The Fujita scale (F-Scale), or Fujita-Pearson scale, is a scale for rating tornado intensity, based on the damage tornadoes inflict on human-built structures and vegetation. The official Fujita scale category is determined by meteorologists (and engineers) after a ground and/or aerial damage survey; and depending on the circumstances, ground-swirl patterns (cycloidal marks), radar tracking, eyewitness testimonies, media reports and damage imagery, as well as photogrammetry/videogrammetry if video is available. The F-scale, or Fascism scale, is a psychological measure of authoritarian tendencies. ... This article is about the weather phenomenon. ... Meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere that focuses on weather processes and forecasting. ... A civil engineer is a person who practices civil engineering. ... A cycloid generated by a rolling circle. ... For other uses, see Radar (disambiguation). ... This article is about witnesses in law courts. ... Photogrammetry is a remote sensing technology in which geometric properties about objects are determined from photographic images. ... Videogrammetry is a measurement technology in which the three-dimensional coordinates of points on an object are determined by measurements made in two or more video images taken from different angles. ...

Background

The scale was introduced in 1971 by Tetsuya "Ted" Fujita of the University of Chicago who developed the scale together with Allen Pearson (path length and width additions in 1973), head of the National Severe Storms Forecast Center (predecessor to the Storm Prediction Center) in Kansas City, Missouri. The scale was applied retroactively to tornado reports from 1950 onward for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Tornado Database in the United States, and occasionally to earlier infamous tornadoes. Tom Grazulis of The Tornado Project also rated all known significant tornadoes (F2-F5 or causing a fatality) in the U.S. back to 1880. Previously used in most areas outside of Great Britain, it was superseded in 2007 by the Enhanced Fujita Scale in the United States. Year 1971 (MCMLXXI) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar) of the 1971 Gregorian calendar, known as the year of cyclohexanol. ... Tetsuya Theodore Ted Fujita (藤田哲也 Fujita Tetsuya, October 23, 1920–November 19, 1998) was a severe storms researcher of the twentieth century. ... For other uses, see University of Chicago (disambiguation). ... Allen Pearson was the Director of the National Severe Storms Forecast Center from 1965-79 and began to collaborate with Dr. Fujita on tornado physical characteristics soon after the 1970 Lubbock tornado. ... For the song by James Blunt, see 1973 (song). ... The Storm Prediction Center is part of the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP), operating under the control of the National Weather Service, which in turn is part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the U.S. government. ... The Storm Prediction Center, located in Norman, Oklahoma, is part of the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP), operating under the control of the National Weather Service, which in turn is part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the U.S. government. ... Nickname: Location in Jackson, Clay, Platte, and Cass Counties in the state of Missouri. ... Year 1950 (MCML) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is a scientific agency of the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the oceans and the atmosphere. ... Thomas P. Grazulis (born 1942) is a meteorologist who has written extensively about tornadoes and is head of the Tornado Project. ... Year 1880 (MDCCCLXXX) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Tuesday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... The Enhanced Fujita Scale, or EF Scale, is the scale for rating the strength of tornadoes in the United States estimated via the damage they cause. ...

Though each damage level is associated with a wind speed, the Fujita scale is a damage scale, and the wind speeds associated with the damage listed are unverified. The Enhanced Fujita Scale was formulated due to research which suggested that wind speeds for strong tornadoes on the Fujita scale are greatly overestimated. However, being determined by expert elicitation with top engineers and meteorologists, the EF scale wind speeds remain as educated guesses, and are also biased to United States construction practices. In science, engineering, and research, expert elicitation is the synthesis of opinions of experts of a subject where there is uncertainty due to insufficient data, when such data is unattainable because of physical constraints or lack of resources. ...

Derivation

The original scale as derived by Fujita was a 13-level scale (F0-F12) designed to smoothly connect the Beaufort scale and the Mach number scale. The gap between F0 and F1 corresponds to the eleventh and twelfth levels of the Beaufort scale, "violent storm" and "hurricane" respectively. On the original scale, the wind speeds for F11 and F12 corresponded to Mach numbers 0.9 and 1.0 respectively. This provided a smooth relationship between the three scales. From these wind speed numbers, qualitative descriptions of damage were made for each category of the Fujita scale, and then these descriptions were used to classify tornadoes.^[1] The diagram on the right illustrates the relationship between the Beaufort, Fujita, and Mach number scales. Image File history File links Fujita_scale_technical. ... The Beaufort scale is an empirical measure for describing wind intensity based mainly on observed sea conditions. ... An F/A-18 Hornet breaking the sound barrier. ... The Beaufort scale is an empirical measure for describing wind intensity based mainly on observed sea conditions. ... An F/A-18 Hornet breaking the sound barrier. ... For the Talib Kweli album Quality (album) Quality can refer to a. ...

At the time Fujita derived the scale, little information was available on damage caused by wind, so the original scale presented little more than educated guesses at wind speed ranges for specific tiers of damage. Fujita intended that only F0-F5 be used in practice, as this covered all possible levels of damage to frame homes as well as the expected estimated bounds of wind speeds. He did, however, add a description for F6, which he phrased as "inconceivable tornado", to allow for wind speeds exceeding F5 and for possible future advancements in damage analysis which might show it.^[2] This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

Furthermore, the original wind speed numbers have since been found to be higher than the actual wind speeds required to incur the damage described at each category. The error manifests itself to an increasing degree as the category increases, especially in the range of F3 through F5. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration notes that …precise wind speed numbers are actually guesses and have never been scientifically verified. Different wind speeds may cause similar-looking damage from place to place—even from building to building. Without a thorough engineering analysis of tornado damage in any event, the actual wind speeds needed to cause that damage are unknown. ^[2] Since then, the Enhanced Fujita Scale has been created using better wind estimates by engineers and meteorologists. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is a scientific agency of the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the oceans and the atmosphere. ... The Enhanced Fujita Scale, or EF Scale, is the scale for rating the strength of tornadoes in the United States estimated via the damage they cause. ...

Parameters

The six categories are listed here, in order of increasing intensity. Note:

1. When the relative frequency of tornadoes is mentioned, it is the relative frequency in the United States. Frequencies of strong tornadoes (F2 or greater) are significantly less elsewhere in the world. Parts of Canada, Bangladesh and adjacent areas of eastern India, and possibly a few other areas do have frequent severe tornadoes, however data is scarce and statistics in these countries have not been studied thoroughly.
2. The rating of any given tornado is of the most severe damage to any well-built frame home or comparable level of damage from engineering analysis of other damage.
3. The F6 level, although present in Dr. Ted Fujita's original wind scale, was not intended for use, is not an official damage level and is not used to rate tornadoes. There is, by definition, no such thing as an 'F6' tornado.^[2]

Category F0	Wind speed	40–72 mph	64–116 km/h	Relative frequency	38.9%
	Potential damage	F0 damage example Light damage. Some damage to chimneys; branches broken off trees; shallow-rooted trees pushed over; sign boards damaged.
Category F1	Wind speed	73–112 mph	117–180 km/h	Relative frequency	35.6%
	Potential damage	F1 damage example Moderate damage. The lower limit is the beginning of hurricane wind speed; peels surface off roofs; mobile homes pushed off foundations or overturned; moving autos pushed off the roads; attached garages may be destroyed.
Category F2	Wind speed	113–157 mph	181–253 km/h	Relative frequency	19.4%
	Potential damage	F2 damage example Considerable damage. Roofs torn off frame houses; mobile homes demolished; boxcars overturned; large trees snapped or uprooted; light-object missiles generated.
Category F3	Wind speed	158–206 mph	254–332 km/h	Relative frequency	4.9%
	Potential damage	F3 damage example Severe damage. Roofs and some walls torn off well-constructed houses; trains overturned; most trees in forest uprooted; heavy cars lifted off the ground and thrown.
Category F4	Wind speed	207–260 mph	333–418 km/h	Relative frequency	1.1%
	Potential damage	F4 damage example Devastating damage. Well-constructed houses leveled; structures with weak foundations blown away some distance; cars thrown and large missiles generated.
Category F5	Wind speed	261–318 mph	419–512 km/h	Relative frequency	Less than 0.1%
	Potential damage	F5 damage example Incredible damage. Strong frame houses lifted off foundations and carried considerable distances to disintegrate; automobile sized missiles fly through the air in excess of 100m (109 yd); trees debarked; steel reinforced concrete structures badly damaged; incredible phenomena will occur.

Miles per hour is a unit of speed, expressing the number of international miles covered per hour. ... Kilometre per hour (American spelling: kilometer per hour) is a unit of both speed (scalar) and velocity (vector). ... Image File history File links F0_tornado_damage_example. ... Image File history File links F0_tornado_damage_example. ... Image File history File links F1_tornado_damage_example. ... Image File history File links F1_tornado_damage_example. ... Image File history File links F2_tornado_damage_example. ... Image File history File links F2_tornado_damage_example. ... Image File history File links F3_tornado_damage_example. ... Image File history File links F3_tornado_damage_example. ... Image File history File links F4_tornado_damage_example. ... Image File history File links F4_tornado_damage_example. ... Image File history File links F5_tornado_damage_example. ... Image File history File links F5_tornado_damage_example. ...

Decommission

Main article: Enhanced Fujita Scale

The Fujita scale, introduced in 1971 as a means to differentiate tornado intensity and path area, assigned wind speeds to damage that were, at best, educated guesses.^[3] Fujita and others recognized this immediately and intensive engineering analysis was conducted through the rest of the 1970s. This research, as well as subsequent research, showed that tornado wind speeds required to inflict the described damage were actually much lower than the F-scale indicated, particularly for the upper categories. Also, although the scale gave general descriptions for the type of damage a tornado could cause, it gave little leeway for strength of construction and other factors that might cause a building to receive higher damage at lower wind speeds. Fujita tried to address these problems somewhat in 1992 with the Modified Fujita Scale, but by then he was semi-retired and the National Weather Service was not in a position for the undertaking of updating to an entirely new scale, so it was a minor step. ^[4] The Enhanced Fujita Scale, or EF Scale, is the scale for rating the strength of tornadoes in the United States estimated via the damage they cause. ...

On February 1, 2007, the Fujita scale was decommissioned in favor of the more accurate Enhanced Fujita Scale, which replaces it. The EF Scale improved on the F-scale on many counts—it accounts for different degrees of damage that occur with different types of structures, both man-made and natural. The expanded and refined damage indicators and degrees of damage standardize what was somewhat ambiguous. It also provides much better estimates for wind speeds, and sets no upper limit on the wind speeds for the strongest level, EF5.

See also

• Enhanced Fujita Scale
• TORRO scale
• Beaufort scale
• Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale
• Tornado intensity and damage
• List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
• List of F5 and EF5 tornadoes
• Severe weather terminology

The Enhanced Fujita Scale, or EF Scale, is the scale for rating the strength of tornadoes in the United States estimated via the damage they cause. ... The TORRO tornado intensity scale (or T-Scale) is a scale measuring tornado intensity between T0 and T10. ... The Beaufort scale is an empirical measure for describing wind intensity based mainly on observed sea conditions. ... The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale is a scale classifying most Western Hemisphere tropical cyclones that exceed the intensities of tropical depressions and tropical storms, and thereby become hurricanes. ... One of the earliest photographs of a tornado. ... // Tornado Events These are some notable tornadoes, tornado outbreaks, and tornado outbreak sequences that have occurred around the globe. ... This is a list of all official and possible F5 tornadoes ever recorded. ... A NOAA national weather forecast This article describes severe weather terminology used by the U.S. National Weather Service. ...

References

1. ^ http://www.spc.noaa.gov/efscale/
2. ^ ^{a b c} Tornado FAQ. Storm Prediction Center. Site accessed June 27, 2006.
3. ^ Fujita, Tetsuya Theodore (1971). Proposed characterization of tornadoes and hurricanes by area and intensity. Chicago: University of Chicago. 
4. ^ Fujita, Tetsuya Theodore (1992). Memoirs of an Effort to Unlock the Mystery of Severe Storms. Chicago: University of Chicago. 

• Marshall, Timothy P. (2001). "Birth of the Fujita Scale". Storm Track. 24 (3): 6-10.

is the 178th day of the year (179th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Tetsuya Theodore Ted Fujita , October 23, 1920–November 19, 1998) was a severe storms researcher of the twentieth century. ... Tetsuya Theodore Ted Fujita (藤田哲也 Fujita Tetsuya, October 23, 1920–November 19, 1998) was a severe storms researcher of the twentieth century. ... Tim Marshall is a civil engineer and meteorologist concentrating on damage analysis, particularly that from wind and other weather phenomena. ... Storm Track was the first magazine for and about storm chasing. ...

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

Fujita scale

• NOAA National Weather Service Improves Tornado Rating System (NOAA News)
• Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage (NOAA / SPC)
• The Enhanced Fujita Scale (EF Scale) {NOAA / SPC)
• Fujita Scale Enhancement Project (Wind Science Engineering & Research Center at Texas Tech University)
• Mitigation Assessment Team Report: Midwest Tornadoes of May 3, 1999 (FEMA)
• A Guide to F-Scale Damage Assessment (NWS)
• A Guide for Conducting Convective Windstorm Surveys (NWS SR146)
• The Tornado: An Engineering-Oriented Perspective (NWS SR147)
• Map showing severe tornadoes in Germany
• The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity