Evind Svinhufvud Legislature Parliament - Monarch elected October 9, 1918 - German surrender November 9, 1918 - Throne renounced December 14, 1918 Â¹ The style of the monarch was intended to be Charles... December 6 is the 340th day of the year (341st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1917 (MCMXVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 13-day slower Julian calendar (see: 1917 Julian calendar). ...

The economic condition of the country had deteriorated so drastically that recovery to pre-conflict levels was not achieved until 1925. The most acute crisis was in the food supply, already deficient in 1917, though starvation had at that time been avoided in southern Finland. The Civil War, according to the leaders of Red Finland and White Finland, would solve all past problems; instead it led to starvation in southern Finland too. Late in 1918, Finnish politician Rudolf Holsti appealed for relief to Herbert Hoover, the chairman of the Commission for Relief in Belgium: Hoover arranged for food shipments and persuaded the Allies to relax their blockade of the Baltic Sea (which had obstructed food supplies to Finland) to allow the food in.^[54] Rudolf Holsti Eino Rudolf Woldemar Holsti (1881â€“ August 4th1945) was a Finnish politician, journalist and a diplomat. ... Herbert Clark Hoover (August 10, 1874 â€“ October 20, 1964), the thirty-first President of the United States (1929â€“1933), was a world-famous mining engineer and humanitarian administrator. ... The Belgian American Educational Foundation or BAEF is an independent philanthropy. ... Map of the World showing the participants in World War I. Those fighting on the Allies side (at one point or another) are depicted in green, the Central Powers in orange, and neutral countries in gray. ... The Baltic Sea is located in Northern Europe, from 53Â°N to 66Â°N latitude and from 20Â°E to 26Â°E longitude. ...

Prison camps

The White Army and German troops captured about 80,000 Red prisoners by the end of the war on 5 May 1918. Once the White terror subsided, a few thousand were set free, leaving 74,000 prisoners. The largest prison camps were Suomenlinna, an island facing Helsinki, Hämeenlinna, Lahti, Viipuri, Ekenäs, Riihimäki and Tampere. The Finnish Senate made the decision to keep these prisoners detained until each person's guilt could be examined. Combined with the severe food shortage, this policy led to high mortality rates in the camps, and the catastrophe was compounded by a mentality of punishment, anger and indifference on the part of the victors. The condition of the prisoners weakened rapidly during May, after food supplies had been disrupted during the Red Guards' retreat in April. The prisoners were abandoned both by their own leaders, who had fled to Russia, and by the leaders of White Finland. As a consequence, 2,900 starved to death or died in June as a result of diseases caused by malnutrition and Spanish flu, 5,000 in July, 2,200 in August, and 1,000 in September. The mortality rate was highest in the Tammisaari camp at 34%, while in the others the rate varied between 5% and 20%. In total, between 11,000 and 13,500 Finns perished. The dead were buried in mass graves near the camps. The majority of the prisoners were paroled or pardoned during late 1918 and 1919.^[55] is the 125th day of the year (126th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1918 (MCMXVIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. ... This is a list of Internment and Concentration camps, organized by country. ... Suomenlinna or Viapori (Finnish), or Sveaborg (Swedish), is an inhabited sea fortress built on six islands, today within Helsinki, the capital of Finland. ... View of Lake Vanajavesi, next to HÃ¤meenlinna. ... Location within Finland Lahti (Lahtis in Swedish) is a Finnish city of 100,049 inhabitants (2006), bordering the VesijÃ¤rvi lake. ... A view of Vyborg from the castle tower Vyborg (Russian: ; Finnish: ; Swedish: ; German: ) is a town in Leningrad Oblast, Russia, situated on the Karelian Isthmus near the head of the Bay of Vyborg, 130 km to the northwest of St. ... Alley in EkenÃ¤s Church of EkenÃ¤s EkenÃ¤s (IPA: //), or Tammisaari (/ËˆtÉ‘mËiËŒsÉ‘Ëri/) in Finnish, is a municipality of Finland. ... Statue of a glass blower. ... Tampere ( , Tammerfors in Swedish) is a city in southern Finland located between two lakes, NÃ¤sijÃ¤rvi and PyhÃ¤jÃ¤rvi. ... The 1918 flu pandemic, commonly referred to as the Spanish flu, was a category 5 influenza pandemic caused by an unusually severe and deadly Influenza A virus strain of subtype H1N1. ...

Compromise

Just as the fate of the Finns was decided outside Finland in Petrograd on 15 March 1917, so it was decided outside Finland again on 11 November 1918, this time in Berlin, as Germany accepted defeat in World War I. The grand plans of the German Empire had finally come to nothing, and revolution had spread among the German people due to lack of food, war-weariness, and defeat in the battles on the Western Front. German troops left Helsinki on 16 December, and Prince Friedrich Karl, who had not yet been crowned officially, left his post on 20 December. Finland's status altered from a monarchistic protectorate of the German Empire to an independent democratic republic on the model of the western democracies. The first local elections based on universal suffrage in the history of Finland were held during 17–28 December 1918, and the first parliamentary election after the Civil War on 3 March 1919. The United States and the United Kingdom recognised Finnish sovereignty on 6–7 May 1919.^[56] is the 74th day of the year (75th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1917 (MCMXVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 13-day slower Julian calendar (see: 1917 Julian calendar). ... is the 315th day of the year (316th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1918 (MCMXVIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. ... is the 350th day of the year (351st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 354th day of the year (355th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Elections Part of the Politics series Politics Portal This box: Universal suffrage (also general suffrage or common suffrage) consists of the extension of the right to vote to all adults, without distinction as to race, sex, belief, intelligence, or economic or social status. ... is the 62nd day of the year (63rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1919 (MCMXIX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar). ...

After the Civil War, in 1919 a moderate Social Democrat, Väinö Voionmaa, wrote: "Those who still trust in the future of this nation must have an exceptionally strong faith. This young independent country has lost almost everything due to the war...." At the same time, a liberal non-socialist, the eventual first president of Finland, K.J. Ståhlberg, elected 25 July 1919, wrote: "It is urgent to get the life and development in this country back on the path that we had already reached in 1906 and which the turmoil of war turned us away from". He was supported in that aim by Santeri Alkio, leader of the Agrarian Union and by moderate Finnish conservatives, such as Lauri Ingman.^[57] Kaarle VÃ¤inÃ¶ Voionmaa (to 1906 Wallin) (February 12, 1869 - May 24, 1947) was a Finnish professor, member of the parliament of Finland, senator, minister and chancellor. ... Kaarlo Juho StÃ¥hlberg (January 28, 1865 - September 22, 1952) was the first President of Finland (1919-1925) and a Nationalist Liberal. ... is the 206th day of the year (207th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1919 (MCMXIX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar). ... Santeri Alkio (Finnicized form of Aleksander Filander; b. ... Lauri Ingman (1868-1934) was a Finnish theologian, clergyman and politician. ...

Together with other moderate politicians of the right and the left, the new partnership constructed a Finnish compromise which eventually delivered a stable and broad parliamentary democracy. This compromise was based both on the defeat of Red Finland in the Civil War and the fact that most of the political goals of White Finland had not been achieved. After the foreign forces left Finland, the Finns realised they had to get along with each other and that none of the main groups could be rejected completely from society. The reconciliation led to a slow and painful, but steady, national unification. The compromise has turned out to be surprisingly strong and appears permanent. From 1919 to 1991, Finnish democracy and sovereignty withstood challenges from both right-wing and left-wing radicalism, the crisis of World War II, and pressure from the Soviet Union during the Cold War.^[58] Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki TÅjÅ Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... For other uses, see Cold War (disambiguation). ...

The Civil War in literature

The first generally appreciated book in Finland concerning the war, Hurskas kurjuus (Devout Misery), was written by the Nobel Prize winner Frans Emil Sillanpää in 1919. Between 1959 and 1962, Väinö Linna, in his trilogy Täällä Pohjantähden alla (Under the North Star), described the Civil War and the Second World War from the point of view of the common people. In poetry, Viljo Kajava, who had experienced the horrors of the Battle of Tampere at the age of nine, presented a pacifist view of the civil war in his Poems of Tampere 1918 of the 1960s. Nobel Prize in Literature medal. ... Frans Eemil SillanpÃ¤Ã¤ (September 16, 1888 â€“ June 3, 1964) was one of the most famous Finnish writers. ... VÃ¤inÃ¶ Linna (December 20, 1920 - April 21, 1992) was one of the most influential Finnish authors of the 20th century. ... Under the North Star, in Finnish called Täällä Pohjantähden alla, is a trilogy by Finnish author Väinö Linna published 1959-1962. ... Viljo Kavaja (1909 - 1998) was a Finnish poet and writer. ... Pacifism is the opposition to war or violence as a means of settling disputes or gaining advantage. ...

Notes

^ ^a ^b Arimo 1991, Manninen 1992–1993 II, pp. 131, 145, Upton 1981, p. 107
^ ^a ^b Manninen 1992–1993, Paavolainen 1966, Upton 1981, pp. 191, 453
^ Upton 1980, pp. 109–114, 195–263, Alapuro 1988, pp. 185–196, Haapala 1995, pp. 11–13, 152–156
^ Upton 1980, pp. 434–435, Ylikangas 1986, pp. 163–172, Haapala 1995, pp. 223–225, 237–243, Vares 1998, pp. 56–137
^ The Finnish Civil War has also been called The Freedom War, The Brethren War, The Class War, The Red Rebellion, and The Finnish Revolution. Haapala 1993 , Manninen 1993, Ylikangas 1993b, Lackman 2000
^ Haapala 1995, pp. 241–256
^ Upton 1980, pp. 13–15, Alapuro 1988, pp. 110–114
^ Upton 1980, pp. 30–32, Lackman 2000
^ Haapala 1986, Haapala 1995, pp. 62–66, 105–108
^ Alapuro 1988, pp. 101–127, 150–151, Haapala 1995, pp. 230–232
^ Upton 1980, pp. 51–54, Ylikangas 1986, pp. 163–164
^ Upton 1980, pp. 109, 195–263, Alapuro 1988, pp. 143–149, Haapala 1995, pp. 11–14
^ Kirby 2006, pp. 150
^ Haapala 1995, pp. 221, 232–235
^ Upton 1980, pp. 95–98, 109–114, Ylikangas 1986, pp. 165–167, Alapuro 1988, pp. 163–164, 192, Haapala 1995, pp. 155, 197, 203–225
^ Enckell 1956, Upton 1980, pp. 163–194, Alapuro 1988, pp. 158–162, 195–196, Keränen 1992, p. 50
^ Upton 1980, pp. 195–230, Ylikangas 1986, p. 166–167, Haapala 1995, pp. 237–243
^ Upton 1980, pp. 195–230, Lappalainen 1981, Salkola 1985, Alapuro 1988, pp. 151–167, Manninen 1993, Haapala 1995, pp. 237–243
^ Keränen 1992, p. 36, Lackman 2000
^ Ketola 1987, pp. 368–384, Upton 1980, pp. 264–342
^ Upton 1980, pp. 317–342, Alapuro 1988, pp. 167–171
^ Keränen 1992, p. 73, Haapala 1995, p. 236
^ Upton 1980, pp. 343–382, Alapuro 1988, pp. 189–192, Keränen 1992, p. 78, Manninen 1993, Jutikkala, E. in: Aunesluoma & Häikiö 1995, pp. 11–20, Uta.fi/Suomi80
^ Upton 1980, pp. 258–261, Keränen 1992, p. 79
^ Haapala 1995, p. 232
^ Upton 1980, pp. 517–518, Ylikangas 1993, pp. 15–24, Haapala 1995, pp. 221, 223–225
^ Upton 1980, pp. 390–500, Lappalainen 1981, Keränen 1992, pp. 80–87
^ Upton 1980, p. 471–515, Lappalainen 1981
^ Keränen 1992, p. 102
^ Upton 1981, pp. 263–278, Manninen 1993
^ Upton 1981, pp. 255–265, Manninen 1993
^ Upton 1981, pp. 62–64, Vares 1998, pp. 38–46, 56–79, Lackman 2000
^ Ylikangas 1993, pp. 15–21
^ Lappalainen 1981, Manninen 1992–1993, Manninen, O. in: Aunesluoma & Häikiö 1995, pp. 21–32
^ Upton 1981, pp. 227–255, Lappalainen 1981
^ Upton 1981, pp. 265–276, Lappalainen 1981, Manninen, O. in: Aunesluoma & Häikiö 1995, pp. 21–32, Tikka 2006
^ Upton 1981, pp. 259–262, Manninen 1992–1993, Lackman 2000
^ Upton 1981, pp. 62–144, Tikka 2006, pp. 25–30
^ Ylikangas 1993, pp. 429–443
^ Aunesluoma & Häikiö 1995, pp. 92–97
^ Ylikangas 1993, pp. 103–295, Aunesluoma & Häikiö 1995, pp. 92–97
^ Lappalainen 1981, Upton 1981, pp. 424–446, Aunesluoma & Häikiö 1995, p. 112, Lackman 2000
^ On 7 March, representatives Hjelt and Erich agreed to pay the military costs of German military assistance. Jussila, Hentilä & Nevakivi 1999, pp. 117
^ The Swedish troops were forced to leave the area by May. Jussila, Hentilä & Nevakivi 1999, pp. 117
^ Upton 1981, pp. 369–424, Arimo 1991, Manninen 1992–1993, Lackman 2000
^ Keränen 1992, p. 137
^ Paavolainen 1966, Keränen 1992, pp. 89, 101, Uola 1998
^ Tikka 2004, pp. 452–460, Tikka 2006, pp. 69–138
^ Tikka 2006, pp. 69–81,141–146
^ Paavolainen 1967, Manninen 1992–1993, Eerola & Eerola 1998, pp. 59, 91, Westerlund 2004, pp. 15
^ Upton 1981, p. 447–481, Haapala 1995, pp. 9–13, 212–217, Peltonen 2003, pp. 9–24, 214–220, Tikka 2004, pp. 452–460, War victims in Finland 1914–1920
^ Upton 1981, pp. 447–453, Keränen 1992, p. 136, Manninen 1992–1993, Vares 1998, pp. 56–79
^ Rautkallio 1977, Upton 1981, p. 480, Keränen 1992, p. 152, Manninen 1992–1993, Vares 1998, pp. 199–249
^ Keränen 1992, p. 157, Haapala 1995, pp. 9–13, 212–217
^ Paavolainen 1971, Manninen 1992–1993, Eerola & Eerola 1998, pp. 114, 121, 123, Westerlund 2004, pp. 115-150, Linnanmäki 2005
^ Keränen 1992, p. 154, 171, Manninen 1992–1993
^ Haapala 1995, pp. 243, 249, Vares 1998, pp. 58, 96–99
^ Upton 1981, pp. 480–481, Ylikangas 1986, pp. 169–172, Haapala 1995, pp. 243, 245–256

Bibliography

Contents

Background

February Revolution (1917)

Battle for leadership

October Revolution (1917)

Finnish sovereignty

Warfare

Escalation

Brothers in arms

Red Guards and the Russian Army

White Guards and the German Army

Battle of Tampere

German Baltic sea division

Red and White terror

Aftermath

Bitter legacy

Prison camps

Compromise

The Civil War in literature

Notes

Bibliography

See also

External links

Contents

Background GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");

February Revolution (1917)

Battle for leadership

October Revolution (1917)

Finnish sovereignty

Warfare

Escalation

Brothers in arms

Red Guards and the Russian Army

White Guards and the German Army

Battle of Tampere

German Baltic sea division

Red and White terror

Aftermath

Bitter legacy

Prison camps

Compromise

The Civil War in literature

Notes

Bibliography

See also

External links

Background